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Mechanism of Heat Transfer

to Fluidized Beds

H. S. Mickley and D. F. Fairbanks


Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts

I n order to determine the nature of the resistance controlling heat transfer between fluidized beds and surfaces in
contact with them, heat transfer measurements were made on the same solid constituents with several different fluidizing gases.
The heat transfer coefficients obtained with fluidized beds are found to be proportional to the square root of the thermal con-
ductivity of the quiescent beds. This result indicates that the process controlling fluidized heat transfer may be considered to
be an unsteady-state diffusion of heat into mobile elements of quiescent bed material.
This picture is analyzed mathematically to yield an equation for the heat transfer coefficient h = .\/ K~ pm c S wherein
the effects of the bed thermal properties are separated from the effects of the stirring factor S, which accounts for bed motion
and geometry. The mass transfer analogue is also derived and shown to correlate existing mass and heat transfer data reason-
ably well.
I t is concluded that the proposed mechanism yields a satisfactory picture of the fluidized heat transfer process and
may provide the beginnings of a rational approach to the correlation and prediction of fluidized heat transfer in engineering
work.

Heat transfer coefficients of up tumbling mixtures of solids and tions of all these individual con-
to 300 B.t.u.i(hr.1 (sq.ft.) (OF.) upward-moving gas-filled spaces. ductive and convective mechanisms.
have been reported(8) for fluid- Knowledge of the heat-transfer heat is transferred from the sur-
ized beds and surfaces in contact mechanism should be of consider- face and into the core of the bed.
with them; values in the range of able aid in the development of The difficulty with this mode of
40 to 120 B.t.u./ (hr.) (sq.ft.) ( O F . ) trustworthy design procedures f o r depicting the heat transfer process
a r e common. Such coefficients a r e these beds. is that while the picture is almost
many times higher than those nor- certainly correct, i t is so compli-
mally encountered with packed DEVELOPMENT OF A MODEL cated as to be quantitatively un-
beds or with flowing gases, and the As a first step in developing a manageable. The need f o r t h e crea-
resulting ease of heat transfer is picture of the mechanism of fluid- tion of a manageable model is the
one of the factors favoring the ized heat transfer, i t is to be noted justification for t h e following dis-
incorporation of fluidization into that a t any time in a fluidized sys- cussion.
industrial processes. Despite t h e tem which is in contact with a Bauer ( 2 ) found evidence that
many successful commercial appli- surface hotter or colder than the the dense phase of bubbling beds
cations of fluidization, the nature bed, transitory solid-solid, solid- retained a constant void fraction
of the heat-transfer process has surface, gas-solid, and gas-surface independent of superficial gas
remained obscure. The present in- contacts a r e all occurring, with in- velocity and t h a t this void fraction
vestigation represents an attempt terconduction of heat to be ex- was essentially that of quiescence.
to delineate the mechanism of heat pected from each such contact. The Furthermore, his data f o r uniform
transfer in bubbling beds, i.e., complicated, irregular motions of glass spheres indicate that the void
dense-phase, aggregative beds in solids and gas are constantly mak- fraction of quiescence was 0.41.
the absence of slugging or severe ing and destroying the individual This value may be compared with
channeling. Such beds a r e a type contacts, and these motions create the theoretical void fractions for
commonly desired for industrial the means f o r a convective trans- spheres packed in cubic and hexa-
applications and may be qualita- fer of heat via both media. By t h e gonal prism lattices: 0.475 and
tively described as inhomogeneous simultaneous and successive opera- 0.395, respectively. I n these two

Page 374 A.1.Ch.E. Journal September, 1955


theoretical lattice structures there the packet will commence upon transfer to packets of all ages plus
are, respectively, six and eight contact, and, if i t is assumed for that due to direct contact of gas
neighbors in direct contact with analytical purposes t h a t the packet bubbles at t h e surf ace. Neglecting
each sphere. It may be concluded, may be considered homogeneous, it the latter effect, which should gen-
theref ore, that a t least for uniform can be shown(4) that after being erally be small, results in the local
spheres the quiescent packing is in contact for a time T, the rate of coefficient expressed mathematical-
close enough t o allow each particle diffusion of heat into the packet is ly as the summation of the indi-
t o be in direct contact with nearly vidual contributions of packets of
eight neighbors. Each particle in all ages:
t i e dense phase of a fluidized bed
may be expected to be in contact dir
with several neighbors most of the
time, and with this the case i t does where
not seem unreasonable to assume
that the particles a r e locked loosely
together and do not usually move
q, is the instantaneous rate of
heat flow into the packet, B.t.u./hr. -- d K-
-
m-p m-C j r-12 $h (7) dr
in relation to one another. Of dlr 0

course, if the motion of the bed (3)


yA BED TEMPERATURE
TEMPERATURE If the term SL is defined as

(4)
Equation ( 3 ) may be succinctly
written as

Two important assumptions have


entered into this derivation, viz.,
(1) that relative motion of neigh-
Fig. 1 . Transfer of a packet t o a Fig. 2. Downflow of packets past a boring particles is rare, at least
heated surface. heated surface. near heater surfaces, and (2) that
the dense phase of the fluidized
creates localized temporary shear bed may for the present purpose
A , is the area of contact of the be considered homogeneous. Some
forces, separation or relative mo- packet with the surface, sq.ft.
tion of neighboring particles will justification has already been given
K, is the thermal conductivity of for the first assumption. The sec-
result. However, if a small group the packet B.t.u./ (hr.) (ft.) (OF.)
of neighboring particles is con- ond assumption will probably be
pm is the density of the packet, good if the average residence time
sidered, i t would appear that it
will be a fairly rare occurrence
.
lb. / cu.f t of the solid in contact with the
c is the heat capacity of the surface is long enough for a fair
for this group to be so ruptured. packet, B.t.u./ (Ib.) ( O F . )
It s e e m reasonable, therefore, t o portion of the heat transferred to
If the local instantaneous heat diffuse into layers of particles lying
create a picture of fluidization in transfer coefficient is represented
which small groups of particles beyond the layer touching the sur-
by hi, then face. Justification of the latter as-
are imagined to move as individual
units through the bed as the dense sumption requires experimental
phase is stirred. Such a small evidence, which will be offered at
group or assembly of particles will a later point.
be here termed a packet. Packets
are not permanent, but they may AVERAGE COEFFICIENTS
be accorded some finite persistence Generally one is more interested
in time. Their void fraction, dens- The observed local heat transfer in the average coefficient for an
ity, and heat capacity are those coefficient will be the time average entire surface than in the local co-
of the quiescent bed. The packet of all the local, instantaneous co- efficient a t a particular point on
thermal conductivity is that of the efficients occurring during a period that surface. The average coeffi-
bed when measured a t quiescent of time a t a particular locality on cient for an isothermal surface
packing density in t h e absence of the heater surface. At this location, will be the area mean of the local
any solid motion. let +(r) represent the frequency coefficients. Thus,
I n Figure 1 a packet is repre- of occurrence in time of packets
sented in the main body of the having age T; that is, over a long
bed. It is here a t bed temperature period of time, the fraction of the
T o . Suppose t h a t the stirring of total time during which the sur-
the dense phase sweeps this par- face is in contact with packets of A

