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ASME Turbo Expo 2007: Power for Land, Sea and Air
May 14-17, 2007, Montreal, Canada
Proceedings of GT2007
ASME Turbo Expo 2007: Power for Land, Sea and Air
GT2007-27064
May 14-17, 2007, Montreal, Canada
GT2007-27064
A NEW SLIP FACTOR MODEL FOR AXIAL AND RADIAL IMPELLERS
ABSTRACT
a = exit throat width
This paper proposes a unified slip model for axial, radial, and b = passage width
mixed flow impellers. For many years, engineers designing c = chord
axial and radial turbomachines have applied completely C = absolute velocity
different deviation or slip factor models. For axial applications, C = absolute tangential velocity
the most commonly used deviation model has been Carters Cm = meridional velocity (on Z-R plane)
rule or its derivatives. For centrifugal impellers, Wiesners Cslip = slip velocity (equation (3))
correlation has been the most popular choice. Is there a F = shape factor defined in equation (13)
common thread linking these seemingly unrelated models? m = meridional distance on the Z-R plane
This question becomes particularly important when designing a n = exponent in Carters rule
mixed flow impeller where one has to choose between axial or s = pitch at the blade exit; s = 2R2 / Z
radial slip models.
t = thickness at the blade trailing edge
The proposed model in this paper is based on blade loading, U = blade rotating speed
i.e., the velocity difference between the pressure and suction W = the relative velocity
surfaces, near the discharge of the impeller. The loading Z = number of blades
function includes the effect of blade rotation, blade turning, and
the passage area variation. This velocity difference is then Subscripts:
used to calculate the slip velocity using Stodolas assumption. 1: impeller inlet
The final slip model can then be related to Carters rule for 2: impeller exit
axial impellers and Stodolas slip model for radial impellers. p: pressure side of the blade
s: suction side of the blade
This new slip model suggests that the flow coefficient at the
impeller exit is an important variable for the slip factor when INTRODUCTION
there is blade turning at the impeller discharge. This may
explain the interesting slip factor trend observed from For an impeller with an infinite number of blades, the exit flow
experiments, such as the rise of the slip factor with flow angle should be the same as the exit blade metal angle. In the
coefficient in Eckardt A impeller. Some validation results of this real world, however, the exit flow angle deviates from the blade
new model are presented for a variety of applications, such as guidance at the impeller exit due to the finite number of blades.
radial compressors, axial compressors, pumps, and blowers. Correctly predicting flow deviation is a critical task in meanline
and throughflow modeling because the exit flow angle is
NOMENCLATURE directly related to the work input and the pressure rise across
the impeller.
= flow angle, positive if same as rotation direction
Although the flow deviation phenomenon occurs in both axial
b = blade metal angle and radial impellers, researchers in their respective fields have
= blade camber angle treated the subject quite differently. Axial impeller designers
d/dm = blade turning rate use deviation angle, which is defined as the difference
= deviation angle between the exit flow angle and the blade metal angle (Figure
= slip factor, American definition, equation (2) 1).
= slip factor, European definition, equation (5)
2 = exit flow coefficient, 2 = C 2 m /U 2 = 2b 2 (1)
= angular velocity of the blade rotation
= meridional inclination angle For radial impellers, engineers use a slip factor to model the
= density deviation of the flow. To further complicate matters, there are
= blade stagger angle two different definitions of this parameter.
The angular velocity in Stodolas model is the same as the Strictly speaking, all the parameters inside the parentheses,
wheel speed, but in the reversed direction. Eck [4] further such as W,,, d/dm, should be evaluated at the arc DC
extended Stodolas theory by arguing that the slip velocity is location. However, for practical purposes, they are
the result of the velocity difference on the pressure and suction approximated with the values at the impeller exit.
surfaces. This unequal velocity distribution not only includes
the effect of the relative eddy, but also has the effect of the A comment should be made here about applying equation (14)
blade turning. Eck further stated that the linear velocity to the stators before we reach the final form of the slip factor.
