Calculus 1 with Dr.

Janet Harris Semester 2, 2013/14

Chapter 1 Functions, Limits

and Continuity
1.1 What is Calculus?
1.2 Straight Lines. Equations of Lines
1.3 Functions and Graphs
1.4 New Functions from Old Functions. Inverse Functions
1.5 Parametric Curves
1.6 Definition of a Limit. One-sided Limits
1.7 Laws of Limits. Evaluating Limits. The Squeeze
Theorem
1.8 Limits Involving Infinity
1.9 Continuity
1.10 The Intermediate Value Theorem
1
 1.1 What is Calculus?
Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, etc. are useful for
describing static quantities.
But we live in a world full of change!
Calculus gives us tools to describe change.
Many important quantities are 'rates of change' of other
quantities.
E.g. for a moving object we may be interested in
displacement (position) as a function of time
velocity (rate of change of displacement)
acceleration (rate of change of velocity).
Calculus allows us to move between these quantities. 2
Calculus is the best way to describe most of the 'laws
of nature' as well as many relationships in finance,
engineering and other fields.

"Today calculus is used in

calculating the orbits of satellites and spacecraft,
in predicting population sizes,
in estimating how fast coffee prices will rise,
in forecasting weather,
in measuring the cardiac output of the heart,
in calculating life insurance premiums,
and in a great variety of other areas."
Stewart (page 9)
3
The two basic operations of calculus are
differentiation and integration.
Both rely on the concept of limits.

In Calculus 1 we study
- basic concepts of functions and limits,
- techniques of differentiation and integration,
- applications to a wide range of practical situations.

4
1.2 Straight Lines. Equations of
1.2.1 Coordinates and Graphs Lines
O is the origin
Ox is the x-axis
Oy is the y-axis
(x, y) are the coordinates
of a point

The graph of an equation is the

y= x2
set of all points (x, y) whose
coordinates satisfy the equation.
5
1.2.2 Straight Lines: SLOPE
Consider any two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) on a straight
line. On the interval [x1, x2],
x x2 x1 is the change in x
y y2 y1 is the change in y.
The slope (or gradient) of the
line is

m is a constant, characteristic
of the line.
m tell us the rate of change of y with respect to x.
E.g. if m = 5 then y = 5 x,
so for every unit increase in x, y increases by 5 units. 6
Example 1
For the graph shown,
state the slope
(a) for 0 < x < 1

(b) on 3 < x < 5

(c) at x = 7

(d) at x = 2
7
1.2.2 Straight Lines: Equation
Suppose a straight line crosses the y -axis at y = c.
We call c the y-intercept.
y2 y1
For any two points on the line, m .
x2 x1
A general point on the line is (x, y). Setting (x1, y1) =
(0, c) and (x2, y2) = (x, y),
y c
we get m
x0
and so y mx c
This is the most common
way of writing the equation
of a straight line. It is called
the slope-intercept form.
8
The slope-intercept form is very convenient for graph-
sketching.
y mx c
slope intercept

y y = 3x y=x+1
y
3
y=x
2 y=x
y=x1
1
1

x
1 x -1
-1 y=-x
9
Example 2
Sketch the following graphs:
(a) y = x + 2 (c) y = 1 x
(b) y = 2x 1 (d) 2y = x + 2

10
OTHER FORMS
The equation of a straight line can also be rearranged
or written in other ways, for example:

Point-Slope Form
For a line with gradient m passing through point (x1, y1):
y y1 m( x x1)
Two Point Form
For a line passing through points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2):
y y1 y2 y1
( m)
x x1 x2 x1

y2 y1
(These results follow directly from m . )
x2 x1
11
Example 3
Find the equation of the straight line passing through
points (2, 0) and (0, 3).

12
1.2.3 Practical Applications
Example 4 On a certain day, the temperature of air at
ground level was 20 C and the temperature at a height of 1 km
was 10 C. Assume temperature varies linearly with height.
(a) Sketch a graph of the temperature T (in C) as a function of
height h in kilometers
(b) Find the equation of the line.
(c) What is the slope? What are its units? What does it mean?

13
Example 5
At a certain place, the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
was measured to be 339 ppm in the year 1980 and 373 ppm in
2002. Assume a linear model.
(a) Find an equation for the CO2 concentration C (in ppm) as a
function of time t (in years).
(b) Use your equation to predict the CO2 concentration in 2012.