ticular packet into contact with a ages ranging between T and T d T + where A represents the area of the
flat surface of temperature T I . Un- +
is ( 7 ) dr. The observed local aver- heat transfer surface. Combining
steady-state diffusion of heat into age coefficient will be due t o heat Equations (5) and ( 6 ) gives

Yol. 1, No. 3 A.1.Ch.E. Journal Page 375


1
h = 2-d x m pm c
fXL~A (7) lies an opportunity to test these
assumptions experimentally ; for
tor, changes of fluidizing gas would
cause variations of t h e coefficient
A beds that are dynamically equiva- directly proportional t o gas con-
lent, the observed coefficient should ductivity. Other possible controlling
By defining an area mean stirring vary as V K ~ If, ~ ~contrary
C . to mechanisms will give other char-
factor S as the assumptions made, the real acteristic behaviors, and from the
situation involves a gas film next experimental evidence t h e admissi-
to the wall a s the controlling fat- bility of the various mechanisms
may be tested.

IDEALIZED BED DYNAMICS


one may write the mean coefficient Before the experimental checks
in a form analogous to Equation of the effects of thermal proper-
(5), ties are discussed, it is useful t o
indicate the manner in which some
possible forms of bed motion might
be expected to affect heat transfer.
The motions which will be postu-
lated are undoubtedly too simple
VALUE OF THE MODEL to apply generally to actual fluid-
If Equations (3) and ( 5 ) a r e ized beds. It i s believed however
06 O B I 0 2 0 4 0 6 0 8010
examined, it will be noted t h a t OISTANCE FROM UPPER END OF HCATER, INCHES
that the idealized cases approxi-
they relate the heat transfer co- mate actual conditions under spe-
efficient to the product of two Fig. 3. Variation of the heat transfer cial circumstances and that their
terms. One of these terms, v ~ ~ ~coefficient
~ ~ ~ along c the
, vertical length study may aid in the development
is a function only of the thermal of a heater. Data of Marchetti and of qualitative ideas about t h e
Turner ( 6 ) ; wall heater; bed diame- events underlying observed heat
properties of the quiescent bed and ter: 2.75 in.; No. 11 glass beads,
is readily evaluated. The other D,,=0.0061 in.; superficial air veloc- transfer phenomena.
term, S,, offers more difficulty, for ity: 0.25 ft./sec.
it is a function of the packet-age Slug Flow of Solid Past the Surface
distribution, +(T), and little is I n a bed which is operating a t
known about how this distribution very low gas rates, just above
may be affected by t h e gross oper- quiescence, there is not very much
ating variables of the system: gas 300 turbulence. The solids move up in
velocity, particle diameter, heater t h e center and down a t the walls
size, etc. The relation between the (down also near other surfaces
two terms ST, and +(T) is as fol- $2
tc. such as those of vertical internal
lows. If solid is exchanged very $2 ZOO heaters). The flow is not smooth
rapidly a t the surface, + ( T ) will $
u29
z but is spasmodic owing to the in-
be very high for low values of 7 Fz: termittent passage of ascending
and negligible for higher ones.
c b 100
z5 gas bubbles near by in the core of
This will cause S , to be large. If L O
4
P
.
1 5
the bed. However, as one possible
solid is exchanged a t a slower rate, Zb model of this near-quiescent sys-
the average age of solid a t the sur- tem, the flow of solid downward
+
face will increase, ( 7 ) will be 0 past the wall might be assumed
greater for large values of T and 0 10 to JO 40 50 60 70
to be a t some uniform speed v. I n
LENGTH O f COOLER, (cw
consequently smaller for small Figure 2 , then, a t a distance L
values, and S L will be decreased. Fig. 4. Effect of cooler length on the
+ (7) represents t h e distribution heat transfer coefficient. Data of Van
from the leading edge of t h e heater,
the age of all packets is always
of ages among the packets at the
surface and is determined only by
Heerden, Nobel, and Van Krevelen
( 11 ) ; wall cooler; coke fluidized with
C = Llv, and at this position + (7) =

air a t V, = 0.42 ft./sec.


0 except for $ ( L / v ) which, assum-
the processes causing movement of ing the heater to be always in
solid across and to and from the contact with solid, is infinite to
surface. + ( T ) thus depends on t h e such an order that +(Llv)d.r= 1.
dynamics of the bed alone. S, de- The stirring term S L is then simple
pends on +(-c) and in addition, as to evaluate; viz.
will be shown below, on the nature BED TEMPERATURE
of the temperature or heat-flux dis-
tribution on the heater surface.
A t present i t is impossible to
evaluate the stirring term SI, from
the dynamic factors which deter-
mine it. However, the equations
developed are still useful, for,
granting the correctness of the as- Tt
sumptions underlying the analysis, and
the effect of the intrinsic thermal
properties of the bed has been Fig. 5. Downflow of packets past a
identified and isolated from dy- heater with superimposed side mix-
namic effects. In this fact there ing from main body of the bed.