gradient is equivalent to a rotation of the total flow across the The first term in the parentheses is related to the blade
passage and he recalculated the angular velocity of this rotation, which is usually the dominant term for the radial
rotation as follows: impeller. For stators where is zero, the first term drops out
W Wp and the second term becomes the dominant term that
= s (9)
2a determines the flow deviation. An important conclusion here is
that for a radial vaned diffuser, it is not correct to use any
Therefore, the slip velocity can now be related to the blade existing slip models developed for radial impellers, such as
loading, i.e., the velocity difference on the blade suction and Stodolas model or Wiesners correlation, which essentially
pressure surfaces at the impeller discharge: models only the first term in equation (14). This is in contrast
with axial applications where Carters rule can be applied to
W Wp both rotors and stators. This is because in axial cases, the first
a
C slip = = s (10) term in equation (14) is always zero because is zero,
2 4 regardless of whether it is a rotor or a stator. Therefore, both
axial rotors and stators follow the same deviation mechanism
Our next goal is to find a way to estimate the blade loading at that is dominated by the second term.
the impeller exit throat AC , so that the right hand side of
equation (10) can be evaluated. If we assume that the velocity For an impeller with a finite rotation speed, a final form of slip
difference between D and A is small, the loading at the exit factor can be obtained when equation (14) is divided by the
throat AC can be approximately calculated through the rotational speed.
loading on the arc DC . Following Johnston [11] and
C slip F cos 2 b sin 2
Cumpstys [12] work, the loading on the arc DC can be = 1 = 1
U2 Z2
expressed as follows: (15)
Fs 2 2 d F 2 s 2 sin 2 b d b
+
Ws W p 4 cos 2 b dm 2 4 2b2 dm 2
= 2 sin cos
DC
(11)
d cos sin db
W ( ) DISSECTING THE NEW SLIP FACTOR MODEL
dm b dm
DC = F * s2 (12) where
where the F-factor can be estimated with the following F cos 2b sin 2
radial = (16a)
equation: Z2
The detailed derivation of the F-factor can be found in the is the decrement due to blade turning, and
Appendix at the end of this paper.
F2 s2 sin 2b db
Combining equations (10), (11), and (12), we can obtain a final passage = (16c)
4 2b2 dm 2
expression for the slip velocity:
is the decrement due to the passage width variation.
Here, 2b 0 is the airfoil exit blade angle at zero stagger. Of In some radial impellers, however, the turning term cannot be
course, in Carters formula, he chose n=1/2. However, Carter ignored. In that case, the slip factor will show a significant
did mention that some difficulty was encountered in deciding variation with the flow conditions. This may explain why a
to what power s/c should be raised in this expression. In robust correlation has been so difficult to achieve for radial
general, theoretical results indicate a linear relationship with impellers when blade-turning rates and the flow conditions are
s/c, while a root variation appears to fit test results better. not taken into consideration.
Once again, the analysis seems to be indicating that the linear
variation should be the preferred choice. Finally, the current slip model has identified a unique flow
parameter that correlates with the slip factor. This parameter is
For the m factor, Carter suggested that the factor is a function the exit flow coefficient, 2 . As mentioned before, most of the
of the stagger angle alone. Equation (24) is in agreement with existing slip models are only functions of geometric parameters
that statement, since 2b 0 is fixed for a particular airfoil, and F and are independent of any flow variables. However, for a lot
is very close to 1 if the trailing edge thickness is only a small of cases, test data have consistently indicated that the slip
fraction of the pitch (the second term in equation [13] is zero factor is dependent on flow conditions. The new slip model
suggests that the slip factor is a linear function of exit flow
for an axial machine). Setting 2b 0 = 10 for a typical airfoil,
coefficient and the rate of the variation is decided by the blade-
equation (24) can be used to plot a relationship between the turning rate near the impeller discharge. If this holds true, the
stagger angle and the factor m, which is compared with slip factor should correlate well with 2 for different rotational
Carters original correlation in Figure 2. The scale and the
trend of the two lines agree surprisingly well. This analysis speeds and flow rates. That indeed is the case that will be
confirms that the current model can be reduced to a form shown in the validation study later on in this paper.
