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Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566

Corrosion analysis of bulk carriers,


Part I: operational parameters inuencing
corrosion rates
C.P. Gardiner*, R.E. Melchers
Department of Civil, Surveying and Environmental Engineering, The University of Newcastle,
NSW 2308, Australia

Abstract

This paper considers the physical processes of corrosion that occur in bulk carriers. Three
main types of corrosive environments are identied within a bulk carrier, namely, immersion
in seawater, exposure to an enclosed atmosphere, and exposure to porous media.
Fundamental variables inuencing corrosion in each environment of the cargo hold region,
ballast tanks and void spaces are identied. These serve to identify operational parameters
that aect bulk carrier corrosion. It is proposed that such parameters can be used to obtain
corrosion rate databases representative of vessel operation. r 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All
rights reserved.

Keywords: Bulk carrier; Ship; Corrosion; Coal; Iron ore; Life-assessment

1. Introduction

Bulk carriers are used to transport coal, iron ore, grain and other bulk cargoes.
During the period 199097 inclusive, 25 bulk carriers foundered or sank with an
average age of 20.4 yr. Subsequently, several research programs have identied
corrosion and fatigue as weakening the structures of aged bulk carriers [13]. In
addition to a high proportion of structural failures occurring on older vessels, the

*Corresponding author. Present address: Defence Science and Technology Organization (DSTO),
P.O. Box 4331, Melbourne, Victoria 3001, Australia. Tel.: +61-03-9626-8442; fax: 61-03-9626-8409.
E-mail address: craig.gardiner@dsto.defence.gov.au (C.P. Gardiner).

0951-8339/03/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 5 1 - 8 3 3 9 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 2 6 - 0
548 C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566

average age of the worldwide bulk carrier eet has itself increased dramatically in the
last two decades, from 8 yr in 1980 to 14 yr in 1997 [4].
Partly as a result of the continued tendency for structural failures to occur on
older vessels and partly as a result of the aging worldwide eet, the remaining life
assessment of bulk carriers has assumed greater interest in recent years. Remaining
life assessment constitutes a specic area of structural engineering involving a
probabilistic assessment of future loading patterns and future structural resistance
[5]. Structural resistance means the capability of a structure to withstand, or resist,
a loading pattern. As implied, it is time-dependent. This is due to the eect of
deterioration caused by fatigue and/or corrosion. It is useful in practice to be able to
predict when, where, and to what extent, both fatigue and corrosion will aect the
structural integrity of a vessel at future times.
A reasonable understanding of fatigue and its inuence on ship structural integrity
has been documented [6]. However, a comparable understanding of the eects of
corrosion is still developing. In the case of mild steel exposed to seawater a summary
of early experimental data and a description of the main inuencing variables are
given by Schumacher [7]. An updated review is presented by Melchers [8].
Subsequently, further understanding of the relevant processes has been developed
and a non-linear model proposed to represent the behaviour [9,10]. In summary, the
main factors inuencing the progress of corrosion of mild steel in seawater are;
salinity, pH, water temperature, dissolved oxygen content, water velocity, sulphide
pollution and bio-fouling. Corrosion in ship structures also proceeds in the presence
of both open and enclosed atmospheric environment [11]. A state-of-the-art review
of atmospheric corrosion research is given by Strekalov [12]. The main inuencing
variables are; salt deposition, time of wetness (relative humidity) and temperature.
Viner and Tozer [13] describe the main types of corrosion, which can occur in ship
structures. A general analysis of ship corrosion and estimates of corrosion rates for
various types of ships was also presented by Yanamoto et al. [14] and Ohyagi [15].
Viner and Tozer [13] concluded that corrosion in ships is inuenced mainly by the
following factors; salinity of seawater, temperature, marine fouling, pollution,
corrosion lms, speed of ow, stray-current, frequency of tank washing, humidity
and oxygen availability, cargo type, cargo residues and mechanical abrasion.
Evidently, this is a formidable array of factors.
Extensive studies of corrosion in tankers have been presented by Pollard [16] and
the Tanker Structure Co-operative Forum [17,18]. These studies, and that by Loseth
et al. [19], also provide estimates of tanker corrosion rates. More recently similar
empirical studies have been published for bulk carriers. Yanamoto and Ikegami [20]
proposed a simple empirical and probabilistic model for estimating the corrosion
rates of corrugated bulkheads and bulkhead stools in bulk carriers. The model
considers a non-linear variation of corrosion with time. It is based on a limited set of
data. A similar approach was taken by Paik et al. [21] for estimating corrosion rates
of the longitudinal strength members of bulk carriers. Corrosion rates were assumed
to be constant with time, although the model was formulated to account for possible
non-linear progress of corrosion. Paik et al. [21] also discussed factors which
inuence corrosion in bulk carriers, namely; types of cargo and time in ballast,
C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566 549

