C)/~~~6?

'/-r
E.-C,e- v
.
Paul Claverie

/} , AS _ ., \ / 4 f /
HOW TO CHOOSE INSULATORS FOR POLLUTED AREAS

Electricite de France - PARIS

/()
Abstract-As a part of the research program on the behavior of
I I

polluted insulators, the mechanism of flashover due to contamination

has been analysed in a recent publication [1 ] .
Works in this field have been continued by a study of the charac-
teristics of contaminating layers deposited on the surface of insulators.
z /v",

p
X
XM
R (X)
0 .-.e
Yves Porcheron
Member 1lfWE
M -1 C&jP

Length of arc, in centimeters

rp

Maximum length of arc, in centimeters

614,
A

Resistance in series with the arc, in ohms (characteristic

function of the layer)
Resistivity of the contaminating electrolyte in ohms.centi-
It was shown that, making use of the salt fog test and by a proper meters
choice of the concentration of the sprayed saline solution, it was F (X) Distribution function of the contaminating layer:
possible to reproduce in laboratories artificial contaminating layers
R (X)
equivalent to any natural layers. F (X)-
Consequently, the degree of pollution in a locality can be charac- p
terized by reference to the salt fog test and expressed in terms of an Bases of the theory of flashover
equivalent salinity. This degree of contamination can be determined by
recording on the site the maximum leakage current of a standard-type It has been possible to study the development of arn arc on the
insulator. surface of a contaminated insulator by considering:
- on the one hand, the equation of the electrical circuit in-
The final result of these works is a practical method for selecting
line or post insulators in polluted areas. This method is based on salt fog cluding an arc in series with a resistance consisting of the area of the
laboratory tests and on measurements in the polluted sites for finding contaminating layer traversed by the leakage current (figure 1).
- on the other hand, a condition of reignition of the arc in
out the degree of the local contamination severity.
alternating current.
INTRODUCTION
tEs S S3
The overhead lines and the substations of a transmission network
situated in areas subject to high levels of atmospheric contamination
are susceptible to troubles due to flashovers of polluted insulator
strings or post insulators. Several solutions can be considered to pre-
vent these difficulties. It is possible, for example:
I5Y2-3
- To increase the length of the insulator strings or post insulators,
- To replace the conventional insulators by anti-fog insulators,
- To cover the insulator surfaces with mineral or silicon grease to
delay the formation of the conductive layer,
- To wash the insulators periodically, etc....
In order to choose from among the various types of insulators and
to properly adapt the insulation of a line or a substation to the severity
of the local pollution, it was first of all essential to determine the
factors which really influence flashover and the conditions under which
it occurs.
As a first step, a theoretical study of the flashover mechanism was
carried out using a simple experimental model permitting easy ob-
servations of the phenomena [1]. The results of this study were then LAYER
applied to insulators subjected to natural pollution or artificially con-
taminated in the laboratory. It was found possible to work out a prac-
tical method for the determination of insulation in polluted areas.

SUMMARY OF THE MAIN RESULTS

OF THE FLASHOVER MECHANISM STUDY
ARC DISCHARGE
The following notations are used: Fig. 1. Discharge on the surface of a contaminated insulator.
V Alternating voltage applied to the insulator, in volts (peak
value)
Vc Flashover voltage (peak value) Experimental measurements have shown that the arc voltage was
I Leakage current, in amperes (peak value) quite well represented by the expression:
IM Maximum leakage current, in amperes (peak value) 100 X
Varc =
Paper T 72 5544, recommended and approved by the Transmission and Dis-
tribution Committee of the IEEE Power Engineering Society for presentation at The resistance R, in series with the arc, obviously depends on the
the IEEE PES Summer Meeting, San Francisco, Calif., July 9-14, 1972. Manu-
script submitted February 16, 1972; made available for printing May 23, 1972. position of the arc roots on the surface of the insulator. When on a cap
1121
 d pin insulator, for example the arc is established between the pin With Xc solution of the equation:
d a point on the contaminating layer, the series resistance is reduced
/hen the arc stretches out in the direction of the cap. This resistance d[X2 R (X)] 0
depends on: dX (7)
- the shape of the insulator,
- the distribution of the contamination on the surface of the If R (X) = p * F (X), equations (5) and (7) may be written:
insulator, 1 2
- the length of the arc X. V = 90 p3 X3 F (XC ) 3 (5')
For a given insulator, this variable resistance will therefore be
represented by the function R (X), here called the characteristic func- and
tion of the contaminating layer.
d [X F (X)]
When the pollution consists of an electrolyte layer of uniform = 0 (7')
resistivity p, the function R (X) may be written:
With these fundamental relationships, the flashover voltage and
R (X) = p * F (X) the critical leakage current of a contaminated insulator can be deter-
F (X) is called the distribution function of the contaminating layer. mined if the function R (X) is known.
Using the notations previously indicated, the expression of the
arc-series resistance circuit is: CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL CONTAMINATING LAYERS