14
1.3 Functions and Graphs
1.3.1 Functions
A function arises when one quantity depends on
another. E.g.
the height H of a child varies with age t.
the cost C of mailing a parcel depends on its mass m.
the area A of a circle depends on the radius r.
Given the value of x, there is a rule which determines
the value of f. We say f is a function of x.

It is like a machine:

x is called an independent variable.

f(x) is a dependent variable. (It depends on x.) 15
Functions are often expressed by formulae.

Example 6
Given f(x) = x2 + sin x 2, find:

(a) f(p)

(b) f(x + 5)

(c) f(3x)

(d) f(1) 2 f(0).

16
Definition
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element in
some set D(f) exactly one element f(x) in a set R(f).
The element f(x) is called the value of f at x.
It can also be visualized as an arrow diagram:

For function f(x), the domain D is the set of values x can

take, the range R is the set of values f(x) can take.
If not explicitly given, D(f) is the set of numbers for which
f(x) makes sense.
17
Example 7
State the domain and range of the given functions.

(a) f(x) = x2 + 1

(b) g(x) = sin x

1
(c) h( x)
x 1

18
Many functions can be represented by their graph.
The graph of a function f is the graph y = f(x)

But note that not every graph or equation represents a

function!
To be a function, each x must correspond to a single
value of y = f(x).
19
Vertical Line Test. A curve in the xy-plane is the
graph of a function of x if and only if any vertical line
intersects the curve not more than once.

Yes! No!

Example 8
Sketch graphs (a) y = x2, (b) y2 = x. State whether or not each
curve represents a function.

20
Representing Functions
A function can generally be represented in one or
more of the following four ways:
(1) a verbal description
(2) a table of values
(3) a graph
(4) a formula

You need to practice moving between these forms.

E.g. - given a verbal description, sketch a graph
- given a verbal description, find a formula
- given a table of values, plot the graph

21
Example 9
(a) Sketch an approximate graph of your height H as a function
of your age t.

(b) Using the data given below, sketch a graph of the cost C
of mailing a parcel as a function of its mass m.
Mass of Parcel Cost (USD)
Less than 100g 1.25
From 100g to 250g 2.30
From 250 to 500g 4.10
From 500 to 1000g 6.90
22
Example 10
(a) Find a formula for the area A of a circle as a function of the
circumference l.

(b) Find a formula expressing the surface area of a sphere as a

function of its volume.

23
Example 11
A box with an open top is made from a rectangular piece of
card, 15 cm 20 cm, by cutting out squares of side length x at
each corner, then folding up the sides, as shown in the figures.
Find a formula for the volume of the box as a function of x.

24
 Functions and Mathematical Modelling
In many practical situations, data does not fit a formula
exactly, but we can use an approximate formula to
model the data.
For example, the table
shows the CO2 level
measured at a certain
place 1980 2002.

When we plot this

CO2 level (ppm)

data, we find it lies

approximately on a
straight line

year 25
So in Example 5, we assumed a linear model for this data.
- We found the equation of
the straight line through the
two end points.
- Then we used our equation to
predict the 2012 CO2 level.
C = 1.545t - 2721
This is an example of
mathematical modelling.
real formulate maths solve maths interpret real
problem model solution prediction
test

Here, data was modelled with a linear function.

Sometimes other functional forms will be appropriate.
Models are never absolutely accurate but a good model
yields predictions close to reality. 26
Piecewise Functions
A piecewise function is defined by different formulae in
different parts of its domain.
Here are two common examples.
1) The Modulus Function
|x| is called the modulus or absolute value of x.
We have x if x 0
x
x if x 0
2) A Step Function
0 if x 0
f ( x)
1 if x 0
On graphs, indicates that the end point is included,
indicates that the end point is not included. 27
Example 12
(a) Sketch the graph of the function
x if x 0
1 if 0 < x 1
f ( x)
2 if x 1
x 1 if x 1

(b) Consider again the cost C of mailing a parcel as a function

of its mass m (Example 9b). Write a formula for C(m).
Mass of Parcel Cost (USD)
Less than 100g 1.25
From 100g to 250g 2.30
From 250 to 500g 4.10
From 500 to 1000g 6.90
28
Symmetry An even function satisfies fe(-x) = fe(x)
An odd function satisfies fo(-x) = fo(x)
Example 13
(a) Give examples of even and odd functions. Draw their graphs.