Page 376 A.1.Ch.E. Journal September, 1955


Equation (11) indicates t h a t a is believed to be a more nearly cor- in Figure 4. They proposed that
heater in contact with such a near rect interpretation. with short heaters the solid ad-
quiescent bed- will have a heat Van Heerden et al. proposed a jacent to the wall was not heated
transfer coefficient which decreases mechanism involving not only un- significantly during its short con-
in the direction of the flow of solid steady state transfer but also tact time and t h a t the gas layer
along it. If there is a contributing steady state conduction through a intervening between wall and solid
film o r surface resistance, the r a t e gas layer next to the heater and controlled. For longer heaters the
of decrease will be lessened, but if through a packed solid layer pass- solid began to warm significantly
there is any degree of decrease in ing the wall. Each of these mech- and the combination of gas layer
the local coefficient a t progressively anisms controlled the heat transfer resistance and heat-diffusion re-
removed positions from the leading in turn as the solid progressed sistance in the solid controlled. For
edge, this is an indication t h a t downward. Their data are shown very long heaters, the coefficient
unsteady state diffusion of heat
into the flowing solids is an ap-
preciable factor in determining t h e
fluidized heat transfer coefficient. I I
Baerg, Klassen, and Gishler (1) I k I I

made a qualitative observation of GAS


COOLER
such a n effect occurring with an
internal heater at the center of a
fluidized bed, and they concluded
t h a t there was a t low gas rates a
downflow of solids past the heater,
Marchetti and Turner (6) made
GAS 1N THE SYSTEM
rough quantitative observations of
the leading-edge effect. Some of
their results are shown in Figure
3, where a line of slope -0.5 fits PPROX1MATE RANGE
their data fairly well. From their or BED L CVEL
data, and from the known thermal
properties of the solid, it is possi-
ble to estimate t h a t the rate of
solid flow v past the wall was about
1 ft./sec. This estimate is based
on a modification of Equation (7)
which is derived f o r constant-flux
rather than constant-temperature
heaters.
Equation (11) gives the heat-
transfer coefficient a t a point. The
mean coefficient for t h e heater will Fig. 6. Experimental fluidized system used in determining effects of
be the average of the local coeffi- gas properties on heat transfer.
cients :

where h is the length-mean coeffi-


cient f o r a surface of height L.
Dow and Jakob(3) have re-
ported coefficients between bed
walls and fluidized beds operated
a t low gas rates where an un-
broken flow of solid occurred down-
ward a t the wall. They found t h a t
the observed coefficients varied as
the -0.65 power of the depths of
these beds. Van Heerden, Nobel
and Van Krevelen (I1) observed
similar behavior when the length
of cooled wall was varied and the
0.08 0.10 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
bed depth kept constant. They con- ~

cluded that t h e effect determined GAS V E L O C I T Y , FT. PER SCC.

by Dow and Jakob was due to Fig. 7. Heat transfer t o microspheres. Bed dimensions :
heater length, not bed depth. This Figure 6 ; solid properties: Table 1.

Vol. 1, No. 3 A.1.Ch.E. Journal Page 377


factor S. For very short heaters of
the same order of size as the length
of the average pulse movement of
the solid flow, S should become
constant, giving a coefficient inde-
pendent of length. The effect found
with long heaters may be due t o
the fact that experimentally the
heater extended into the poorly
stirred solid which exists at t h e
bottom wall of most beds, or it
might be due to side mixing of
solid.

Side Mixing
Although slug flow of solid past
the surface may in some circum-
stances be the primary means by
which fresh solid is brought into
contact with a surface, there is
some evidence to indicate that with
large surfaces and highly turbu-
Fig. 8. Heat transfer t o glass beads. Bed dimensions: lent beds, sidewise transfer of solid
Figure 6 ; solid properties: Table 1. packets to the surfaces will have
a n important effect on the stirring
factor S.
This situation is pictured in
became controlled by the conduc- From these latter data i t wilI be Figure 5. Here, as before, the
tion of heat from t h e wall across seen that the principal resistance solid mass is flowing down past
the laminar layer of solid (now exists in the unsteady state dif- the surface, but as i t passes down-
the principal resistance) to the fusion of heat into the massed ward some of the solid a t the sur-
turbulent core of the bed. Although solid; independent effects of gas- face is exchanged with solid
this picture can certainly account and solid-layer conduction are brought in sideways from the core
for the heater-length effects found negligible. It is believed t h a t the of the bed. If s represents the
by these investigators, i t will be length effects found by Van Heer- average replacement of packets a t
shown that the data to be presented den et al. a r e due mainly to vari- the wall per unit time by means
here cannot be explained by it. ations attributable to the stirring of side mixing (i.e., if s = 0.01
sec.-I, during 1 see. solid covering
one hundreth of the heater area
will, on the average, be exchanged
by side mixing with fresh core
solid), it can be shown ( 4 ) that the
stirring factor S , is

XL= [ (
s 1 1 2 erf -
s-
f> , z )+
+( __

h:
exp (- (13)
p; 80
4
h When side mixing predominates
$ ( s L / v > > l ) , Equation (9) reduces
60 to
2
ee x, =s (14)

and from.Equation ( 5 )

0
.
0. 01 2 3 4 J 6 60.1 3 4 5 6 81.0 Equation (15) is believed to rep-
resent the usual condition where
SUPERF/C/AL A / R V E L O C l T Y , F T . PER SEC. transfer surfaces a r e large and the
vig. 9. Heat transfer from the heater probe t o a bed of microspheres. beds are turbulent. Values of S ,
Probe dimensions: Figure 10; solid properties: Table 1. (assumed to be s) obtained in the