similar to Carters rule for an axial impeller.
c) The passage variation term
CASE STUDY AND VALIDATION The test data showed a visible downward trend with the exit
flow coefficient. This may have been indicating a slight positive
To validate the new slip model, a variety of different impellers flow turning near the discharge, which could have been a result
were studied. The applications used in the study ranged from of the large wake region presented at the impeller exit. If the
radial, axial compressors and pumps to blowers. One of the blade-turning rate was set to be 5.0m-1, which corresponded to
difficulties of this effort was to find cases that had a detailed 0.29 of turning per mm of length, a better match could be
geometry definition at the impeller exit, so that the blade obtained, as represented as a solid line in Figure 3B (note that
turning rate could be properly set. Five different cases are to obtain this better match, the F factor had to be reduced
discussed here, which represents the typical results achieved from its default value to 0.65).
during our study using the new slip model.
The Eckardt rotor A had a backswept angle of 30 (Figure
a) Radial compressors: Eckardt Rotor O and Rotor A 4A). The blade first turned to a more radial direction and then
turned back to 30 at the impeller exit. In this case, the blade
The Eckardt rotors are arguably the most famous impellers in turning rate was estimated at 9.0m-1, which corresponded to
the centrifugal compressor world. Eckardts [16] laser (0.5) per mm of radius increment. The default F factor based
velocimeter measurements still provide some of the most on equation (13) was 0.72. In order to compare it with
accurate and detailed flow field data of a centrifugal impeller. Eckardts original plot, the European slip factor based on
equation (5) was plotted against the exit flow coefficient in
The Eckardt rotor O geometry information is shown in Figure Figure 4B.
3A. The blade turning rate near the exit was close to zero. The
default F-factor calculated was 0.86. The slip factor variation The rotor A slip factor test data showed a distinctive upward
with the exit flow coefficient is presented in Figure 3B. The test trend with the increase of flow coefficient. Eckardt attributed
data was reproduced from Eckardts original plots in [16]. this unusual trend to the S-shaped blade design of impeller A,
namely, the turning back of 30 from the radial direction near
the impeller discharge. Sturge and Cumptsys [17] also
Parameters Values confirmed this trend in their two-dimensional numerical
simulation.
R2(m) 0.2
2b(degree) 0
Parameters Values
2(degree) 90
R2(m) 0.2
Z2 20
2b(degree) -30
F 0.86
2(degree) 90
d/dm(m-1) 0
Z2 20
F 0.72
FIGURE 3A. ECKARDT ROTOR O GEOMETRY
d/dm(m-1) -9
1
0.95
0.95
Slip Factor (European) '
0.9
Slip Factor
0.9
0.85
RPM=10000
RPM=12000 0.85
0.8 RPM=14000
RPM=16000
RPM=18000 R PM =10000
0.8
Current Model (no turning) R PM =12000
0.75
Current Model (with turning) R PM =14000
Wiesner
R PM =16000
Stodola 0.75
C urrentM odel
0.7
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 W iesner
Stodola
Exit Flow Coefficient 2 0.7
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
deviation angle
factor in the slip factor calculation. This was also the first time 6
slip factor
For this case, the blade-turning rate near the discharge was 0.85
estimated to be 17.0m-1, corresponding to 0.97 per mm of
meridional length. The default F-factor was 0.998. The radial 100%
0.8 90%
term contribution to the slip factor, in this case, was zero. 70%
0.75 Current Model
Figure 5B plots the deviation angle vs. the exit flow coefficient. Carter
The data are scattered without any apparent upward or
0.7
downward trend. The scattering of the data is somewhat 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7
disappointing, which may have been caused by the presence
Exit Flow Coefficient 2
of the shock structure in the flow passage. As stated earlier,
the deviation model based on the current slip model was not a
FIGURE 5C. ROTOR 37 SLIP FACTOR
function of flow conditions and it appears on the plot as a flat
line. In the calculation based on Carters rule, the m-factor was
In this study, we had demonstrated that when it was applied to
estimated as 0.33. Carters deviation angle did not vary with
an axial impeller, the new slip model could produce
the flow coefficient either. Although scattered, most of the data
comparable results to Carters rule. The current model was
points laid in the range of 1.5 of the current model prediction,
capable of dealing with an axial impeller in a consistent
which was close to the angle measurement error margin of 1 manner as for a radial impeller. A unified slip factor model for
in the test. radial and axial impellers is important because it bridges the
gap between two completely different approaches taken by
Figure 5C shows the slip factor vs. the exit flow coefficient. The axial and radial deviation modeling. It also provides a potential
test data showed an obvious downward trend in this plot as the model for the cases with a mixed-flow exit, which used to fall in
flow coefficient increased. The current model predicted a linear a gray area when the slip factor or deviation was considered.