The function R (X) completely defines the behavior of a con-

taminated insulator since it permits, the calculation of its flashover
V 100 X + R (X) I() voltage. So this function effectively characterizes the degree of pollu-
'IT tion of the insulator and therefore the study of contaminating layers is
or, actually reduced to the study of the function, R (X).
100 X Method for the experimental determination of the function R (X)
V =- +?F (X) I (1')
VT Two methods can be used to determine R (X), the characteristic
The fundamental condition for arc reignition, experimentally function of an insulator contaminating layer: either a method of direct
established by means of a great number of measurements carried out on measurement in which the arc root is represented by an auxiliary elec-
all types of insulators artificially or naturally polluted is expressed by: trode, or an indirect method based on the interpretation of the leakage
current measurements.
800 X The principle of the method of direct measurement which was
briefly described in the paper [1], is illustrated on figure 2. This
method which is difficult to use is mainly of theoretical interest. It has
(This expression is slightly different from the one given in the
proved that R (X) represents the resistance in series with the arc and
preceding paper which was deduced from measurements on the experi-
and that the basic formulas describe the real physical phenomena.
mental model).
Maximum arc length as a function of applied voltage
Based on the relationships (1) and (2), it is shown that if the volt-
age applied to the insulator is V, the arc will not exceed a length XM
such that:
V = 90 Xi R (XQ) 3 (3)

The maximum leakage current will then be:

X(
800 ) (4)

If the severity of the pollution does not increase (even if arcs

appeared on the surface of the insulator and a leakage current existed),
a flashover cannot occur. Fig. 2. Device for the measurements of the contaminating layer charac-
teristic functions (R (X)).
Flashover voltage
The indirect method is based on the use of the relationships:
If the voltage applied to a contaminated insulator is progressively
VT*
increased, a continuous increase in arc length XM is observed in
accordance with relationship (3). But there exists a critical voltage Vc 800
which cannot be exceeded without causing a flashover of the insulator V
through instantaneous extension of the arc. Corresponding to this
and R (X ) = 0. 88
M IM
critical voltage, or flashover voltage, there is a critical arc length Xc and
a critical current IC. defined by the following equations: (These relationships are derived from the relationships (3) and
2 1 (4)).
V =90 X3 . R (X )3 (5) Thus, to determine the function R (X), it is only necessary to
(800 Xc)2 measure the maximum leakage current IM under several voltages V.
This method of measurement, easier to use than the first method can
c \'
c
V6) be utilized "on site" as well as in the laboratory. It should also be
1122
 U1)
-.
0

U)
I
=0
n
m

X ( cm)
X (cm) Fig. 6. Repartition function of the contaminating layer for various
Fig. 5. Repartition function of the contaminating layer for various pollution types
pollution types * Martigues-Ponteau (marine pollution)
* Martigues-Ponteau (marine pollution) + Gosnay (industrial pollution)
+ Carling (industrial pollution) o Saint-Hubert (industrial pollution)
Saint-Hubert (industrial pollution) O Artificial salt fog
O artificial salt fog.

Table 2
CARLING
Insulator GOSNAY SOLLAC (Chemical MARTIGUES
type
(se
(see t.) (ee .1)works
and
t.1) (see tel) coking- (see t. 1)
plants)

17 19,5 16 13

1 23 25 21 17

17 ~~~~17 14

Flashover voltage (kV, peak value) of three types of insulators from

four polluted areas.
Table 2 gives the flashover voltages of three types of con-
taminated insulators from four different sites. Using the results shown
in this table it is possible to verify the equality of the above ratios. In
fact, it appears that most natural contaminating layers do possess the
properties set forth in the paragraph "Properties of natural con-
taminating layers".
ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION OF CONTAMINATING LAYERS
LABORATORY TESTS
Conditions of validity of an artificial pollution test
To establish the validity of an artificial pollution test, it is usual to
place in order of merit a few insulators tested in the laboratory and to
X (cm)
Fig. 7. Repartition function of the contaminating layer for various
pollution types
* Martigues-Ponteau (marine pollution)
+ Carling (ind. pol.) 0 artificial salt fog
compare this classification with that obtained under natural con-
tamination. [41 . This very long and inaccurate method cannot by itself
guarantee the validity of the artificial test.
It would be highly preferable and faster to compare the character-
istic functions R (X) corresponding to natural and artificial pollution.
To set up these comparisons, the R (X) functions will be deter-
mined by the method of indirect measurement based on leakage current
measurements made at different voltages.

1123
pointed out that wlhichever method is used, in order to make measure- Table 1
ments in the laboratory on naturally polluted insulators, the deposit
must be moistened. This can be done by condensation or by spraying Flashover voltage
tapwater directly on the insulator. Insulator Polluted locality in kV (peak value)
type Calculated Measured
The characteristic curves R (X) obtained by either method on value value
some insulators taken from severely polluted localities are shown in
figures 3 and 4. MARTIGUES-PONTEAU 11,5 13

/Z\ SAINT-HUBERT
(Metal works, 16 15,5
chemical works)
SOLLAC1995
4
(Metal works) 19 19,5
MARTIGUES-PONTEAU
0
0
(marine pollution) 16 17
ltm. IL
I GOSNAY
(Chemical works, 22 23
0
coking-plant)
Flashover voltages calculated from the functions R (X) and measured in
the laboratory for naturally contaminated insulators.
5C. %% 40
O'SI-ISI
N< 0 +
taken from different localities suggest that natural contaminating layers
0 0 0
have the following properties:
- The characteristic function of the layer R (X) can be split up
0