Page 378 A.1.Ch.E. Journal September, 1955


TABLEl.-PROPERTIES O F SOLID MATERIALS an electrical heater will give local
No. 15 Micro- Microspheres (as received) coefficients 57% g r e a t e r t h a n would
glass spheres Not an isothermal heater. Equations
beads (as used) Dried Dried* (14) and (15), however, apply t o
Packed-bed density, lb./cu. ft.) both types of heaters when side
Loose packed 7 91.6 29.0 32.8 29.6 mixing predominates.
Dense packed 99.0 35.0 37.3 34.9 It is not expected that t h e equa-
Quiescent packing** 84.3 25.0 tions developed above can be used
Particle density, by water at present t o predict h e a t t r a n s f e r
displacement, lb/cu. ft. 153 137.7 120.3 136 with assurance. For this purpose
Total void fraction (including dependable means of predicting
internal voids) solid motion are needed. Experi-
Loose packed 0.401 0.789 0.726 0.782 mentally t h e equations m a y serve
Dense packed 0.353 0.749 0.690 0.743 this end by allowing determina-
Quiescent packing 0.449 0.818
tion of solid motion by means of
Extra-particle void fraction7 heat t r a n s f e r measurements. The
Dense packed 0.35 0.29
Quiescent packing 0.45 0.493 above-mentioned development was
carried out chiefly t o allow a quali-
True particle density, lb./cu. ft. 153 49.37 tative understanding of t h e mech-
Average particle diameter, in. 0.00325 0.0027 anism here proposed.
*Oven-driedat 220F. TEST OF THE 1VIECHANISM
?After being gently poured into container. Because solids motion cannot be
$After prolonged tapping of container. independently determined, it might
**Frompressure gradient in fluidized condition, extrapolated to qu:lescence.
BFrom analysis of thermal conductivity data. Assumed to include internal voids of appear impossible to test the pro-
individual particles as parts of the particles. posed mechanism. However, this is
only partly true. The tests that will
present experiments and believed be presented are based on the as-
sumption that if the heater-bed con-
t o represent a typical order of figuration is the same, the bed mo-
magnitude were about 4 and 10 tions characterizing S will be nearly
sec.-l f o r fluidization of the glass the same for a given solid when
beads and t h e microspheres re- fluidized a t the same gas rate, inde-
spectively. and f o r s+O Equation (16) can be pendent of the physical properties
It should be noted that all equa- shown to yield t h e analogue of (i.e., viscosity and density) of the
tions developed here are for con- Equation (lo), viz., gas. This assumption cannot be cata-
stant-temperature surfaces. If con- gorically proved; nevertheless, on the
stant-flux (electrically heated) sur- basis of it a remarkable consistency
faces a r e used, t h e constant l/vx s,112 =,-(v/L)
dT 112- 1.571
-(v/L)
can be shown t o exist among the
heat transfer measurements made, a
in Equation (2) becomes v\/7c/2 V.i. consistency that would be very un-
and a different definition of the usual if the assumption were not a
average coefficient is required. The
(17) reasonable one.
constant-flux analogue of Equation It can be seen that when laminar Granting that bed motion is nearly
(13) is flow past the surface predominates, independent of gas viscosity and
density, consideration of the equa-
tions developed in the last section
TABLE2.-MEASURED CONDUCTIVITIES OF BEDS shows that the heat transfer coeffi-
Estimated cient should vary a s the square root
Conductivity of quiescent of the packet conductivity (i.e., the
Gas conductivity dense bed, conductivity, conductivity of the quiescent bed) so
Interstitial gas B.t.u./(hr.) (ft.)( O F . ) B.t.u./(hr.) (ft.)("F.) B.t.u./(hr.) (ft.) ("F.) long as packet density and heat ca-
Solid: glass beads; bed density: 99.0 lb./cu. ft. pacity remain constant. Mechanisms
Air 0.0149 0.0895 0.0620 depending on a gas- or solid-film
0.0148 0.0938 0.0650 model would, on the other hand, yield
0.0149 0.0893 0.0619 variations of the coefficient directly
0.0149 0.0930 0.0645 with gas o r packet conductivitiei. F o r
0.0149 0.0923 0.0639 this reason, experiments were carried
Helium 0.0823 0.2188 0.1760 out in which heat transfer coefficients
0.0823 0.2295 0.1850
Methane 0.0188 0.1109 0.0783 were measured in beds of solids fluid-
Ammonia 0.0140 0.0867 0.0597 ized with several different gases. The
Argon 0.0101 0.0687 0.0462 conductivities of beds of these solids
Freon-12 @.00597 0.0484 0.0314 were also measured.
0.00594 0.0506 0.0328
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Solid: microspheres; bed density: 35.0 lb./cu. ft.
Air 0.0505 The bed in which heat transfer
0.0155 0.0328
0.0155 0.0515 0.0335 coefficients were measured is shown
Helium 0.0839 0.0989 0.0928 in Figure 6. The fluidization section
0.0840 0.0980 0.0921 was a 4-in. I.D. tube and the heater
Methane 0.0201 0.0570 0.0390 was a 6-in. section of %-in. stainless
Ammonia 0.0132 0.0476 0.0300 steel tubing. The heater was sup-
Argon 0.0104 0.0422 0.0254 ported coaxially in the bed by copper
The estimated conductivities of the solid particles used in fitting the data to the rods at either end. Heat was supplied
Schumann-Voss relation (Figure 12) were glass beads, 0.7 B.t.u./(hr.) (ft.)(OF.): micro- by passing current through the length
spheres, 0.106 B.t.u./(hr.)(ft.)('F.). These two conductivities were not measured of the tube wall, the heat output be-
directly and should be regarded as approximate. ing obtained from the measured cur-

