Eur Food Res Technol (2006) 222: 472477

DOI 10.1007/s00217-005-0089-8

REVIEW ARTICLE

Wojciech Kolanowski Gunther

Laufenberg

Enrichment of food products with polyunsaturated fatty acids

by fish oil addition

Received: 11 March 2005 / Revised: 5 May 2005 / Accepted: 14 June 2005 / Published online: 23 September 2005


C Springer-Verlag 2005

Abstract Fish oil remains the main dietary source of
long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids omega-3, which
desirably impact on human health. Increase of omega-3
fatty acids intake is currently recommended. Results of
many studies showed that consumption of food products
enriched with fish oil offers the potential health benefits,
especially in protection against cardiovascular diseases
(CVD), cancer and improvement of brain development
and function. Health influence, methods, advantages and
disadvantages of food enrichment with fish oil as well as
characteristics of market of such products were presented.
Keywords Fish oil . Omega-3 PUFA . Food enrichment .
Functional food
Introduction
Fish oil is the main dietary source of long chain omega-3
polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Omega-3 PUFA
family consists of: alpha-linolenic acid (ALA C18:3) and
its longer-chain metabolites: eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA
C20:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA C22:6). Beneficial
health effects of omega-3 PUFA, especially long chain EPA
and DHA are well demonstrated, mainly in the prevention
of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) [1]. Currently, the
predominant dietary sources of very long chain omega-3
PUFA are oily fish and fish oil supplements. Because of the
low acceptance of oily fish in many societies of the Western
W. Kolanowski (
)
Faculty of Human Nutrition and Consumer Sciences, Warsaw
Agricultural University - SGGW,
ul. Nowoursynowska 159c,
PL-02-760 Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: kolanowski@sggw.waw.pl
Tel.: +48-225937071
Fax: +48-225937071
style diet, average fish intake is currently far below the rec-
ommended minimum of two fish servings a week, i.e. ap-
proximately 200.0 mg per day of long chain omega-3 PUFA
[1]. Alternative ways to ensure an optimal omega-3 PUFA
intake are needed. One of the possibilities is the enrichment
of food products with the various sources of omega-3
PUFA, especially of marine origin [24]. The purpose of
this paper is to present an overview on food enrichment with
fish oil to elevate long chain omega-3 PUFA in the average
diet.
Dietary recommendations suggest that the consumption
of omega-3 PUFA should be increased. There is a gap
between the actual consumption of oily fish and the
intake of omega-3 PUFA recommended by many expert
committees. The United Kingdom Department of Health
recommends intakes of 1.5 g of EPA plus DHA per week
(i.e. approximately 0.2 g per day), i.e. equivalent to two
servings of fatty fish, for healthty subjects [5]. Similarly,
the European Academy of Nutritional Sciences (EANS)
and Health Council of the Netherlands recommend intakes
of an average of 2 g of ALA and 0.2 g of EPA plus DHA
per day [6]. Recommendations of the International Society
for the Study of Fatty Acids and Lipids (ISSFAL) suggest
an adequate intake of omega-3 PUFA to be 0.65 g of DHA
plus EPA per day (minimum 0.22 g per day each) and 1.0 g
of ALA per day. The ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 in the
diet should be 4 to 1 [7]. Additionally, this recommendation
suggests a decrease of omega-6 linoleic acid intake to
6.67 g per day as upper limit. In the year 2000 FDA stated
that daily intake of EPA and DHA should not exceed 3.0 g
per person per day in the form of fish oil, from the food
and dietary supplements sources [8]. Currently, the amount
of omega-3 fatty acids in average diet in the countries of
so-called Western style diet is approximately 0.15 g per
day, which is far below recommended level [1, 9, 10].