5 10 15
into a product of two factors R (X) = p * F (X)
X (cm ) - The distribution function F (X) is independent of the locality

Fig. 3. Characteristic functions of the contaminating layer in various and depends only on the shape of the insulator.
polluted sites - In a given site after a long period of exposure, the resistivity p
* Martigues-Ponteau (marine pollution) of the electrolyte forming the contaminating layer, reaches a maximum
+ Carling (industrial pollution)
o Sollac (industrial pollution) value identical for all types of insulators. This maximum resistivity
varies from on locality to another.
The generalization of these properties may seem questionable for
they are not strictly verified in every case (the function F (X) can vary
from one site to another for the same type of insulator; p is not exactly
identical for all the insulators in the same substation, etc.).
However, experiments have shown that by assuming that all
natural contaminating layers possess the above properties, the practical
results obtained are close enough to reality for these approximations to
be considered as justified.

Experimental verifications of the natural contaminating layers prop-

X ( cm )
Fig. 4. Characteristic functions of the contaminating layer in various
polluted sites
* Martigues-Ponteau (marine pollution)
+ Gosnay (industrial pollution)
Table 1 may be used to compare the flashover voltages calculated
from R (X) functions with flashover voltages measured in the laboratory.
Properties of natural contaminating layers
The measurements of contaminating layers characteristic functions
performed in the laboratory on various types of contaminated insulators
1124
erties
The direct verification of the validity of the properties above
mentioned is not easy. In fact, it is impossible to deduce F (X) from the
function R (X) without knowing p. On the other hand, these properties
can be indirectly verified by using the flashover voltage, which is easily
measurable in the laboratory.
If, according to the second property, function F (X) is identical
for a given insulator and for all sites, it is shown in the Appendix that
this is also true for the function:
R (X)
3.
Vc
By referring to figures 5, 6 and 7, it can be seen that the curves:
R (X)
V3Vc
relating to the same insulator are practically identical, which confirms
the exactness of the first two properties.
It is also shown in the Appendix that if the resistivity p of the
electrolyte is identical for all insulators in the locality, the ratio of the
flashover voltages of any two insulators in a same site, must be inde-
pendent of the site considered.
 Table 3

Number Test Period Test Period Test Period Test Period

Insulator of 22.X3 11.X9.e70 2e10 - 1.11.70 6. 11 - 20 11 70 29.11 - 15.6.71
types units
IM S IM S Im S IM .S
(125kV r.m.s (mA) (g /) (mA) (g /1) (mA) (g/1) (mA) (g/.e)

14 325 14 C >28 C > 28 C > 28

A
16 530 40 C >40 1200 57

14 120 14 225 28 770 57 540 40

16 160 28 650 80 435 57

11 500 28 1000 40 C > 40

12 970 20

1 640 40 265 28 >1000 >40 1000 40

.~~~~~~~

1 135 28 400 57 480 57

C Flashover during the test period - IM Maximum leakage current measured during the test period
S Equivalent salinity.
Determinatiion of the equivalent salinity at "Martigues" testing station

Remark: As in natural pollution testing stations the voltage can-
not be easily changed, measurements of the leakage currents will be
made simultaneously on insulator strings or post insulators of the same
type, but of different lengths. The stress on each unit can thus be fixed
at the desired value.
Validity of the artificial salt fog test
The salt fog test has been used in the Electricite de France Labora-
tories for several years [2-3]. The modification of a few parameters of
the usual testing procedure has made it possible to improve its validity.
Obviously, other test procedures could have been chosen which would
probably have given acceptable validity [5]
The validity of the artificial salt fog test has been checked accord-
ing to the principles outlined in the preceding paragraph. As an example,
figures 5, 6 and 7 show the functions:
R (X)
Vc3
corresponding to measurements performed in the laboratory with salt
solutions of resistivity varying from 6 to 60 Q2.cm. Figures 5, 6 and 7
show that the salt fog test is valid for industrial pollution as well as for
marine pollution.
In the artificial test, the contaminating layer is such that:
R (X) = p F (X)
The factor p represents the resistivity of the contaminating electro-
lyte; that is to say, p is also the resistivity of the sprayed solution. The
pollution will be made more or less severe by modifying this resistivity
or, in other words, by varying the concentration of the solution.
So it is clear that the pollution in any site can be reproduced in the
laboratory by properly choosing the salinity of the sprayed solution,
this being valid for marine pollution as well as for industrial pollution.
CHARACTERIZATION OF THE DEGREE OF CONTAMINATION
OF A SITE: EQUIVALENT SALINITY
Principle
To each polluted site will correspond an "equivalent salinity" (in
grams per liter) of the artificial salt fog test according to its degree of
contamination.
Experimental determination of the pollution severity in a site
The problem consists in finding out the concentration of the saline
solution so that the R (X) functions obtained in the laboratory are
equivalent to the R (X) functions observed in the site under considera-
tion for all types of insulators. Taking into account the properties of
natural contaminating layers and the validity of the salt fog test, this
equivalence will be obtained when, for two identical naturally and
artificially contaminated insulators, the resistances R are equal for an
arc length X.