Vol. l, No. 3 A.1.Ch.E. Journal Page 379


TABLEQ.-SUMMARY OF EFFECTSOF VARIABLESON THE STIRRINGFACTOR,
S r e n t and known resistance of t h e
Exponent Experimental values tube. Bed and heater temperatures
were measured thermoelectrically, t h e
Variable in Eq. (20) of exponents Reference heater thermocouple being inside the
Particle diameter, D , a1 -0.6, -1.2 1, 7 tube at the middle but electrically
Quiescent density, pn, a2 -1.1 Present insulated from it.
Gas viscosity, p,7 aa Small Present During operation, gas was re-
Widely different effects noted, cycled t o the bed through a totally
Gas velocity, V , a4
closed system which included a cool-
power function inadequate
ing section a n d calcium chloride drier.
Gas density, as -0.2 <a5 <0.2 Present Table 1 gives properties of the two
solid types. The quiescent velocities
Heater length. L a, -1.0
(:" )
- small to Present f o r these solids, as detected by t h e
onset of bed manometer fluctuation,
o(" large) were small compared with t h e fluidiz-
ing velocities used. Quiescent densi-
()(low V,),-l.O(V,>l.O ft./sec.) 7 ties of the fluidizing solids were esti-
Solids concentration, as a7
mated f r o m t h e solids concentrations
Other factors include: 1. Size and geometry of bed and heater obtained at very low gas velocities.
2. Type of heater, constant-temperarure, constant flux, or other These densities, which a r e given i n
3. Particle roughness Table 1, were, within experimental
4 Adsc. ption of vapors on particle surfaces precision, independent of t h e gas
used.
THERMOCWPLT The heat t r a n s f e r coefficients ob-
tained a r e shown in Figures 7 and
STAINLESS-STEFL TUBE
I8 G4(IcE, 0 L 5 C s ~ D
8. I n t h e obtaining of these coeffi-
GAS OUTLET'
cients t h e temperature difference be-
--4LUMlNUM TUBE
0929'1 D , I O O " O O
tween heater a n d bed was given by
bucking thermocouples. Fluctuations
of the temperature difference of up
POLYMETHHYL-M
CRYL4TE CONT4
M C M D BE0
t o %lo% were observed over short
intervals of time even though the
THERMOCOUPLE
"4 heating current was constant. Each
of t h e coefficients given i s based on
the average of about t h i r t y readings
of the temperature difference taken
over a period of 10 t o 15 min.
Some supplementary d a t a obtained
Rueem PLUS with a very small heater probe in-
serted various distances into the air-
microsphere bed a r e shown i n Figure
c 9. The probe ( F i g u r e 10) w a s a strip
HEATER L E A 0 of platinum ribbon %-in. long, 0.0'72
TO WATER JNL ET in. wide, 0.0010 in. thick, its r ? q j o r
Fig. 10. Isometric sketch of the Fig. 11. Apparatus f o r determina- surface being used i n a vertical plane
heater probe. tion of thermal conductivities of with t h e long dimension horizontal.
packed solids. The ribbon was heated by direct cur-
rent, and f r o m its resistance t h e
average temperature was obtained.
F r o m this temperature a n d the cur-
rent, coefficients were calculated, al-
lowance being made f o r conduction
losses at t h e ends and the variation
of temperature along the length of
the ribbon.
The conductivities of the packed
solids i n the presence of t h e various
gases were measured i n a cylindrical
a p p a r a t u s shown i n F i g u r e 11. Al-
though the conductivities of quiescent
packing were desired under t h e meas-
urement conditions, the solids were
dense packed. The correlations of
Schumann and V o s s ( 1 0 ) were used
to adjust the measured values f o r
the difference between these two
packings. Both the measured a n d the
adjusted values a r e given i n Table
2, and these d a t a a r e shown i n Fig-
ure 12, superimposed on t h e Schu-
mann-Voss correlation.

RESULTS
RATIO OF GAS CONDUC?IVITY TO S O L I D CONOUCT/VlTY 1. Probably the m o s t significant
Fig. 12. Conductivities of beds of packed solids. Measured conductivities are result a p p e a r s when t h e heat trans-
shown correlated with Schumann-Voss relation. Quiescent conductivities were f e r coefficients o b t a i n e d w i t h the
obtained from plot by allowing f o r change of void fraction. various gases are c o m p a r e d w i t h

Page 380 A.1.Ch.E. Journal September, 1955


the quiescent conductivities of the the deviations being easily at- tivity. If a gas film had been the
beds. This has been done in Fig- tributable to experimental error or controlling factor, the variation
ures 1 3 and 14, and it can be seen to small systematic effects of gas should have been as the first power
that for the most part the heat viscosity and density on the bed of gas conductivity, and, since,
transfer coefficient appears to vary dynamics. with the gas-solid systems em-
as the 0.52-0.55 power of the quies- The consistency of the data in ployed, quiescent bed conductivity
cent conductivity for a given solid these two figures constitutes major varied as about t h e 213 power of
and given gas velocity. The major evidence for the correctness of the gas conductivity (see Figure 12),
deviation from this rule occurs in proposed heat transfer mechanism. the slopes in Figures 1 3 and 14
the case of t h e coefficients obtained The effect of quiescent conductivity would have been approximately 1+
with the ammonia-microsphere sys- is very closely the square-root vari- 213 = 1.5.
tem, for which t h e coefficients are ation expected. If, on the othei- It is concluded that the packet
30 to 40% too high. This dis- hand, heat transfer had been con- mechanism is a reasonable picture
crepancy has a reasonable and re- trolled by conduction through a of the heat-transfer process in
vealing explanation, which will be laminar layer of solid, the expected fluidized beds.
discussed below. Except for this variation would have been as the 2. The measured coefficients
one case, the data are consistent, first power of quiescent conduc- varied only slightly with gas veloc-
ity. Such a lack of important in-
fluence of gas velocity has been
previously reported by some in-
vestigators. Others have found
variations ranging from nearly di-
rect to inverse. The reason f o r this
variety of results is not clear and
is certainly deserving of further
attention.
I n this respect i t should be noted
that the heat transfer coefficients
obtained with the small heater
probe (Figure 9) display a variety
of effects of gas velocity. The in-
terpretation of these probe data is
somewhat speculative, but they
seem to indicate that fluidization
a t the lowest velocities occurred
only a t the center of the bed, i.e.,
that there was bubble channeling.
As the gas velocity was increased,
fluidization quickly extended to the
rest of the bed. It is believed t h a t
the drop-off of the coefficients near
the center of the bed a t the higher
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.I 0.2 velocities resulted from the ten-
CONOUCTfVfTY OF QU/ESCENT BE0 dency of gas bubbles to congregate
8. T 0.PER(HR.)(FT)(%)
there, leaving the small probe fre-
Fig. 13. Microspheres: the heat t r a n s f e r coefficient as a function quently out of contact with solid
of quiescent-bed conductivity. material. Apparently in the vicinity
of vertical surfaces (the wall and
the central heater) the solid con-
centration remained high. It can
be concluded t h a t the bed was not,
in general, homogeneous, that solid
preferentially sought the vicinity
of large surfaces while the gas
bubbles crowded into the spaces
between and away from such sur-
faces.
That much higher coefficients
were obtained with the heater
probe is believed attributable to
t h e small size of the probe com-
pared with the central heater.
3. There was no noticeable inde-
pendent effect of solids concentra-
tion on heat transfer. In some
cases different gases gave signifi-
0.02 0.04 0.08 0 . 0 8 O J 0.2 cantly different solids concentra-
CONOUCT/Y/TY OF W I C S C C N T BCO tions at the same gas rate. These
8.7. U. PER (HR.)(F 7)(?.)
differences had no noticeable cor-
Fig. 14. Glass beads: t h e h e a t t r a n s f e r coefficient a s relation with heat transfer nor did
a function of quiescent-bed conductivity. they correlate systematically with