decrease of the slip factor because of the positive blade-
turning rate. If you take out the 100% supersonic speedline,
which potentially has the shock wave altering the flow c) A pump case
direction, the rest of data points follow the predicted trend quite
well. Carters rule also predicted the slip factor would decrease This pump (Figure 6A) had test data for power input measured
with the flow coefficient, but the scale was on the high side. at different flow rates using a torque meter. Adjustments were
made to the measured power values for bearing losses as well
Parameters Values as for leakage, windage, and recirculation losses using the
PUMPAL1 program from Concepts NREC. The adjusted
R2(m) 0.218 power value was now considered as the aerodynamic work
2b(degree) -38.9 input based on the Euler turbomachinery equation, which could
be used to calculate the flow turning and the slip factor.
2(degree) 0
Z2 36 Applying the current model to pump applications had been a
F 0.998 more difficult task compared to the compressor and fan/blower
cases. The test data in Figure 6B showed an apparent
d/dm(m-1) 17
downward trend, which indicated a positive blade-turning rate
FIGURE 5A. ROTOR 37 GEOMETRY
1
PUMPAL is a registered trademark of Concepts ETI, Inc.
7 Copyright 2007 by Concepts ETI, Inc.
according to the current model. The estimated turning rate in because it missed the F-factor, which was as small as 0.52,
-1
this case from the actual geometry was about 4.92 m . To and thus, had a significant effect on the slip factor.
match the slope with the test data presented, a value of 16.4
-1
m was needed. The F-factor also needed to be slightly d) A blower case
adjusted from its default 0.52 to 0.60 to obtain the nice match
shown in Figure 6B. The blower case (Figure 7A) had Brake Horsepower (BHP)
measurements for a range of flow rates. Similar to the pump
This case was typical for most of the pump cases we had case, adjustments were made to the BHP values for the
studied, which usually required an increase of the blade turning windage loss and recirculation loss using the FANPAL2
rate value to obtain a good match. One of the differences program from Concepts NREC. The adjusted power value was
between a compressor and a pump is the working fluid. For a then used to derive the slip factor.
pump, it is usually water and the viscosity of water is much
larger than that of air. It could be argued that the friction force
in the volute was responsible for reducing the impeller exit Parameters Values
tangential velocity, thus increasing the slip velocity and causing R2(m) 0.232
the slip factor to drop as the flow increased. Although the
mechanism for the extra deviation was uncertain, it was 2b(degree) -58.5
interesting to note how we could artificially adjust the blade- 2(degree) 90
turning rate to match the test data, which was important in
establishing a meanline model for an impeller. Z2 9
F 0.63
d/dm(m-1) 13.12
Parameters Values
FIGURE 7A. A BLOWER CASE GEOMETRY
R2(m) 0.073
2b(degree) -60 1
2(degree) 90
0.9
Z2 7
F 0.52 0.8
Slip Factor
d/dm(m-1) 4.92
0.7
Data
Current Model
0.6
FIGURE 6A. A PUMP CASE GEOMETRY Weisner
Stodola
0.5
1
0.4
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45
Data
0.95
Exit Flow Coefficient 2
Current Model
Weisner
FIGURE 7B. BLOWER CASE SLIP FACTOR
Stodola
0.9
The blade-turning rate for this blower was estimated to be
Slip Factor
13.12m-1. The default F-factor was 0.63. In Figure 7B, the new
0.85 model matched the data well except for the points at low flow
coefficients, which may have been partially attributable to the
recirculation loss model used during the data processing.