1125
 In practice, the equivalent salinity of a site will be determined in
the following way: in the polluted site, the maximum leakage currents
are measured on two or three types of insulators supplied with a voltage
close to their normal working voltage. These same types of insulators
will be tested in the laboratory under normal working voltages. The
maximum leakage currents will be measured for several concentrations
of saline solution. The salinity equivalent to the site pollution will
correspond to the solution salinity for which the leakage currents
measured in the laboratory are similar to those measured on test site.
A large and expensive testing station such as that of MARTIGUES-
PONTEAU, with a great number of insulators under test, was necessary
for carrying out successfully all the researches relating to the behavior
of contaminated insulators (studies of layer characteristics, validation
of laboratory test, etc. ...). When the purpose is only to determine the
equivalent salinity of a site, a simpler equipment can be used. These
"simplified stations" now being developed by Electricite de France,
consist of a three-phase pole-mounted transformer, 40 kVA, 380 Volts/
33 kV, supplying three insulators. The maximum leakage currents of
these insulators are recorded directly on paper-recorders.
Fig. 8. Martigues testing station.
Classification of sites

Now, the relationships: In order to determine the insulators for a line or a substation
which is to be built in a polluted area, first it is necessary to determine
the equivalent salinity of the site. A minimum of three years will be
V VT/M = 800 X required to obtain a trustworthy value of the equivalent salinity. This
time period if often considered too long by those responsible for the
and 0.88 - = R (X
M design of the installation. In order to provide information on the
required insulation in any polluted locality, systematic measurements
and investigations on the behavior of operating lines or substations
have to be undertaken to draw, from the results thus obtained, a map
show that the equality of the arc lengths XM and the resistances R (XM) of the severity of the principal polluted localities. For the purpose of
implies the equality of the leakage currents IM for identically polluted simplification, the various degrees of contamination could be split up
insulators under the same voltage V. into four classes of severity. These classes as well as the corresponding
This method of determination of equivalent salinity is illustrated, as an salinities could be defined, for example, as shown in Table 4.
example, by the results shown in table 3.
The site of MARTIGUES-PONTEAU, to which these results refer, SELECTION OF INSULATORS FOR CONTAMINATED AREAS
is located on the shore of the Golfe de FOS (near MARSEILLE) and is
Determination by means of laboratory tests
subject to very high marine contamination. The photograph in figure 8
shows the test station. After having taken measurements for more than The class of severity of a site being known, the flashover voltage
three years the equivalent salinity of this site seems to be stabilized at of any type of insulator which would be installed there can quickly be
about 57 g/l as can be seen in the T.3. determined from laboratory tests. It is thus possible to define the
Table 4
Equivalent salini Vc(, | . K
Class Site characteristics ty in gy (kV/cm)* /kV*

Locality without pollution problems

1 where the standard insulation is 5 0,78 1,3
sufficient.
Slightly polluted locality where
2 the insulation must be 28 0,47 2,0
strengthened

Severly polluted locality where an

important increase of the insulation
3 is required (coastal regions, 80 0,36 2,8
industrial regions with polluting
works, etc. *..)
Locality with a very high degree of
pollution where an exceptional
4 insulation level is required 226 0,27 3,7
(coastal and industrial regions
with numerous polluting works)
* phase to phase voltage (r.m.s.)

Example of polluted site classification.

1126
minimum required insulation in this site according to the safety margin
which is wanted.
To choose this safety margin, the inaccuracies of the test method,
the uncertainties concerning the class of severity of the site, and more-
over the possible and unexpected variations in the severity of the pollu-
It must be noted that this method of determining insulators does
not take into account the influence of the shape or of the diameter of
the insulators on their behaviour. It is clear that this method leads to
an approximate dimensioning of insulators. In particular, the values of
the product p 1/3 K given in table 4 cannot be applied to insulators of
-