Vol. 1, No. 3 A.1.Ch.E. Journal Page 381


the viscosities and densities of the sphere system, for at lower gas with solid and that, more precisely,
gases. velocities, below 0.2 ft./sec., the the average fraction of t h e heated
coefficients obtained were only surface in contact with dense-phase
4. Increasing the gas pressure material is directly proportional to
from 1.0 to 1.3 atm. had no notice- about 30% too high. I n Figure 8 it
will be noted that for the ammonia the solids concentration. Meanwhile
able effect on heat transfer when
-glass bead system there is a the rate of formation of fresh area
the superficial velocity was main-
tained constant. similar drop-off of the coefficients of contact is independent of solids
a t low gas velocity. The glass beads concentration.
5. Comparison of the coefficients were nonporous and gave no gravi- Actually, this seems to be a rea-
obtained with microspheres with metric evidence of ammonia ad- sonable picture of a slugging bed,
those obtained with glass beads sorption; however, it appears like- but it is to be recognized that, a t
indicated that density, as charac- ly that some of the gas condensed the higher gas velocities, mech-
terized by quiescent density, had on the glass surfaces. Such con- anisms other than the one here
almost no effect on the heat trans- proposed may be important in de-
fer coefficient, i.e., that S varied densation has been found by other
investigators to cause bed particles termining the total resistance of
as the -1.1 power of quiescent the bed to heat transfer.
density, thereby nearly canceling to stick together and to increase
the effect of quiescent density indi- the probability of channeling.
cated by 3,,, in Equations (1) to Mass Transfer to Fluidized Beds
DISCUSSION
(15). This result would seem to Recently Van Heerden, Nobel,
indicate that lighter particles move Effect of Particle Size and Van Krevelen (11) investigated
faster a t equal fluidization veloci- The present investigation in- the transfer of naphthalene to
ties. cluded no direct determination of fluidized beds of coke and De-
6. The ammonia - microsphere t h e independent effect of particle varda's alloy. A ring of naphtha-
system behaved paradoxically. It size. Other investigators have uni- lene 6 cm. high was coated on the
has already been noted that with versally found t h a t with a given inner wall of the bed, and with air
this system the heat transfer co- bed and heater and the same gas blowing through t h e bed a t a su-
efficients were higher than ex- and solid type the heat transfer perficial velocity of 0.42 ft./sec.
pected. When ammonia was first coefficient increases as t h e average the mass-transfer coellicients were
introduced into the microsphere particle size diminishes. Mickley determined. It was noted that with
bed, a large heat evolution was and Trilling(7) found t h a t h both types of solid the value of the
noted, and i t was concluded that aDp-".'j, and Baerg et a l . ( l ) found coefficient declined rapidly with in-
adsorption of ammonia was occur- that h cc D,-0.3. The usual interpre- creasing temperature. The coke
ring on the porous microspheres. tation has been that the effect is bed, f o r instance, yielded a coeffi-
This conclusion was substantiated due to the reduction in thickness cient, k,, of 9.3 cm./sec. a t 5.loC.,
by the fact that the microspheres, of a gas film which offers appreci- whereas a t 33.0"C. k , was 1.45
which displayed a quiescent density able resistance to the conduction cm./sec. Heat transfer coefficients
with other gases before and after of heat between heater and solid were also determined to a heat
their fluidization with ammonia of particles. B u t the present work transfer ring, also 6 cm. high,
25.0 lb./cu.ft., had a quiescent shows t h a t no such appreciable gas- placed in the beds i n t h e same p1,ace
density of about 29.8 lb./cu.ft. in film resistance is present. as t h e naphthalene surface. The air
the presence of ammonia. Because, Here the alternative proposal la rate was the same as before (0.42
as stated in section 5 above, heat made t h a t the particle-size effect .
ft./sec.) It is illuminating to study
transfer is nearly independent of is one of bed motion, t h a t beds of these data in the light of the pic-
quiescent density, the increased smaller particles circulate fresh ture of t h e fluidization mechanism
weight of the particles could not solid to contacting walls more t h a t has been developed here and,
be the main source of the 30 to rapidly at a given gas velocity. I n especially, to determine what rela-
40% excess in the ammonin-micro- terms of Equations (1) to (16), lationship may exist between the
sphere coefficients. this means that the stirring fac- processes of mass and heat trans-
However, the heat capacity of tor S is a decreasing function of fer.
liquid ammonia is high, viz., 1.163 particle diameter. It will be assumed t h a t mass
B.t.u./ (lb.)
(OF.). The microspheres transfer occurs in a manner com-
themselves have a heat capacity of Effects of Solids Concentration pletely analogous to the mechanism
about 0.16 B.t.u./ (lb.) (OF.). As- As has been mentioned, no inde- already developed f o r heat trans-
suming that the adsorbed ammonia pendent effect of solids concentra- fer. On the basis of this assump-
behaves as the liquid, the saturated tion (the ratio of apparent bed tion, i t is easily shown t h a t the
microspheres would have a heat density to quiescent density) was mass transfer analogue of Equa-
capacity of noted in the present investigation. tion (1) is
[ (0.16) (25.0) +
1.163 (4.8)]/29.8 However, Mickley and Trilling, em-
= 0.32 B.t.u./ (Ib.) ( O F . ) ploying a higher range of gas
From Equation (15) it would velocities (1 to 6 ft./sec.), found
be expected that t h e saturated t h a t t2ie heat transfer coefficient
microspheres would display coeffi- varied as the 0.48 power of solids
cients higher by an amount equal concentration. This effect implies
to the ratio of the square roots of that S, t h e stirring factor, varies
the heat capacities. Since t h e ratio as the 0.96 power of solids con-
of the heat capacities is 0.3210.16 centration a t high gas velocities. where
= 2, and since vy= 1.41, a 40% in- One possible (but not a unique)
crease can be adequately explained. interpretation of this relationship N,, = rate of mass transfer, g.lsec.
This only explains in p a r t t h e mis- is that, when i t applies, the heated A , = area of transfer surface, sq.
behavior of the ammonia-micro- surface is only partially covered em.