corrosion protection eectiveness, component location and orientation, ability to


collect/trap seawater, level of oxygen, temperature, and the degree of local exibility.
Finally, a simple non-linear model of corrosion was proposed by Guedes Soares and
Garbatov [22] and illustrated for the tank top plating and side shells of bulk carriers.
Each of the three bulk carrier corrosion studies noted above used multiple stages
to model the progress of corrosion of with time. Yanamoto and Ikegami [20] used
three stages to model pitting corrosion: (i) wear of a pristine paint coating, (ii)
initiation of corrosion, and (iii) corrosion of exposed steel. Refs. [21,22] considered
stages (i) and (iii) to model the progress of general corrosion. However, each study
[2022] diered in the interpretation and representation of each stage.
The ability of each model to represent corrosion progress in a bulk carrier is
determined by several factors, including, (a) how well the underlying model
represents physical phenomena, (b) how well the model can represent the uncertainty
of parameters inuencing the physical phenomena, and (c) the quality of the data
used to determine the empirical model parameters. All models considered the rst
point in varying degrees. Point (b) is not considered directly by any of the models.
Finally, some interesting observations may be made with respect to point (c), as is
now discussed.
Yanamoto and Ikegami [20] used a database of thickness measurements consisting
of 51 survey records from 27 vessels and 7581 data points from bulkhead and lower
stool plating to evaluate in the model. Each vessel was constructed by dierent
builders and put into service after 1986, and presumably, operated on dierent trade
routes. Statistics of annual corrosion rates calculated from the database for each
plating in cargo and ballast holds were characterised by a high coecient of
variation (COV), ranging from 0.510.74. Paik et al. [21] considered all longitudinal
strength members from a database consisting of 7503 data points from 44
bulk carriers. This data was also characterised by a high variability of corrosion
rates. The minimum COV for mean corrosion rates for the 25 and 15 yr data was
0.64 and 0.63, respectively. The COV for most structural members was found to be
greater than 1.0.
All models are based on reasonable assumptions about the progress of corrosion,
and are therefore likely to be useful for corrosion prediction purposes. However,
due to the high variability of corrosion rates associated with each database, it is
questionable whether the empirical model parameters determined can be used to
make tight estimates of corrosion rates for a given bulk carrier. In this regard, it may
be necessary to develop more rened databases of survey thickness data with clearer
discrimination of the operational and other parameters that inuence bulk carrier
corrosion rates. Currently, the parameters have not been clearly identied in the
literature and have been the subject of recent research [23]. This paper identies the
corrosion environments occurring in bulk carriers. In turn, related corrosion
processes are analysed and fundamental physical variables are identied. From this
information, operational parameters inuencing corrosion in bulk carriers are
determined. This then leads to a more comprehensive method for predicting
corrosion in the cargo hold region. It will be presented in the second part of this
study [24].
550 C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566

2. Corrosion and bulk carrier operation

2.1. Corrosion basics

Most metals are thermodynamically unstable in the natural environment and have
a tendency to revert to their natural ore. This instability is the driving force for
corrosion. Corrosion is an electrochemical process and consists of two partial
reactions; the anodic reaction where the metal is oxidised and metal ions and free
electrons are transferred into solution (Eq. (1)), and the cathodic reaction (Eqs. (2)
or (3)) where the electrons are reduced by an electron acceptor [25]. A medium for
the electrochemical reactions is provided by an electrically conductive uid, for
example, water.
H2 O
Fe ) Fe2 2e ; 1