tion must be taken into account.
In this connection it is important to point out that the salinities
of the artificial salt-fog test and, consequently the equivalent salinities
of the site pollutions, are selected from among the series of values:
2.5 - 3.5 - 5 - 7 . . . etc. [2]. A variation of one "step" of salinity
leads to a change of about 10% in the flashover voltage of an insulator
(the relationship (5) shows that:
AV l Ap
V 3 p
Ap varies about 30% for one step of salinity). From a designing point
of view this leads to a change of about 10% in the length of the
insulator strings or post insulators.
As a first approximation, experience acquired during previous
tests can be used and then it is no longer necessary, as we shall see, to
make new tests in order to specify insulator lengths.
Simplified method for specifying insulation in polluted areas
The length of the leakage path is a rather frequently used
criterion in the choice of insulators. Although implicitly included in
the function R (X), the part played by the leakage path does not appear
clearly until now. It is possible, with a few approximations, to bring it
to light.
Let us call L the length of the total leakage path of an insulator,
and let us suppose that in the range:
L 3
X=- X=-L
4' 4
the function R (X) is quite well represented by the expression C (L - X),
in which C is a constant which mainly depends on the thickness of the
contaminating layer. Furthermore, let us assume that the constant C is
identical for all types of insulators (that is to say that for very short
arcs X 2 0, the series resistance is proportional to the length of the
leakage path). Under these conditions, for all the contaminated in-
large diameter or to certain types of long rod insulators. In fact experi-
ments show that the equation (8) applies quite well to most cap and pin
insulators, long rod and post insulators the diameters of which do not
exceed about 40 centimeters. For large diameter bushings or for long
rod insulators with very closely spaced sheds, the flashover voltage is
distinctly lower than equation (8) would lead us to believe. In the case
of large diameter insulators, the resistance in series with the arc is, in
fact, smaller than that of post insulators of small diameter (<40cm).
For insulators with closely spaced sheds, the reduction in flashover
voltage is due to the fact that the arc does not remain in contact with
porcelain surface as it grows [1], [ 6] .
CONTINUOUS MEASUREMENT OF THE DEGREE
OF CONTAMINATION OF INSULATORS
In order to avoid flashovers in some transmission lines or sub-
stations in polluted areas, the insulators must be washed periodically.
In order to perform the washing at the proper time, the degree of con-
tamination of the insulators must be permanently known. To solve this
problem a method for finding out the "safety coefficient" of polluted
insulators has been proposed.
This method is based on the evaluation of the ration V/Vc (voltage
applied to the insulator/flashover voltage), from leakage current meas-
urements, or more exactly from the value of the product P = V
To estimate the degree of contamination of the insulators in a sub-
station, for example, this method may be used in the following manner:
The curve V/Vc, as a function of P, will be determined for one
type of insulator by laboratory tests, using, for example, the salt fog
method. For this purpose the following measurements will be carried
out for increasing values of the solution salinity.
- The maximum leakage current IM at the working voltage V of
the insulator,
- The flashover voltage Vc.
The curve V/Vc as a function of P = V /1m will be drawn, point
-

sulators of a site (the equivalent salinity of which corresponds to a by point.

resistivity p of the electrolyte) the function R (X) will be represented By continuously recording the leakage current of an identical
by the expression: insulator in operation in the substation concerned, it will be possible to
know at any time the safety margin of all the polluted insulators by
R (X) .C (L - X) referring to the above curve. So, the washing of these insulators will be
performed at the right time.
Using equations (5) and (7), it is easy to show that the critical arc This method of measurement might be used for insulators treated
length Xc is then equal to: with silicon or mineral grease in order to determine the moment when
the dirty grease which has become inefficient should be renewed.
2L
3 Studies are being made on this subject, but they are not far enough
advanced to draw conclusions.
and that the flashover voltage Vc can be written:

Vc = 3. K L (8) CONCLUSIONS

K is a constant which can be determined by site test or more 1. Analysis of the flashover mechanism of insulators subjected to
easily by flashover voltage measurements in the laboratory. atmospheric pollution has shown that the behavior of an insulator
The above equation shows that for the same area (severity p), the (flashover voltage, leakage current, etc. ...) is entirely determined by
flashover voltage is proportional to the length of the leakage path for the characteristic function of the contaminating layer R (X) which
all types of insulators. Under these conditions, the method of dimen- represents the resistance in series with the arc of length X at each
sioning insulators for any contaminated site is very simple. When the point of insulating surface covered with the contaminating deposit.
constant K or more exactly when the product p 1/3 K is known, the This function may be determined experimentally by measurements of
choice only consists in selecting insulators having a leakage path L long the leakage current.
enough so that their flashover voltages, Vc = pl/3 K L, are greater
-
2. Study of the characteristics of contaminating layers deposited
than the maximum working voltage Vm. As an example the values of on the surface of insulators in severely polluted localities (marine con-
the product p 113 * K (and of the ratio Vc/L) for the different classes of tamination, or industrial contamination), has shown that the function
pollution severities are given in table 4. R (X) may be split up into a product of two factors p and F (X).

1127
 - F (X) is a function of the distribution of the contaminating Assuming (third property) that:
iayer which only depends on the shape of the insulator.
- p represents the resistivity of the contaminating electrolyte e = pn,C
Fn,A =n,B ..
=
pn
which is independent of the type of insulator and varies only with the [ Vc = 3 .GN
locality. n,Nn
3. It is possible, under certain conditions, to artificially reproduce
contaminating layers equivalent to natural layers. In particular, it has and:
been possible to prove the validity of the artificial salt fog test.
4. The severity of the contamination of a site can be characterized [Vc] 1,AA =
13GAA
by referring to the equivalent salt fog test. This severity will then be
expressed by the same number as the concentration of the salt sprayed
solution (i.e. grams of sodium chloride per liter).
[Vi =
e3GA
2,A 2
5. It is proposed to classify the polluted localities into four
classes of severity to which correspond the minimum lengths of leakage 1= P3GB
paths to be respected for the insulators in service at these sites. [V] 1,B 1
6. Study of the flashover process under contamination has also
led to proposing a method for permanently measuring the contamina-
tion degree of the insulators in polluted substations.
[V2]2 P2B
APPENDIX
Then:
Let us consider a certain number of insulators A, B, C, . . . N, ...
exposed to the contamination at different sites 1, 2, ..., n, ... H IBA C 2A = GA
[v 3n,N [R]nN [ F (X) ]
n,N etc. ........ [V]l 1,B IV12, . . G