Page 382 A.1.Ch.E. Journal September, 1955


D,a = diffusion coefficient of the estimated, with the aid of reference
transferring component 10, that K~ = 2.7 K~ =2.7 X 0.016 =
through the dense phase, sq. 0.043 B.t.u./ (hr.) (ft.) (OF.). T h e
cm./sec. heat capacity of coke is taken as
density of the dense phase, c = 0.223 B.t.u./ (lb.) ( O F . ) . The
g./cc. quiescent density is taken as 44.4
Cx = mass-capacity coefficient of lb./cu.ft. or 0.713 g./cc.
the adsorbent (see below f o r From Equation (9)
full definition), dimension-
less
age or time of contact of t h e
adsorbent packet with the s=-- h2
Km PmCC
(21)
surface, see.
y8= saturation concentration of Van Heerden et al. obtained a
the diffusing component in heat transfer coefficient with coke
t h e vapor phase when i n of 230 Joules/ (sq.meter) (C.)
equilibrium with the solid, (see.) or 40;25 B.t.u./(hr.) (sq.
g./cc. PARTIAL S A T U R A 7 I O N O ~THE A/*, y,/y, ft.) (OF.). By means of Equation
y, = concentration of t h e volatile (21) a value of S = 1.056 see.- is
material in the gas phase of Fig. 15. Adsorption isotherms for
naphthalene on coke and Devardas calculated.
the main body of t h e bed, Data a r e available f o r the dif-
g./cc. alloy. Data of Van Heerden, Nobel,
and Van Krevelen ( 1 1 ) . fusion coefficient of naphthalene i n
air, and if it is assumed t h a t t h e r e
The mass-capacity coefficient C,
needs fuller explanation. The mass is relatively little diffusion through
capacity, C M ys,/ is the analogue the coke particles, .a relation de-
of the heat capacity and represents 10 veloped by Maxwell(5) allows t h e
the m a s of additional adsorbate estimation of the over-all diffusion
which will be retained by unit mass coefficient of napthalene through a
fCU
of the adsorbent following a unit 8SEC bed of void fraction, E, =0.634.
increase in the concentration, ye, 1 This gives D,=0.535 D where
of adsorbate in the vapor phase; D is the diffusivity of naphthalene
that is, if a t constant, temperature into air with no obstruction pres-
N , represents the grams of ad- ent in the diffusion path. Substi-
sorbate retained on 1 g. of ad- _ _
OC
yr
cus
SECCY
tuting the necessary values into
sorbent, then Equation (20) (shifting t o c.g.s-
Fig. 16. Comparison of experimental system of units) gives
mass transfer coefficients with values
predicted from heat transfer coeffi-
dNA = ( s ) d y p (19) _______
d
cients. Data of Van Heerden, Nobel, ___ ~

and Van Krevelen (11). C M


k,= (0.535) D (0.713) -- (1.056)
Y.9

The value of C, can be deter-


mined from the adsorption iso-
therms of the components involved.
It should be noted t h a t C , is not
J...
~ 0 . 6 3 5--
!4 B
independent of the vapor concen-
tration, ye. For the present pur- Figure 16 shows this relation-
pose some value typical of the where k, is the average mass trans- ship plotted as a dashed line with
range of concentration from ye to f e r coefficient between bed and wall the data of Van Heerden et al.
ys is to be selected. Referring t o (cm./sec.) superimposed. The data for De-
Figure 15, which shows two ad- If reasonable values can be esti- vardas alloy were treated simi-
sorption isotherms for naphthalene mated for t h e mass transfer and larly and are also plotted.
and c o k e ( l l ) , the value of C, is thermal properties of the beds, it It is to be noted that notwith-
estimated from the slope of t h e should be possible to evaluate the standing the possible imprecision
dashed line as 0.000245 a t 3.5C. stirring term, S , from the meas- of some of t h e estimated bed prop-
and as 0.000274 a t 17.7C. From ured heat transfer coefficient and erties used i n t h e calculations, t h e
Figure 15 the value of C, for De- to use this value i n Equation (20) magnitude of the experimental
vardas alloy and naphthalene will to obtain t h e mass transfer co- mass-transfer coefficients is fairly
be taken as 0.0000202 at 0.7C. It efficient. The estimated mass well predicted. Perhaps even more
i s also to be noted that although transfer coefficients may then be significant is t h a t a decrease in t h e
Cy, the mass-capacity coefficient, is compared with those obtained ex- coefficient obtained with increas-
relatively insensitive t o tempera- perimentally by Van Heerden, ing temperature is predicted in
t u r e in the present case of physi- Nobel and Van Krevelen. f a i r accordance with t h e observed
cal adsorption, the mass-capacity Exact data are not available f o r behavior. It is concluded t h a t this
C,/?J, decreases markedly with in- the properties of quiescent coke or decrease in coefficient with increas-
creasing values of t h e saturation Devardas alloy, and some approxi- ing temperature is due to the in-
concentration, ys, and thus with mation is necessary. crease i n vapor pressure of the
increasing temperature. By use of t h e data of Dow and adsorbate and consequent reduc-
From Equation (18), by direct Jakob(3) f o r fluidized coke, the tion in the mass capacity of t h e
analogy to t h e development of quiescent void fraction is estimated adsorbent.
Equation (9) from Equation (11, as, E, = 0.634. Since coke is a rela- The ability to correlate mass
i t may be shown t h a t tively high-conductivity solid, it is and heat transfer seems t o offer