Note: The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect

to reflection in the y-axis. The graph of an odd function is
symmetric with respect to rotation by 180 about the origin. 29
Example 13
(b) Show that f(x) = x3 1/x is an odd function.

It is easily proved that:

Any sum of two or more even functions is even
Any sum of two or more odd functions is odd
For products, even even = even
odd odd = even
odd even = odd
30
1.3.2 Some Common Functions
We will revise some common classes of functions.
You should be able to sketch these types of functions
immediately and know their basic properties.
POLYNOMIALS
A polynomial is a function of the form
n1
P( x) an x an1x
n
a2 x a1x a0
2

where n is a non-negative integer

and the numbers an are constants.
The numbers an are called coefficients.
The value of the highest power, n, is the degree of
the polynomial
31
A polynomial of degree 1 has form f(x) = mx + c
so is a linear function.
A polynomial of degree 2, f(x) = ax2 + bx + c,
is called a quadratic function.
A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic function.

Example Sketches of four polynomials are shown below.

What degree do you think each has?

32
POWER FUNCTIONS have the form y x where
a

a is a constant.

You should know the graphs of common functions such as:

y = x3

1
y = x2 y
x

y x

33
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
You should know the sine (sin), cosine (cos) and
tangent (tan) functions
Also cosec x
1
, sec x
1
, cot x
1
.
sin x cos x tan x

In calculus, USE RADIANS unless told otherwise.

Complete the table:
q sin q cos q tan q
0
p/6
p/4
p/3
p/2 34
Trigonometric functions are periodic.
sin x, cos x have period 2p, e.g. sin x = sin(x + 2p)
sin wx has period T = 2p/w,
Graphs:
1 y = sin x

p 0 p 2p
1 y = cos x

y = tan x

p 0 p 2p

35
EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS have the form y a .
x

x is the exponent (or power or index)

a is the base
The most common exponential function (often called the
exponential function) is f(x) = ex.
e is an irrational number called the exponential constant,
e = 2.7182818. (Its importance will become clearer later!)
Graphs
y = ex
You should know
(a) y = ex (exponential growth)
(b) y = e-x (exponential decay)
y = e-x

36
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
If x = ay then y = loga x. This is a logarithmic
function. a is again called the base.
If no base is explicitly written then log x should be
understood to mean log10 x (log to the base 10).
But in calculus we almost always natural logs,
notated ln, which are logs to the base e.
That is ln x = loge x.
Graphs
You should know the
graph y = ln x

37
Extra note: CIRCLES
A circle of radius r centred at (a,b) has
equation ( x a)2 ( y b)2 r 2

Note that a circle cannot be described

by writing a single function. (Why not?)

However we can write functions for

the upper half of the circle y b r 2 ( x a)2
and the lower half y b r 2 ( x a)2

You should be able to sketch circles from their equations.

You may need to first rearrange an equation into the
standard circle form using the technique of 'completing
the square'. 38
Example 14
Sketch the graph of the function x 2 y 2 2 y 1
and describe it in words.

39
 1.4 New Functions from Old
Functions
1.4.1 New Graphs from Old Graphs
Suppose we know the graph of a certain function.
By some simple transformations, we can quickly
obtain the graphs of some related functions.

Example 15
Sketch the graphs (a) y = x2, (b) y = x2 + 2.

41
TRANSLATIONS For a function f(x) and positive constant c,
to obtain the graph of
y = f(x) + c, shift the graph of y = f(x) UP by c units
y = f(x) c, shift the graph of y = f(x) DOWN c units
y = f(x + c), shift the graph of y = f(x) LEFT c units
y = f(x c), shift the graph of y = f(x) RIGHT c units

42
Example 16 (a) Sketch 1
y . (b) Sketch y x 2 .
x 1

(c) Figure A is the graph of f(x) = x2. What is the equation of

graph B?

A B

43
Example 17 Sketch the following graphs:
(a) y = sin x, (b) y = 1 + sin x, (c) y = sin(x + p/4).

44
STRETCHES
To obtain the graph of y = 2f(x)
y = cf(x), stretch y = f(x) y = f(2x)
vertically by a factor c y = f(x)
y = f(cx), compress y = f(x)
horizontally by a factor c

Example 18 Sketch: (a) y = 3 sin x, (b) y = sin(px).