represent the flashover voltage, the characteristic function and, the dis- The ratio of the flashover voltages of two insulators exposed to the
tribution function of the layer etc. ..of the insulator N, exposed to contamination at the same site is independent of the site.
the contamination at the site n.
According to equation (5'), the flashover voltage of the insulator
N will be: REFERENCES
12 1 [1] P. CLAVERIE, "Predetermination of the Behaviour of polluted
vCLc g 3 [X ]3 F (Xc)]3 insulators" - IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and systems;
=0
c c Vol PAS 90, N 4, July/August 197 1, p. 1902
n,N n,N n,N n,N
[2] P. J. LAMBETH, J. S. T. LOOMS, G. CARRARA, G. LEROY,
with: [R (X)] = [F (X)] Y. PORCHERON, M. SFORZINI, "The salt fog artificial pollution
n,N n,N n,N test" - CIGRE, 1968, Paper n 25-08
[3] P. J. LAMBETH, J. S. T. LOOMS, M. SFORZINI, C. MALAGUTI,
whence: Y. PORCHERON, P. CLAVERIE, "International Research on pol-
I V3c I nt luted insulators" CIGRE, 1970, Paper n 33-02.
[R (X)] = [F (X)] [4] H. BAATZ, G. BOLL, 0. BRENNECKE, G. NIEHAGE, G.
n,N 903 [JX2 . [F (X)] n,N REVEREY and Th. VOGELSANG, "New field experience with
n,N n,N outdoor insulators in pollution areas and methods of assessing the
performance of insulation under conditions of pollution", CIGRE
If the property [F (X)31 N [F (x)]2N [F ] 1964, report 212.
[5] P. J. LAMBETH, "Effect of pollution on high-voltage outdoor
insulators", IEE Reviews, volume 1 18, n 9 R, September 197 1.
[61 J. S. FORREST, P. J. LAMBETH, A. COLOMBO, J. KUCERA,
J. J. HURLEY, G. L. LIMBOURN, Y. NAKAJIMA, "Interna-
is verified; that is to say, if the distribution function F (X) is, for the tional studies of insulator pollution problems", CIGRE 1970,
same insulator, identical for all site (second property): paper n 33-12.
Discussion
Xc] I ,N
N [Xc] 2 ,N =[Xc33 ,N O [Xc]N Rosario Cortina and Mario Sforzini (ENEL, Milan, Italy): The
and it is deduced from this: Authors of this paper are to be complemented for their interesting
work, which certainly represents an important contribution to the
[R](X) n,N 1 practical solution of the problem of insulator selection for polluted
. [ F (X)] areas.
903[X] 2 We should like to make a few comments on this work.
[Vcj 3 n,N N
[ F (Xc)]
N
N
First comment - It can be seen from the paper that, in order to estab-
lish the validity of an artificial pollution test method in respect of
given natural ambient conditions, the following basic condition must be
That is to say that the functions: verified, namely: the layer distribution function F(X) of any insulator
type must be equal in the natural site and in the laboratory. Indeed, if
R (X) the above condition holds, then it will always be possible to find an
Vc3 appropriate value Peq of the severity of the artificial pollution test
method, such that the product Peq * F(X) equalizes the resistance
relatinig to the same insulator are identical for all sites. function R(X) as measured in the natural site on the same insulator
type (Peq represents the "equivalent" severity of the site with respect
If the property relating to the distribution functions is verified, to the artificial test method in question).
one can write: Consequently, if we assume, for instance, that the salt-fog test
1 1 1 method is valid for a given locality, then the distribution function
[VcI
n,N
= I3
n ,N
[X 3
n,N
[F (X )13
n,N
= Jn,.NGN Manuscript received September 5, 1972.
1128
Fl (X) of a given insulator type, as determined in the artificial salt-fog, 100 000
must also apply to the natural pollution of the locality. In particular,
the value of this function for X = 0, i.e. the value corresponding to the * 9 ANTIFOG UNITS 10
total resistance Rl (o) of the insulator, also applies to the locality. It (W.S.160 kg/mr)
comes out that the simple measurement of the maximum resistance mA ko2794
Rl (o) of the insulator in natural conditions enables one to determine A UNITS
the maximum equivalent severity of the site in terms of the fog + 9 ANTIFOG UNITS j> 145
resistivity: ~
Ui
Rl(o) e 2 >10000
Peq = W * 10 STANDARD UNITS l i 130
(W.S. 10 kg/Mr)
with R I(o) measured in natural conditions and Fl (o) determined in the u k025
laboratory (of course, the equivalent severity could also be expressed in
terms of fog salinity). w - * 1 LONG-ROD UNIT
If measurements of maximum resistance are also taken for other < (W.S.14 kg/rn)
types of insulators (2, 3, etc.) and provided that the equivalent severity < 1000 127M -
turns out to be the same in all cases, i.e. W - - _-
Rl(o) R2(o) R3(o) ----- i--
Fl (o) F2(o) F3(o) eq
then one has a confirmation that the initial assumption of validity was x _
At* 1~~~~~~ -- 4-
correct, i.e. that the salt-fog test method is actually valid for the natural -*1 -
site. _ _
Another way of using the same criterion is illustrated in fig. 1. _ * ___ _ _
We would like to know the opinion of the Authors on this criterion v _
of measuring the total resistance of insulators, which is presently -- -- -
considered by Enel and which, in our own opinion, is very well in line *
with the work presented by the Authors. Incidentally, we should like
to point out that special care must be taken when measuring the total i
resistances of insulators. For instance, the measurements must be made 10I
at a voltage not much lower than service voltage, supplying this voltage 1.25 2.5 5 10 20 40
for only 2 cycles to avoid formation of dry bands. When this is done,
consistent results can be obtained from resistance measurements.
Second comment - Fig. 2 shows the results of measurements of maxi- Fig. 2.
mum leakage currents performed by Enel, some time ago, in the salt-fog
chamber of CESI. More precisely, the figure gives, for different types of
insulator, the maximum leakage currents, as recorded during two-hour
tests, versus the salinity of the fog. It can be seen that the correlation
between maximum leakage currents and salinity is quite satisfactory.
This confirms the validity of the approach followed by the Authors.
100 _' -..-u-A.
Insulator A S' V
ASI270
17