G. Laufenberg Health effects of omega-3 PUFA

Institut fur Ernahrungs und Lebensmittelwissenschaften,
Universitat Bonn,
Romerstrae 164, PUFA of omega-6 and omega-3 families have important
D-53117 Bonn, Germany physiological functions. Both types are necessary for the

growth and development of the central nervous system and
retina, and proper functioning of the cardiovascular system
[11, 12]. An increased interest in the potential health effects
specifically of omega-3 fatty acids started in the 1970s. This
was initiated mainly by epidemiological findings of Bang,
Dyerberg and Nielsen, who discovered that Greenland
Eskimos have an extremely low incidence of CVD, despite
a traditional diet rich in fat, saturated fatty acids and choles-
terol. The phenomenon was explained by the high dietary
intake of very long chain omega-3 PUFA from fish and
other marine animals [13]. This finding stimulated world-
wide research on omega-3 PUFA and resulted in a large
number of epidemiological, animal and clinical studies in-
vestigating the potential beneficial role of omega-3 PUFA,
especially EPA and DHA intake [6, 12, 14]. The combined
results of these studies suggest that omega-3 PUFA may be
a beneficial factor in the prevention and treatment of many
diseases, i.e. CVD, certain types of cancer and diseases
with an immunoinflammatory component, and they also
play a role in the development and function of the brain.
However the health benefits of shorter chain ALA in
humans are not well established as it is in case of EPA and
DHA.
CVD are the main diet-related health problem in devel-
oped countries. During the last century CVD has grown
from a relatively minor disease worldwide to a leading
cause of morbidity and mortality. In Europe in the year 2000
CVD accounted for 50% of all deaths. This data clearly in-
dicates that CVD is a major public health problem in all
developed societies [15].
Most diseases of the cardiovascular system are the re-
sult of two main processes: atherosclerosis and thrombosis
[16]. There are 2 categories of risk factors associated with
CVD: risk factors with a strong genetic component and
environmental risk factors that, in general, may be influ-
enced by life style and the diet [16]. Dietary components
exert an influence on the risk of CVD through their effects
on blood cholesterol level, blood pressure, thrombogenic
mechanisms, body weight and insulin resistance [11, 16,
17]. In particular, epidemiological and intervention studies
have associated the consumption of omega-3 fatty acids
with a significant decrease on CVD risk [12, 1820].
PUFA of omega-3 series compete with omega-6 for the
same enzymes in the metabolic pathway and for their incor-
poration into the cell membrane, thus being precursors of
eicosanoids of lower activity (e.g. less pro-inflammatory),
than the ones derived from the omega-6 series. These
eicosanoids (prostaglandins, prostacyclins, tromboxanes
and leucotrienes) are biologically active substances, which
locally influence a wide range of functions in cells and
tissues, including inflammation, blood clotting, and blood
pressure. Therefore, the ratio in intake of omega-6 and
omega-3 fatty acids determines the types and amounts of
eicosanoids and influences the strength of the inflammatory
response [12, 19, 21, 22]. By modulation of eicosanoids
synthesis omega-3 PUFA exert an atheroprotective effect
decreasing blood clotting, blood pressure, arrhythmias, in-
flammation and improving plasma lipid profile [11, 12, 20,
23].
473
Intake of omega-3 PUFA in the diet may affect the blood
lipid profile. It was demonstrated that consumption of sig-
nificant amounts of fish or fish oil lowers blood triacyl-
glycerols concentrations both in the fasting state and after
a meal (postprandial lipaemic response) Blood levels of
triacylglycerols are independent risk factors for CVD, par-
ticularly when increased in individuals with low level of
HDL-cholesterol. Although several reports described how
omega-3 fatty acids may raise HDL-cholesterol levels, very
few studies described their effects on lowering levels of
LDL-cholesterol [20, 2427].
Arrhythmia of heart muscle is often a cause of a sudden
death. The omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acids ratio in the
phospholipids of heart muscle appears to be associated
with the risk of a sudden death. Modest intake of omega-3
PUFA could reduce the risk of primary cardiac arrest by
electrical stabilization of myocardial membranes reducing
susceptibility to ventricular arrhythmias and consequently
risk of sudden death [28, 29].
High blood pressure induces endothelial activation,
which provokes the expression of adhesion molecules in
endothelial cells and the infiltration of blood cells into the
arterial wall, contributing to atherosclerosis development.
There is evidence that omega-3 PUFA may stimulate ni-
tric oxide production, causing relaxation of smooth muscle
cells underlying endothelial cells and allowing blood ves-
sels to dilate resulting in reduction of blood pressure and
risk of CVD [6, 11, 30].