45
REFLECTIONS
To obtain y = f(x),
reflect y = f(x) in the x-axis
To obtain y = f(x),
reflect y = f(x) in the y-axis

Example 19
Sketch: (a) y = x2 , (b) y x

46
Example 20 Sketch: (a) y = 1 sin x , (b) y = |sin x|

f ( x) where f ( x) 0
Note that y = |f(x)| means y
f ( x) where f ( x) 0
So to obtain the graph of y = |f(x)| from the graph of y = f(x),
the parts of y = f(x) above the x-axis are left unchanged,
the parts below the x-axis are reflected in the x -axis. 47
Example 21 The graph of f(x) is shown. Match the
other graphs with their equations: (a) y f ( x 4)
(b) y f ( x) 3
(c ) y f ( x ) / 3
(d ) y f ( x 4)
(e) y 2 f ( x 6)

48
1.4.2 Combinations and Compositions of Functions
Let f and g be functions with domains A and B respectively.
These functions can be combined or composed to make
new functions.

Combinations of Functions
Algebraic operations on f and g are defined as follows:
(f+g)(x) = f(x)+ g(x) with domain A B
(f g)(x) = f(x) g(x) with domain A B
(fg)(x) = f(x)g(x) with domain A B
(f /g)(x) = f(x)/g(x) with domain A B {x: g(x) 0}.

Addition and subtraction of functions can also be done

graphically.
49
Example 22
Let f ( x) x, g ( x) 4 x 2
a) State the domains of f and g.

b) Find f + g and its domain.

c) Find f / g and its domain.

50
Compositions of Functions
Suppose y f (u) sin u, and u g ( x) 2 x 1
By substitution, y f (u) f ( g ( x)) sin(2 x 1)

This procedure is called composition.

The new function is called the composition or
composite of f and g. It is denoted by f g.

(f g)(x) = f(g(x))

f g is defined whenever both f and g are defined.

I.e. the domain of f g is the set of all x in the domain of
g such that g(x) is in the domain of f.
Note: In general f g g f
51
Example 23
Let f ( x) x3 , g ( x) x 2
Find (a) f g , (b) g f , (c) g g f .

52
1.4.3 Inverse Functions

y=x y = x2

Both graphs above are functions:

for every input x there is exactly one output y = f(x).
For y = x, it is also true that
every output y corresponds to exactly one input x.
y = x is called a one-to-one function.
For y = x2, this is not true: e.g. y = 1 for x = 1 and x = -1.
53
One-to-One Functions
Definition
A function f is called one-to-one if it never takes the
same value twice. That is, f(x1) f(x2) whenever x1 x2.

Horizontal Line Test

A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal
line intersects its graph more than once.
Example 24
Are the following functions one-to-one? (a) sin x (b) x3 + 1

54
Inverse Functions
Remember a function can be thought of as a machine:

Q: Can we have another machine which does the

reverse process?
f(x) ? x
?

A: If the original function is one-to-one, then we can!

The reverse function is called the inverse function.
55
Inverse Functions
Definition
Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and
range B. Then its inverse function, f 1, is defined by
f 1 ( y) x f ( x) y
for any y in B, and has domain B and range A.

x f(x) x
f -1

Notes
1. f 1 is a special symbol for the inverse.
The -1 is NOT an exponent. I.e. f 1(x) [f(x)] 1 = 1/ f(x).

2. f ( f 1 ( x)) x for all x B, f 1 ( f ( x)) x for all x A.

56
Finding an Inverse Function
To find the inverse of a given function f(x):
1. Write y = f(x).
2. Solve the equation to find x in terms of y.
3. To express f 1 as a function of x, interchange x and y.
This gives y = f 1(x).

Example 25
Find the inverse function. Sketch a graph of the function and
its inverse. (a) f(x) = x2 + 3 with domain [0, ), (b) g(x) = ex.

57
Graphs of Inverse Functions
If f maps a onto b, then f 1 maps b onto a.
So if the graph of f includes (a, b)
then the graph of f 1 includes (b, a).
Point (b, a) is obtained from (a, b) by
reflecting in the line y = x.

So the graph f 1 is obtained

by reflecting the graph f in the
line y = x.