Vol. 1, No. 3 A.1.Ch.E. Journal Page 383


further confirmation for the pro- and t h a t the correlation of S with S L = local stirring factor = 1 I n
posed transfer mechanism. operating variables and the char-
acteristics of t h e solids be made.
(s T-:+ ( T) d ~ (hr.-I)
)
CONCLUSION It should be noted that if trust- s = f;action of heater-surface
worthy data are available f o r a area contacted by fresh pac-
The results of the present in- kets from the main body of
vestigation indicate that the princi- bed-heater system fluidized with
one gas, the present findings make the bed per unit time, sq.ft.1
pal resistance to the transfer of (hr.) sq.ft.
heat or mass from surfaces to possible the prediction with f a i r
reliability of coefficients with an- T = temperature, O F .
dense fluidized beds exists in t h e t =time, hr.
layers of solid particles nearest other gas.
However, until heat transfer V , = superficial fluidizing-gas ve-
the surface. The rate of transfer locity, ft./sec.
appears to be controlled by the data more comprehensive than
those presently available appear, v = average downward velocity of
unsteady state diffusion of heat or solid past a vertical surface,
mass into this layer and by t h e the use of stirring-factor correla-
tions based on such data must be ft./ hr.
rate of replacement of parts of ye = concentration of component in
this layer with solid from the bed treated with caution when applied
t o uninvestigated ranges of the gas-phase, g./cc.
core. There is no evidence of a ys = concentration of component in
steady state film of gas or solid many variables.
gas phase in equilibrium with
offering significant resistance. NOTATION adsorbent, g./cc.
The functional relationship of u8 = solids concentration, ratio of
the heat-transfer coefficient to A = area of heat transfer surface,
sq.ft. bed density to quiescent den-
other bed properties is adequately sity
comprehended by equations of t h e A , = area of packet in contact with
heat transfer surface, sq.ft. E, = void fraction of quiescent bed
form K~ =thermal conductivity of fluidiz-
ul-aT = exponents in Equation (23)
C, = mass-capacity coefficient of ing gas, B.t.u./ (hr.) (OF.)
solid adsorbent, dimension- (ft.)
less K~ = thermal conductivity of quies-

c = heat capacity of fluidized cent bed, B.t.u./ (hr.) (OF.)


where S, the stirring factor, ac- solid, B.t.u./ (lb.)( O F . ) (ft.)
counts f o r the type and degree of D = diffusion coefficient of trans- p, =viscosity of fluidizing gas,
bed motion and also may be af- ferring component through centipoises
fected by the type, size, and posi- p, = density of fluidizing gas, lb.1
fluidizing gas, sq.cm.lsec.
tion of the heat source. At the cu.ft.
D, = diffusion coefficient of trans- ,,p, = density of quiescent solid, lb./
present time too little is known ferring component through
about bed motion in t h e vicinity of cu.ft.
fluidized solid-gas mixture, T = packet age, i.e., time during
surfaces to relate S analytically to sq.cm./sec.
the parameters suspected of de- which packet has been in con-
D , = average diameter of the fluid- tact with surface, hr.
termining bed motion. It is be-
ized particles, f t . +(T) = frequency of occurrence, a t
lieved to be a function of many
variables ; thus erf = error function a point on the heater surface,
e x p = exponential function of packets of age 2, hr.-l
x = 3.14159
s = 41 (Dmpm, pg) Vm PO, 11,a s , h = coefficient of heat transfer
9 (x)= function of 2
from surface to bed (time
and others) (22) and local-area average) , B.t.u. LITERATURE CITED
/ (hr.) (sq.ft.) (OF.) 1. Baerg, A., J. Klassen, and P. E.
Some of the functional varia- = instantaneous heat transfer Gishler, Can. J. Research, 28F,
tions have been determined both coefficient, B.t.u.1 (hr.) (sq.ft.) 287 (1950).
here and by other investigators. 2. Bauer, W. C., Sc.D. thesis, Mass.
Thus if the foregoing equation
(OF.) Inst. Technol. (1949).
could be represented as a product h, = local time-average heat trans- 3. Dow, W. M., and M. Jakob, Chem.
of powers of the factors, i.e., f e r coefficient, B.t.u.1 (hr.) Eng. Progr., 47, 637 (1951).
(sq.ft.) (OF.) 4. Fairbanks, D. F., Sc.D. thesis,
kg = coefficient of mass transfer Mass. Inst. Technol. (1953).
from surface to bed (time 5. Jakob, M, Heat Transfer, p. 85,
and local-area average), cm./ John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
a7 York (1949).
as 42 (otherfactors) (23) sec. 6. Marchetti, E. J., and R. A. Tur-
L = length of heater from upper ner, S.B. thesis, Mass. Inst. Tech-
the values for the exponents t h a t edge, f t . nol. (1951).
have been mentioned in the present N A =amount of component ad- 7 . Mickley, H. S., and C. A. Trilling,
paper a r e summarized in Table 3. sorbed per unit of adsorbent, Znd. Eng. Chem., 41. 1135 (1949).
More work on the mechanics of 8. Nicholson, E. W., J. E. Moise,
g./g. and R. L. Hardy, Znd. Eng. Chem.,
fluidized beds is needed if i t is to N , = instantaneous mass transfer 40, 2033 (1948).
be possible to predict heat trans- rate between bed and surface, 9. Pratt, S. L., Jr., and R. L. Rich-
f e r coeffcients adequately. It is g./sec. ards, Jr., S. M. thesis, Mass. Inst.
recommended that data be reduced Technol. (1951).
q , = instantaneous heat transfer
t o the form rate between bed and surface, 10. Schumann, T. E. W., and V. Voss,
B.t.u./hr. Fuel, 13, 249 (1934).
11. Van Heerden, C., P. Nobel, and
S = area-mean stirring factor, D. W. Van Krevelen, Znd. Eng.
hr.-1 Chem., 45, 1237 (1953).

Page 384 A.1.Ch.E. Journal September, 1955

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