The number of various food products enriched with
omega-3 PUFA available on the market is increasing sub-
stantially, but the bioavailability and health effects derived
from regular consumption of those products still remain
to be tested. Bioavailability and physiological effects of
omega-3 fatty acids added to foods may differ depending
on the type and quantity of other nutrients present in the
food product. Several studies have been performed to eval-
uate potential health benefits of consumption of foods en-
riched with omega-3 fatty acids by fish oil addition. Some
studies show that different amounts of DHA and EPA given
in capsules or added to foods produce the same effects on
blood lipid reduction [31].
Enrichment of food products with fish oil
A substantial increase in daily intake of omega-3 PUFA
rich foods is needed in order to meet even the lowest
recommendations. In parallel to the increasing knowledge
about omega-3 PUFA, a number of omega-3 rich prod-
ucts have been introduced onto the market. Most of these
products are health supplements in the form of purified
fish oil in soft gelatine capsules, which are sold in food
stores, health stores and pharmacies all over the world. The
triacylglycerol structure of fish oils limits the content of
omega-3 PUFA (mostly EPA and DHA) in these fish oil
products to maximum 300.0 g kg1 . Higher concentrations
are only achieved by the separation of fatty acids from the
triacylglycerol structure. Methods of omega-3 PUFA con-
centration are: low-temperature crystallization, enzymatic
474
splitting, fractional and molecular distillation, chromato-
graphic methods, supercritical fluid extraction and urea
complexation. Omega-3 PUFA concentrates may be in the
form of free fatty acids, methyl and ethyl esters or acyl-
glycerols [32].
Another effective approach to increase intake of omega-3
fatty acids is the enrichment of frequently consumed foods
with purified fish oil. Modern food technology makes it pos-
sible to fortify various food products (e.g. bread, spreadable
fats, dairy products, pasta, ice-cream, milkshakes or instant
concentrates) in such a way that makes them indistinguish-
able from non-fortified foods. Such applications are not
easy because the addition of fish oil introduces stability
problems especially with regard to odour and taste to most
food products [33, 34]. One way to avoid these problems
is to add fish oil to short shelf-life food products. Another
way is to convert fish oil to powder by microencapsulation,
a technique that changes the form of fish oil from liquid
to powder and may stabilize the omega-3 PUFA. Use of
microencapsulated fish oil makes possible production of
enriched bread and infant formula.
Fish oil is often a by-product in fish meal production. Ox-
idation and hydrolysis during inappropriate conditions of
storage significantly and quickly reduce the quality of fish
oil. Another issue is that the fatty acids composition in gen-
eral and EPA and DHA amounts in particular, varies from
species to species of fish and by seasonal and geographical
parameters [12, 35]. To many consumers fish oil has an
unacceptable taste and odour. However, purification tech-
nologies have emerged that remove most of the unpleasant
fishy flavour. Purification consists of deacidification (neu-
tralization) removing the free fatty acids, bleaching remov-
Fig. 1 Production flow of food
grade fish oil
ing colour and oxidation products, deodorization removing
the fishy flavour, winterization and/or molecular distillation
increasing PUFA concentration, and finally addition of an-
tioxidants preventing oxidation. Using these methods a fish
oil product usually containing approximately 300 g kg1
EPA plus DHA appears as a light yellow clear oil with a
bland taste [35]. PUFA and especially highly unsaturated
EPA and DHA are very susceptible to oxidation. Since ox-
idation can cause rancidity and negatively impacts on sen-
sory properties such as taste and odour, fish oils are usually
stabilized with vitamin E and other natural antioxidants
[3, 34]. For food enrichment only unhydrogenated fish oil
should be used. Typical production flow of food grade fish
oil is presented at Fig. 1. The hydrogenation process may
improve stability and shelf life of fish oil but saturation of
double bounds eliminates the desirable health properties of
omega-3 PUFA [35, 36].
Sensory quality of fish oil-enriched food
Despite of desirable elevation of nutritional value food en-
richment with fish oil may negatively impact sensory prop-
erties of food due to unacceptable fishy flavour of added
fish oil. Currently there is available only a small number of
sensory evaluation studies on foods enriched with fish oil
addition. In these studies it was usually demontrated that
addition of fish oil resulted in a change of sensory properties
such as odour or taste of enriched foods. Observed changes
depended strongly on the level of fish oil addition [33, 34,
37]. However the level of enrichment should be such that it
does not affect the product acceptability and other sensory