Your answers to Ex24 should illustrate this! 58

Non-one-to-one functions and Inverses
Many important functions are not one-to-one!
But if we restrict the domain to obtain a restricted
function which is one-to-one, then we can find the
inverse of this function.
For example Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Inverse Sine Function

The function f ( x) sin x, p / 2 x p / 2 is one-to-one.
The inverse of this restricted sine function is denoted by
sin-1 (or arcsin):
sin 1 x y sin y x and p / 2 y p / 2

NOTE sin 1 x does NOT mean (sin x)1 cosec x

59
Inverse Cosine Function
f ( x) cos x is one-to-one on [0, p], so we define
cos1 x y cos y x and 0 y p

Inverse Tangent Function

For tangent we take the interval (p/2, p/2), and define
tan 1 x y tan y x and p / 2 y p / 2

The graphs are the reflections of the original graphs in the line y = x. 60
1.5 Parametric Curves
Introduction
Imagine that a particle
moves along the curve C.
C cannot be described by
an equation of the form
y = f(x) (why not?).

But the x- and y- coordinates of the particle are both

functions of time: x= f(t) and y= g(t).
t is called a parameter. C is called a parametric curve.
x= f(t) and y= g(t) are the parametric equations of C.
We can also write c(t) = (f(t), g(t))
61
In general, a parameter may be any quantity on which two
other quantities depend, and may be represented by any
letter. Two very common parameters are time and angle.
Example 26
(a) Sketch the curve defined by x = t2 2t , y=t+1
We could construct a table of values and thus plot the curve:
t x y
-2 8 -1
-1 3 0
0 0 1
1 -1 2
2 0 3
3 3 4
4 8 5
62
 Note that the parameter domain
can be restricted.
E.g. x = t2 2t, y = t + 1,
0t4

Sometimes the parameter can be eliminated.

Example 26, cont.
(b) Describe the curve x = t2 2t , y = t + 1 in the form x = f(y).

63
Note
The direct equation and parametric equations describe
the same curve. But if t represents time, the parametric
equations also tell us when the particle was at each point.
I.e. the parametric equations not only describe the curve
but also tell us how it is traced.
The graph y = f(x) can always be parametrized by taking
the parameter identical to x: c(t) = (t, f(t)).
E.g. For y = ex we could write c(t) = (t, et).
Parametric equations are especially useful for describing
more complicated curves which are not functions (or not
one-to-one).

64
More complex curves can be drawn by computers.

[From: Stewart]

Parametric curves are widely used in computer-aided

design (CAD). For example, Bzier parametric curves are
used in manufacturing (especially in the car industry) and
in printing (specifying the shapes of letters and other
symbols). - See Rogawski p.627-628, Stewart 2nd ed p.236.
65
Some Common Parametrizations
Parameter Equations of a Straight Line
Any straight line can be represented parametrically.
This can be done many different ways. One way is:
The line segment that joins (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) can be
described by the parametric equations
x x1 ( x2 x1)t , y y1 ( y2 y1)t , 0 t 1

Example 27
Find parametric equations for the line segment from
(-2, 7) to (3, -1)

66
Parameter Equations of a Circle
Consider a circle of radius R centred at the origin.
We know the circle has equation x2 + y2 = R2.
But we can also write x = R cost, y = R sint, where t
is the angle the point makes with Ox.
So we can write
c(t) = (R cost , R sint).

If t varies from 0 to 2p, the

circle is traversed once,
anti-clockwise.

Q: What happens as t
varies from 0 to -2p?
67
Example 28
Write parametric equations for a circle of radius R centred at
(a, b). State the range of the parameter if the circle is to be
traversed twice, anti-clockwise, starting from (a+R, b).

Parameter Equations of an Ellipse

x = 3 cost,
In a similar way, the ellipse y = 2 sint.
x2 y2
2
2
1
a b
is conveniently parameterised
by x = a cost, y = b sint.
68
Other Parametric Curves

Example 29
Sketch the curve with parametric equations
x = sin t y = sin2 t

69
Example 30: The Cycloid
The curve traced out by a point P on the circumference of a
circle as the circle rolls along a straight line is a cycloid. If the
circle has radius r and rolls along the x-axis, and one position
of P is the origin, find parametric equations for the cycloid.

Let our parameter be the angle of rotation, q, of the circle.

Let q = 0 when P is at the origin.