(Mfl)

Insulator B~~ W~-

127
10

10 units of 130
insulators

RD.- = ( 9' units of T

14T0
insulators

.~~~~~~~~~~~~s ds.

RRc-.0.1
B
\ 01 +sK RA,RB,Rc,RD -N.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A,
RESISTANCES OF INSULATORS
B, C AND D, RESPECTIVELY, A
MEASURED IN A NATURAL SITE.
-- - * ____ _____ _____ ~
____. a,b.c,d CURVES OF TOTAL
SALINITY,
RESISTANC4 VERSUS
c SALT-FOG ONAS.MEASURED
IN THE
RA - . - ____.____ ___.
_______~ _N< > * INSULATORS A, B,
AND D, RESPECTIVELY.
C

REMARK - THE DLIGRAM ILLUSTRATES THE CONDITION

i_.I N \FOR TNE SALT-FOG TEST METHOD TO BE
VALID FOR THE SITE, NAMELY THE MIR-
IlUM RESISTANCES MEASURED AT THE SITE
ON THE DIFFERENT INSULATOR TYPES MUST
0. | LEAD TO THE SAME VALUE OF EQUIVALENT

0.01 ,1 I! ISALINIT.
2.5 5 10 20 40 80 160 kgftm3
SALINITY
Fig. 1.
1129
 As a consequence of the above results, recording of maximum
leakage currents was started in Italy at Enel natural pollution testing
stations.
Third comment - At a certain point in their paper, the Authors state
that the distribution function F(X) may be considered independent of
the locality. This concept, which would of course greatly simplify the
whole approach to the problem, is difficult to accept, however, since
the function F(X) should by its own nature be considerably dependent,
for the same insulator type, on the way in which pollutant and moisture
are locally deposited on the insulator surface. As an example, fig. 3
shows a comparison between the functions F(X) as found by the
Authors, on a certain insulator type, at two different natural sites (see
fig. 4 of the paper under discussion) and the function F(X) as deter-
mined by us, for an insulator of similar characteristics, considering
uniform layer and wetting on the insulator surface (given the nature of
the comparison, the functions are expressed in p.u.). It can be seen that
the first two curves have approximately the same shape while the shape
of the third one, which may be taken as an example of considerably
different conditions of pollution, is significantly different.
Within what limits can - in the opinion of the Authors - function
F(X) be considered independent of the locality? Is their statement
"independent of the locality" to be considered applicable to any
locality, i.e. to any type of natural pollution? If so, could this be due
to the fact that function F(X) tends to become "practically" equal in
different ambients for X higher than a certain value, i.e. for the more
external and less protected areas of the insulator surface, for which the
layer characteristics may be considered less affected by the mechanism
of deposit? We should appreciate the Authors' comments on this point,
which we believe is of considerable theoretical and practical importance.
Fig. 3.
Farouk A. M. Rizk (Hydro-Quebec Institute of Research, Varennes, P.Q.,
Canada): The authors are to be commended for attempting to establish
a correlation between natural pollution conditions of transmission line
insulators and those conditions prevailing under salt fog test on the
basis of the flashover mechanism.
The subject is quite complex and it is obvious that many simplified
assumptions must be introduced. In several instances however such
simplifications and accordingly, limitations of the analysis are not
clearly stated in the paper.
Fundamentally, equation (1) should refer to a long, static, small
current arc of length x burning in series with a resistance R(x) fed from
an infinite direct current source. The static arc characteristic involved
however may, as a first approximation, be used to characterize the arc
voltage-current relationship in the vicinity of the current peak of a
power frequency sinusoidal current when the current variations are slow
so as to justify the quasi-stationary analysis. A fact against the applica-
tion of this expression in connection with salt-fog tests is that it has
been found earlier1 that salt fog leakage current shows practically no
power frequency quasi-stationary component and that on the con-
trary the current consists of groups of pulses of greatly distorted
sinusoidal wave form. Another point is that a rapidly elongating arc,
due to the necessary energy expenditure for creating the arc plasma,
has a higher burning voltage than a corresponding stationary arc2. A
further complication in this respect is that arc propagation velocities on
Manuscript received July 31, 1972.
1130
polluted surfaces in the laboratory and in the field are radically
different3.
The second basic expression in the authors' analysis, i.e. criterion
(2), is claimed to express the arc reignition condition on all types of
insulators artificially or naturally polluted. Empirical relations as such
and also expression (3), which has been obtained in a slightly different
form in an earlier investigation4, represent only simplified approxima-
tions. For example, it is not always possible to have a definite corre-
spondence between the arc length x and the length of bridged insula-
tion during arc motion, which introduces considerable uncertainty as to
the proper value of x to be used in such expressions. Moreover, the
possibility of having multiple arcs seems to be excluded in the analysis.
It is interesting to note that the authors use the "maximum" leak-
age current as the link between natural and artificial tests. Flashover