Fig. 2 Estimated levels of
omega-3 EPA and DHA in the
diet and in the daily portion of
spread enriched with
30.0 g kg1 of fish oil [38]
properties. Depending on the type of enriched foods and
form of the used oil, the level range of food enrichment can
be from 1.0 to 60.0 g kg1 .
The most suitable to such enrichment seem to be food
products that are frequently consumed, and which are not
strongly heated, stored over long periods of time, or packed
without access to light and oxygen (vacuum or neutral
gas atmosphere packaging) The most negative influence
on shelf-life and sensory quality of fish oil-enriched foods
exerts an access to oxygen, which promotes oxidation and
deterioration of EPA and DHA and finally increase of un-
acceptable fishy flavour [34].
Spreadable fats are a good example of food products suit-
able for enrichment with EPA and DHA by fish oil addition
[38]. Results of one of the studies showed that pilot plant-
prepared, reduced-fat spread (fat content 450.0 g kg1 ) may
be enriched with omega-3s EPA plus DHA of up to about
10.0 g kg1 by addition of 30.0 g kg1 of purified and
stabilized food grade fish oil (containing ca. 300.0 g kg1
of EPA plus DHA) with no significant influence on sen-
sory acceptability [38]. Established enrichment level did
not significantly influenced sensory properties and chemi-
cal stability of the tested spread, compared to the control
spread (spread without fish oil) during 3 months of storage
(6 C, limited access to light and air), which is a suffi-
cient shelf-life for that kind of product. It can be concluded
that daily portion of such enriched spreadable fat (ca. 30.0 g
per day) may provide approximately 0.25 g EPA plus DHA,
that compared to recommendations is an nutritionally con-
siderable value (Fig. 2).
The market of fish oil-enriched food
The market of fish oil-enriched food products is still in
increase. Consumer demand for food products of elevated
nutritional value since 90th groves rapidly. There are sev-
eral examples of omega-3 fatty acids enriched foods present
on the market: meat and poultry products, bread and bak-
ery products, spreadable fats, eggs and egg products, milk
475
and dairy products, pasta, sauces, juices, soft drinks, in-
stant concentrates. Selected examples from world market
are shown in Table 1.
Presence of the omega-3 PUFA enriched foods on the
market and the promotion of their consumption may sig-
nificantly increase the level of omega-3 PUFA intake [19,
33]. Special target groups for omega-3 PUFA rich food are
infants and pregnant and lactating women as well as other
people who are interested in their health and well-being.
Generally every food product can be enriched with omega-
3 PUFA by fish oil addition [3, 19]. Currently good quality
fish oils are the most commonly used sources of long chain
omega-3 PUFA. Nowadays novel sources of omega-3 fatty
acids are investigated as fungi and algae of marine and fresh
water origin. Single cell oils (s.c.o.) like plankton algae or
fungal oils are already used in infant formulas and food
fortification in the USA, but are still regarded as a novelty
in Europe, where their use has not been accepted by the
relevant committees [3]. In the past years in UE some re-
search on use of small water animals and plants as source
of omega-3 PUFA were carried out.
Much efforts have been made to increase the omega-3
PUFA content of meat and eggs by use of animal feeds en-
riched with either fish meal or fish oil or with flaxseed
or rapeseed oil or algae. Such animal feed enrichment
increase ALA or EPA and DHA concentrations in an-
imal tissues, e.g. egg yolk or muscles of chicken, pork
or beef. Eggs enriched with omega-3 PUFA are currently
available on the market in many countries whole over the
world.
As first in UE in 1995, an omega-3 PUFA rich reduced
fat spread was introduced in the UK market. Other products
present on the European market are the omega-3 rich bread
and bakery products, milk and dairy products, spreads,
mayonnaise and eggs [3]. Omega-3 PUFA used for bread
baking are either liquid or microencapsulated fish or lin-
seed oils [39]. Fish oil can be blended into melted baking
fat or added in powder form (microencapsulated) to the
bakery mix [40].
476