70
Consider the situation for 0 < q < p/2.
The distance the circle has rolled
from the origin is OT = arc PT = rq
So the centre of the circle is at
C(rq, r).
Let the coordinates of P be (x, y).
Then
x = |OT| |PQ| = rq rsinq = r(q sinq)
y = |TC| |QC| = r rcosq = r(1 cosq)

So the parametric equations are:

x = r(q sinq ), y = r(1 cosq )
One arch comes from one rotation of the circle, 0 q 2p.

(We have only derived the equations for 0 < q < p/2, but it can
be shown that these same equations are valid for all q.)
71
Note
1) We could eliminate q from these equations.
But the resulting equation would be very complicated.
The parametric equations are usually easier to work with.
2) Cycloids appear in various practical situations. For
example, consider the following problem:
What is the curve along which a
particle will slide in the shortest
time (under the influence of
gravity) from a point A to a lower
point B not directly beneath A?

It can be shown that the answer

is an inverted cycloid.

We will meet parametric curves again later in the course

72
1.6 Definition of a Limit
Introduction
Suppose a physicist wants to know the value of a
certain physical quantity at zero air pressure. In his
laboratory he can produce low air pressures but he
cannot achieve a perfect vacuum. How might he
proceed?

In calculus we are often interested in the value of a

function f(x) when x is very close to a number x0 but not
necessarily equal to x0.
The mathematical concept for dealing with such
problems is the limit of a function.
73
Limits: A Working Definition
Basically, we ask:
As x gets closer and closer to x0 (but x x0), does
f(x) get closer and closer to some finite number L?
If yes, we say the limit of f(x) as x approaches x0 equals L.
Written lim f ( x) L
x x0
or f ( x) L as x x0
Equivalently: we can make the value of f(x) as close as
we like to L by taking x sufficiently close to x0.

Note: Lim f ( x) depends only on the values of f(x) near x0.

x x0
The value of f(x0) is not relevant.
f(x0) may take a different value or be undefined.
74
Three Examples
Consider the following functions:
sin x | x| 1
f ( x) , g ( x) , h( x) sin .
x x x
None of these functions are defined at x = 0.
But we will look at their behaviour close to x = 0.
(I) Consider f(x). Using a calculator or computer we can
draw a table of values or plot the graph.

It seems that as x 0, f ( x) 1. I.e. Lim f ( x) 1 75

x0
One-Sided Limits
For the function above, we get the same answer whether
we approach from above or below. This is not always the
case. So we need the concept of one-sided limits.
A limit from the left Lim f ( x)
(x approaching x0 from below): x x0

A limit from the right Lim f ( x)

(x approaching x0 from above): x x0

The two-sided limit Lim f ( x) exists if and only if

x x 0
both one-sided limits exist and are the same, i.e.

Lim f ( x) L if and only if Lim f ( x) Lim f ( x) L

x x0 x x0 x x0
76
Example 31
| x|
(II) Sketch a graph of g ( x) . Use it to guess the
x
values of Lim g ( x) , Lim g ( x) and Lim g ( x) .

x0
x0 x0

77
(III) The graph of h( x) sin(1 x) is shown below. What
can we say about Lim h( x) , Lim h( x) and Lim h( x) ?
x0 x0 x0

As x 0+, 1/x gets bigger and bigger

... and sin(1/x) continues to oscillate in the range [-1,1].
I.e. the function does not tend towards any fixed value.
This means Lim h( x) does not exist.
x0
Similarly Lim h( x) does not exist.
x0
So also Lim h( x) does not exist.
x0 78
Example 32
Use the given graph of the function f to state the value of the
following limits. If a limit does not exist, explain why.

(a) Lim f ( x),

x1

(b) Lim f ( x),

x1

(c) Lim f ( x),

x1

(d ) Lim f ( x),
x3

(e) Lim f ( x).

x4

79
Limits: Formal Definition [Optional]
The definition given above is rather informal. More
formally, the concept of a limit may be defined as follows.
Definition
Let f be a function that is defined on an open interval
containing x0, except possibly at x0. We say Lim f ( x) L
x x0
if for every small quantity e > 0 there exists a d > 0 such
that | f(x) L |< e for all x satisfying 0 < | x x0|< d.