0.8
Neither the Wiesner nor Stodola model predicted the
downward trend for this case. Their predictions became worse
0.75
when the flow coefficient increased.
CONCLUSIONS
0.7
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 A new slip factor model is proposed that can be applied to
Exit Flow Coefficient 2 axial, radial, and mixed flow impellers. This model is based on
Stodola and Ecks slip factor modeling work as well as blade
FIGURE 6B. PUMP CASE SLIP FACTOR loading analysis. According to this model, the slip factor is
mainly affected by the impeller rotation on the radial plane and
The Wiesner model did an excellent job for this case. Although the blade turning when the blade-turning rate at the impeller
it did not predict the downward trend with the flow coefficient, discharge is significant. For an axial impeller, there is no radial
the Wiesner slip factor was very closely compared with the test effect and the slip factor is proved to be comparable to popular
data. This showed why this amazing correlation of Wiesners is deviation models such as Carters rule. For radial impellers, if
still the most popular slip model for radial impeller applications. the blade turning effect can be ignored, the new slip factor
The Stodola model under-predicted the slip factor, as usual,
2
FANPAL is a trademark of Concepts ETI, Inc.
8 Copyright 2007 by Concepts ETI, Inc.
model is similar to Stodolas model. For many radial impellers, [2] Wiesner, F. J., 1967, A Review of Slip Factors for
however, the blade turning term is significant and it is the key Centrifugal Impellers, ASME Journal of Engineering for
factor that controls the trend of slip factor variation. Power, 89, pp. 558-572
[3] Stodola, A., 1945, Steam and Gas Turbines, McGraw-Hill,
The method was validated with a variety of cases, ranging from New York.
radial and axial compressors to pumps and blowers. The [4] Eck, B., 1973, Fans, Pergamon, Germany
reported cases have shown that the new model can be applied [5]Stanitz, J. D., 1952, Some Theoretical Aerodynamic
successfully to both radial and axial machines. It also provided Investigations of Impeller in Radial and Mixed-Flow Centrifugal
sound explanations for the trends of slip factor variation with Compressors, Trans ASME, 74, pp.437-476.
flow conditions. Although no mixed-flow case was presented in [6] Paeng, K. S. and Chung, M. K., 2001, A New Slip Factor
our validation study due to lack of test data for such machines, For Centrifugal Impellers, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., Vol 215 Part
it should be a safe interpolation to state that the proposed A, pp.645-649
method can also be applied to mixed flow impellers. The [7] Pampreen, R.C. and Musgrave D. S., 1978, A Method of
agreement between the radial term (Equation 16a) and Lewis Calculating the Slip Factor of Centrifugal Compressors from
conformal transformation work [13] also provided an additional Deviation Angle, Journal of Engineering for Power, Vol. 100,
assurance for the successful application of the proposed pp.121-128.
method to mixed-flow impellers. [8] Backstrom T W, 2006, A Unified Correlation for Slip Factor
in Centrifugal Impellers,, Journal of Turbomachinery, Vol 128
One of the difficulties during the validation effort was that the [9] Carter A. D. S. and Hughes H. P., 1946, A Theoretical
blade-turning rate at the impeller discharge was not commonly Investigation Into the Effect of Profile Shape on the
available in the old databases. The requirement of knowing this Performance of Airfoils in Cascade, Report and Memo. No.
parameter can also limit this models effectiveness as a 2384, British ARC.