probability, which is obviously a more fundamental term, is believed to
have only a rough correlation with leakage current, and that is the
reason why leakage current records have been treated hitherto only as
valuable supplementary information5,6. In dealing with such random
phenomena, it will be interesting to know the proper statistical pro-
cedure which the authors may propose for the determination of the
''maximum" leakage current and also of the exposure period to natural
pollution which they consider necessary to yield reliable information
on this quantity.
REFERENCES
1. J. S. Forrest, P. J. Lambeth, A. Colombo, J. Kucera, J. J. Hurley,
G. J. Limbourn, "International Studies of Insulator Pollution
Problems", CIGRE Paper No. 33-12,1970.
2. W. Rieder, "Plasma und Lichtbogen", Vieweg, Braunschweig
1967,p. 132.
3. H. Boehfme, F. Obenaus, "Pollution Flashover Tests on Insulators
in the Laboratory and in Systems and the Model Concept of
Creepage Path Flashover", CIGRE Paper No. 407, 1966.
4. J. J. Hurley, G. J. Limbourn, "Correlation of Service Performance
of Insulators and Lightning Arresters under Pollution Conditions
with Test Results etc.", Report submitted to CIGRE Study
Committee No. 33, September 1969.
5. J. S. Forrest, "The Performance of High Voltage Insulators in
Polluted Atmospheres", IEEE Conference Paper No. 69 CP 7 -
PWR, presented at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York,
January 1969.
6. P. Lambeth, "Effect of Pollution on High Voltage Outdoor Insu-
lators", Proc. IEE, IEE Reviews, Vol. 118, No. 9R, September
1971,pp. 1107-1130.
Paul Claverie and Yves Porcheron: The authors wish to express their
appreciation for the comments and the questions raised by the
discussors.
The method proposed by Mr. M. SFORZINI and Mr. R. CORTINA
in their first comment can effectively be used in order to find out the
equivalent salinity of the pollution in a site. Nevertheless measurements
of the total resistance of polluted insulators are always difficult to be
carried out, for it is necessary to avoid the formation of dry bands. So,
during measurements, the leakage current must not exceed about 10
mA. Meanwhile the current wave shape must be permanently con-
trolled; distortions of this wave shape correspond to the formation of
dry zones bridged by discharges on the insulator surface and then the
measured resistance does not correspond to the actual resistance of the
polluted layer of the insulator.
Let us point out that the function R (X) is not well defined for
X = 0. Measurements of the insulator total resistance does not give the
exact value of R (0), for, the arc root resistance due to the concentra-
tion of current lines is not taken into account (there is no arc on the
insulator surface). Nevertheless this method seems quite valid for the
determination of the severity of pollution in a site.
Concerning the second and third comments we fully agree with
Mr. M. SFORZINI and Mr. R. CORTINA's statements: "The function
F (X) tends to become practically equal in different ambients for X
higher than a certain value". In fact the natural layer properties stated
in the Paper, concern severely polluted insulators which have been
exposed in a site for a rather long period. These properties of natural
polluting layers have been verified for most of the insulators used by
EdF. Moreover, these properties concern the different types of pollu-
tion which are to be found in France. For special types of insulators or
other kinds of pollution (such as desert conditions) we are not sure that
these properties will be verified.
Manuscript received September 15, 1972.
 As stated by Dr. F. A. M. RZK
many simplified assumptions have
been introduced in order to manage
the study of the flashover mechan-
ism. The main approximations are
effectively pointed out in Dr.
RIZK's comments, but other as-
sumptions were necessary to get
through the study. We think that it
would be too long to discuss here
the validity of these simplified as-
sumptions. But experiments have
shown that even with those assump-
tions the theoretical calculations
were in good agreement with the
experimental results.
With regard to the establish-
ment of correlation between natural
and artificial tests, it is effectively
possible to compare the. flashover
voltages of insulators. But, as a rule,
1131
:these comparisons are derived from a few scattered results and thus it is
difficult to come to conclusions. Comparisons are easier to be made
when using the leakage current measurements, in fact, they are estab-
lished from a large number of data and so, conclusions are much more
reliable. Moreover the leakage current method is cheaper than the flash-
over method for which large natural testing stations are necessary. The
photograph shows a "simplified station" used as explained in the
Paper to determine the severity of contamination from leakage current
measurements.
Concerning the definition of "maximum leakage current": this
point raises an important question. Up to now we have defined the
maximum leakage current of an insulator during a period of test as the
maximum value of the peaks of the leakage current recorded during
this period. We agree that a statistical analysis would be useful to im-
prove the determination of this maximum leakage current.