I.e. graphically, if f(x) lies inside the

horizontal strip of the width 2e around
L then x lies inside the vertical strip of
the width 2d around x0 (irrespective or
whether or not point (x0, L) belongs to
the graph of f).
80
Similar definitions can be written for one-sided limits.
These definitions can be used to find limits.
Example 33 (Optional)
3x 1 11
Use the definition above to prove that Lim
x4 2 2

81
1.7 Evaluating Limits. Laws of
Limits.
In section 1.5 we used tables and graphs to guess
limits. Then we met a formal proof but this is hard work
to use! Now we will develop tools for finding limits
precisely and relatively easily.
1.7.1 An Initial Theorem
From the definition of a limit, the following simple but
important result can be proved:

For any constants x0 and c,

Lim c c and Lim x x0
x x0 x x0
82
1.7.2 Laws of Limits

(For proofs, see textbooks.)

From these basic laws, further results can be derived.

E.g.
can be proved by repeated application of (iii) with f(x)=g(x).
83
Example 34
Using the theorem and laws above, find Lim (2 x 2 3x)
x2

1.7.3 Limits of Elementary Functions

Most of the functions we meet are elementary functions:
polynomials, power functions, rational functions (ratios of
two polynomials), exponentials, logarithms, trigonometric
and inverse trigonometric functions, and all the functions
which can be obtained from these by addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and composition.
E.g.
84
Direct Substitution Property
If f is an elementary function and x0 is in the
domain of f , then Lim f ( x) f ( x0 )
x x0

So if f is elementary and x0 is in its domain, the limit can

be found simply by substituting x0 into the formula for f.
If x0 is not in the domain then this property cannot be used!
In some cases the limit can still be found by algebraic
manipulation. Other techniques will be studied in Chapter 3.
Example 35 Find the following limits:
x2 1
(a) Lim
x1 x 1

85
 x2 1
(b) Lim
x1 x 1

x 1
(c) Lim
x1 x 1

86
Example 36 Find the following limits:
x 3
(a) lim
x1 x 7

x p
(b) lim
xp e2

x p
(c) lim cos 2
xp e

x 1 x 1
(d ) lim f ( x) where f ( x)
x1 4 x 1

x 2
(e) lim
x 4 x2 5x 4
87
1.7.4 The Squeeze Theorem (or sandwich theorem)

If f(x) g(x) h(x) for all x in an open interval

containing x0, except possibly at x0, and if
Lim f ( x) Lim h( x) L then Lim g ( x) L .
x x0 x x0 x x0

If g is trapped between f
and h, and if f and h have
the same limit L at x0, (i.e.
f and h meet at x0), then g
must also have the same
limit L at x0.

88
Example 37
1
Use the squeeze theorem to show that lim x sin 0
x0 x

89
1.8 Limits involving Infinity
A cup of hot tea is placed in a room which is air
conditioned at 25 C. After a long time, what will
the temperature of the tea be?

1.8.1 Limits at Infinity

Consider a function f defined on an interval of the form
(, ), (a, ) or ( , a), we may ask what happens to
the value of f(x) as x becomes very large and positive
(i.e. approaches infinity) or very large and negative
(approaches negative infinity).
2 x2 1
Example Consider the function f ( x) .
x 3
2

What happens as x becomes arbitrarily large?

90
As x becomes large,
- numerator and denominator both become large
- but the quotient does not become large.
This can be seen by dividing both top and bottom by x2:
For x 0, f ( x) 2 x 2
1 2 1/ x 2

x 3 1 3/ x 2
2

As x , 1/x2 0 so f(x) 2.
Hence we say Lim f ( x) 2 and Lim f ( x) 2
x x
Graphically, as x , f(x) approaches the straight line
y = 2. This line is called a (horizontal) asymptote of the
graph of f.

An asymptote is a straight line which a graph approaches

arbitrarily close to at long distances from the origin.
Limits at Infinity (Informal Definition)
Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ).
Then Lim f ( x) L means the value of f(x) gets closer
x
and closer to L as x gets bigger and bigger.
Let g be a function defined on some interval (, a).
Then xLim g ( x) L means the value of g(x) gets closer

and closer to L as x gets more and more negative.
[x may be read as x approaches infinity, x becomes
infinite or x increases without bound.]