meanline preliminary design tool when the blade geometry is [10] Lieblein S., 1960, Incidence and Deviation Angle
not fully specified. Nevertheless, a reasonable starting guess Correlations for Compressor Cascades, Trans. ASME, Journal
with follow-up refinement of this parameter should still of Basic Engineering, 82, 575-587
constitute a good design practice. [11] Johnson J. P., 1986, Radial Flow Turbomachinery,
Lecture in series Fluid Dynamics of Turbomachinery. ASME
The significance of this new slip model is threefold. First, the Turbomachinery Institute, Ames, Iowa.
new model provides a consistent basis for the calculation of [12] Cumpsty N. A., 1989, Compressor Aerodynamics, Addison
slip factor for both axial and radial impellers. This not only fills Wesley Longman, England.
a theoretical gap between the two in the field of meanline [13] Lewis R. I., 1996, Turbomachinery Performance Analysis,
modeling, it also allows direct application of the current model John Wiley & Sons, New York.
to impellers with mixed-flow exits. Second, the model has [14] Busemann A., 1928, Das Forderhohenverhaltniss radialer
identified an important geometry parameter, the blade-turning Kreiselpumen mit logarithmischspiraligen Schaufeln, Z.
rate at the impeller discharge, as a key factor in the slip factor Angew. Math. Mech. 8, pp. 372-384.
calculation. This parameter was completely missing from any [15] Balje O. E., 1981, Turbomachines. A guide to design,
existing slip factor models for radial types of impellers, while it selection and theory. John Wiley and Sons, New York
was hidden inside the axial deviation model through the [16] Eckardt D., 1980, Flow Field Analysis of Radial and
camber angle and chord. The omission of this variable may be Backswept Centrifugal Compressor Impellers, Part 1: Flow
one of the main reasons why a robust slip factor model has Measurement Using a Laser Velocimeter, 25th ASME Gas
nd
never been achieved. Third, the new model has made it clear Turbine Conference and 22 Annual Fluids Engineering
that a single flow parameter, exit flow coefficient, is correlated Conference, New Orleans. Aymposium Performance
with the slip factor. The slope of the correlation is determined Prediction of Centrifugal Pumps and Compressors.
by the blade-turning rate. The identification of this flow Proceedings published by ASME.
parameter may go a long way in future slip factor data [17] Sturge D. P. and Cumptsy N. A., Two-Dimensional
processing and meanline modeling. Method for Calculating Separated Flow in a Centrifugal
Impeller, Journal of Fluids Engineering, Trans. ASME, Series
Finally, since the model is based on blade loading, which is a I, Vol 97, 1975, pp. 581-597.
common factor for any rotor and stator in a turbomachinery [18] Moore R. D. and Reid L., 1980, Performance of Single-
application, it is also possible that the current model could be Stage Axial-Flow Transonic Compressor with Rotor and Stator
applied to other areas, such as turbine rotors, radial diffusers, Aspect Ratio of 1.19 and 1.26, Respectively, and with Design
or inlet guide vanes. Pressure Ratio of 2.05, NASA Technical Paper 1659.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors want to thank Dr. David Japikse of Concepts APPENDIX: CALCULATION OF THE SHAPE
NREC for the insightful technical comments and devoted FACTOR- F
discussions he offered during the preparation of this paper.
Thanks also go to Mrs. Ellen Reney for her help in editing this Referring to Figure 8, a line AC is drawn from point A that is
paper.
perpendicular to the adjacent blade. Line AC is referred to as
exit throat in this paper. The goal in the following calculation is
REFERENCES to determine the length of arc DC .
2
=
Z2
AB = 2 R2 sin
2
Since OBA = , therefore
2
ABC = OBA 2b = 2b
2 2
FIGURE 8. SKETCH FOR F-FACTOR CALCULATION
Now we can calculate the length of line BC .
BC = AB cos(ABC ) = AB sin + 2b
2
BE = BC cos( 2b )sin
= 2 R2 sin sin + 2b cos( 2b )sin 2
2 2
OC OB BE
= R2 1 2 sin sin + 2b cos( 2b )sin ( 2 )
Z
2 2 Z
t2
DC = OC *
cos 2b
t2
F = 1 2 sin sin + 2b cos( 2b )sin 2
Z
2 2 Z s 2 cos 2b