Table 1 Examples of food Type of product Examples from the market

products enriched with fish oil
Bread and bakery products
Milk and dairy products
Spreadable fats
Eggs and egg products
Meat and poultry products
Juices and soft drinks
Nimble Heartbeat (British Bakeries, UK)
Nutribread (William Jackson Bakery, UK)
Omega bread, sponge cakes, biscuits (Functional Nutrition, UK)
Omega-3-bread and omega-3-rolls (VK Muhlen,Germany)
Diamant Vital omega-3 Kruste (Diamant Muhle, Germany)
Wellness Aktifit-Brot (Ruf Lebensmittelwerke, Germany)
Leva omega-3-bread (Pagen, Sweden)
F Plus fortified biscuits (Cuetara, Spain)
Omega bread (Piekarnia Parkowa Wroclaw, Poland),
TipTop Up sliced bread and muffins (TipTop bakeries, Australia)
Hi Q DHA bread (Bunge Defiance, Australia),
DHA-bread and DHA table rolls (Yamazaki Baking, Japan)
Omega-3 milk (Parmalat, USA)
Lactel omega-3 milk (Lactalis Besnier Bridel, France)
Mleko omega-3 UHT milk (SM Sudowa, Poland)
Lauki omega+ skim milk (Candia, Spain)
Especial omega-3 milk (Mimosa, Portugal)
Plus omega-3-latte and omega-3-yogurt (Parmalat, Italy)
Omi-3 yoghurt (SM Siedlce, Poland)
Omi-3 processed quark (OSM Ostroka, Poland)
Gaio Spread (MD foods, Scandinavia)
Omega fat spread (Fjordland, Norway)
Vitaquell omega-3 (Vitaquell, UK)
Heartwatch omega reduced fat spread (Functional Nutrition, UK)
Vigor Omega Vitta (Vigor, Brazil)
Dos Alamos Margarina (Grasco, Chile)
DHA Gold eggs (OmegaTech, USA)
Gold Circle Farms eggs (NutraSweet Kelco, USA)
Eggs Plus (Pilgrims Pride, USA)
Ovo3 eggs (Maia Agrolimentare, Italy)
Oro omega-3 eggs (Unione Cascine Valpadana, Italy)
Columbus eggs (Belovo, Netherlands)
Eiplus eggs (Eifrisch, Germany)
Minicol omega pasteurized eggs (Wammala Food, Finland)
Strasburg sausage (Hans, Australia)
Omega-3 Jamon Cocido cooked ham breast (Carnicas Serrano, Spain)
Terra y Mar turkey breast (Carnicas Serrano, Spain)
Omega cool burger (Pals, Norway)
Mega Off frozen chicken pieces enriched (Off Tene, Israel)
Tidal Wave Superfood Juice (Naked Juice CA, USA)
Supajus DHA rich orange drink (The Natural Fruit & Beverage Co.,
UK)
My way wellness drink (Designer Foods, Germany)
Timlic orange nectar (Bauman-Fruits, Switzerland)
Chikara Mizu soft drinks (Kirin Breweries, Japan)

At the forefront of developments in world market is the
enrichment of infant formulae with essential omega-6 and
omega-3 PUFA, especially DHA [41, 42]. The PUFA re-
quirements are in special interest in case of pre-term babies
formulae. The central nervous system grows rapidly in the
last trimester of pregnancy. Therefore the pediatric commit-
tees recommend use of omega-3 PUFA enriched formula,
especially for pre-term infant nutrition [12, 41, 42]. Omega-
3 DHA and EPA supplements in the form of gelatin cap-
sules have been introduced on the market in a wide variety.
Products of high concentration of DHA may be targeted at
pregnant and lactating women like Neutromins PL (Preg-
nant and Lactating) There are special recommendations for
pregnant and lactating women at least 0.30 g of DHA
per day [12]. Significant and positive changes in the fatty
acids in breast milk and the composition of plasma lipids of
nursing mothers following consumption of omega-3 PUFA
enriched foods were observed [43].

Conclusions
Enrichment of food products with long chain omega-3
PUFA by unhydrogenated fish oil addition may signifi-
cantly improve level and profile of PUFA in the diet and in
tissues of human body. However, because of high suscepti-
bility towards oxidation of fish oil, enriched food products
should be stored not over long periods of time, unless under
special storage conditions and in a special type of pack-
ing, eliminating all factors promoting oxidation of PUFA
especially access to air. Otherwise the desirable omega-3
PUFA may easily transform into toxic peroxides and other
by-products of lipid oxidation promoting cancer develop-
ment. It is expected that frequent consumption of properly
produced packed and stored foods enriched with omega-3
PUFA of marine origin may increase the amount of long
chain omega-3 PUFA in the diet, thus significantly im-
proving its nutritional quality, which may results in better
protection against CVD and many other so-called life-style
related diseases.
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