Graphically, such a limit corresponds to a horizontal

asymptote. It may be approached in many different ways.
1.8.2 Infinite Limits
Example Consider the function h( x) 1 x
Sketch the graph. What is Lim h( x) ?
x0

As x 0+ , the value of h(x) gets bigger and bigger,

without bound.
So h(x) do not approach any fixed value L.
So the limit does not exist.
However it is convenient to say that xLim
h( x )
0
[as x 0+, h(x) approaches infinity or tends to infinity]

Similarly, it is convenient to say that Lim h( x)

x0
93
Infinite Limits (Informal Definition)

The notation Lim f ( x) means f(x) becomes larger

x x0
and larger as x gets closer and closer to x0;
And Lim f ( x) means f(x) becomes more and
x x0
more negative as x gets closer and closer to x0.

Note: Whenever a limit has the value or , this

means the limit does not exist.
( are useful concepts but are not real numbers!)

Graphically, where a function has an infinite limit, the

graph has a (vertical) asymptote.
E.g. x = 0 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of h(x)=1/x.
Example 38
Sketch the graphs of the functions f(x) = 1/x2 and g(x) = ln x
and state the values of the following limits:

1
(a) lim 2
,
x0 x
1
(b) lim 2
,
x0 x
1
(c) lim ,
x0 x 2

(d ) lim ln x,
x

(e) lim ln x.
x0

95
Example 39 Find the following limits:
3x 2 1
(a) lim
x 2 x2 5

1
(b) lim
x0 x3

(c) lim ( x 2 x x)
x

(d ) lim ( x 2 x x)
x

96
1.9 Continuity
Definition
A function f is continuous at x0 if Lim f ( x) f ( x0 )
x x0

I.e. To be continuous, f(x) must satisfy three conditions:

1) f is defined on an open interval containing x0;
2) xLim
x
f ( x) exists;
0

3) Lim f ( x) f ( x0 )
x x0

Graphically, f is continuous at x0 if its graph extends

some distance to the right and left of the point (x0, f(x0))
and has no break at that point.

97
Conversely, f is discontinuous at x0 if there is a break,
or the left and right limits are not equal or do not exist.
Discontinuities are classified into three types:
(a) Removable Discontinuities
could be removed by redefining
the function at a single number.

(b) Infinite Discontinuities

(c) Jump Discontinuities

98
Example 40
a) Consider again the graph shown.
At what values of x is f discontinuous?
What type of discontinuities are these?

x2 1
x 1.
b) Consider f ( x) x 1 Is f continuous at x = 1?
1 x 1

99
Some further DEFINITIONS
A function f is continuous from the right at x0 if
Lim f ( x) f ( x0 )
x x0
A function f is continuous from the left at x0 if
Lim f ( x) f ( x0 )
x x0
A function f is continuous on the open interval (a, b) if it
is continuous at every interior point of the interval.
A function f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b] if it
is continuous on the open interval (a, b), continuous from
the right at x = a and continuous from the left at x = b.
Graphically, a function is continuous on (a, b) if that part of the
graph can be drawn without lifting ones pen off the paper!
Example 40 cont.
At x = 1, is the function continuous from the left or the right? 100
Further Theorems

If functions f and g are continuous at x0, then so are

f + g, f g, fg, and f /g (provided g(x0) 0).
If g is continuous at x0 and f is continuous at g(x0), then
the composite function f g is continuous at x0.
Every elementary function is continuous on its domain.

The inverse of any continuous function is also continuous.

(For proofs, see textbooks.)
The last theorem can be established geometrically.
Remember that the graph of f 1 is the reflection of the
graph of f in the line y = x. So if the graph of f has no
break then the graph of f 1 will also have no break.
101
1.9 The Intermediate Value
Theorem Theorem
If f is continuous on a finite closed interval [a, b] and
if M is a real number lying between f(a) and f(b), then
there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f(c) = M.
I.e., in the interval [a, b], a continuous function takes on
every value between f(a) and f(b) at least once.
The idea is obvious graphically:
if a graph starts at height f(a) and
finishes at height f(b) and is
continuous, it must cross the a line
of height M at least once.
(For formal proof, see textbooks.)
102
A common use of this theorem is in locating roots of
equations: if f(x) is continuous on [a, b] and if f(a) and f(b)
have opposite signs, then there must exist a number c in
(a, b) such that f(x) = 0.
Example 41
Show that x4 + x2 x 3 = 0 has a solution in the
interval [1, 2].

103