O2 2H2 O 4e ) 4OH ; 2

2H 2e ) H2 : 3
Eq. (2) is the most common cathodic reaction associated with corrosion in bulk
carriers as it dominates when pH is greater than approximately 5 [25]. Moisture must
be present to facilitate the transfer of metal ions (Eq. (1)) and as a reactive
compound in the cathodic reaction (Eqs. (2) or (3)).
The rate of corrosion of mild steel is dependent on the rate of each partial
reaction. An electrochemical reaction involves the transfer of electric charge and the
deposition or dissolution of a mass of reacting substance [26]. A reaction is said to be
under activation control when the overall rate is dependent on the rate of charge
transfer. Alternatively, when the rate of reaction is dependent on the rate of mass
transfer, the reaction is said to be under concentration control.
The extent of activation control is a function of temperature and the constituents
of a reaction, that is, type of metal in an anodic reaction and type of oxidant in
a cathodic reaction. Concentration control is dependent on the rate at which the
product is transported away from an electrode. In terms of corrosion, the electrode
is the corroding surface, the reactant is the oxidant of the cathodic reaction, and
the product is the result of the anodic reaction. Therefore, a knowledge of the type of
metal being corroded, temperature, and conditions of a corroding environment that
can aect the rate of transport of oxidant and ionised metal, towards and away from
a corroding surface respectively, is required to obtain a mechanistic understanding of
a corrosion condition.
Corrosion may proceed uniformly across a surface (uniform corrosion) or at
localised sites (e.g., pitting corrosion). The former is also known as general
corrosion. This is considered a more appropriate term because, in the limit, a
corroding steel surface is not completely uniform. General corrosion of bulk carrier
surfaces is considered in this study. This is the most widespread form of corrosion
occurring on bulk carriers. It is associated with the average thickness loss of a
structural component and hence the overall loss of structural resistance.
C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566 551

As mentioned, corrosion of bulk carrier structural members usually occurs in the


presence of a non-acidic electrolyte. In this environment, and in the absence of
external abrasion, the hydroxides produced by the corrosion reaction remain
attached to the corroding surface. This has an inuence on the progress of corrosion
with time. The corrosion product layer restricts the access of oxygen to the corroding
surface, thereby polarising the cathodic reaction (Eq. (2)) and decreasing the
corrosion rate. The corrosion rate may continue to decrease with time, provided the
corrosion product layer continues to restrict the supply of oxygen. This will occur if
the corrosion product layer becomes thicker, attains a higher density or attains a
lower porosity over time. Corrosion rates of mild steel undergoing atmospheric,
underground or immersion exposure can, and usually do, vary with time [25]. This is
either due to the development of a corrosion product layer or due to a change of
exposure conditions. Hence, bulk carrier corrosion rates can be non-linear over time
due to the development of a corrosion product layer, or, due to changes in the
operational prole of a vessel.

2.2. Characteristic patterns of corrosion

The internal structure of a bulk carrier is exposed to a range of corrosive


environments. The existence and also the inuence of each environment do not
remain constant throughout the normal operation of a bulk carrier. As a result,
patterns of corrosion that are characteristics to each space (cargo hold, ballast tank
or void space) become evident. In most cases this also extends to structural
components within each space. Some patterns of corrosion that have been found to
commonly occur in bulk carriers, based on ship inspections and analysis of survey
thickness data, are now described.

2.2.1. Cargo hold


2.2.1.1. Tank top plating. The tank top plating forms the inner plating of the double
bottom structure (Fig. 1). Its upper-surface denes the bottom of the cargo hold and
is usually uncoated. The under-surface forms the top of the duct keel space or double
bottom ballast tank and is coated. A uniformly corroded surface is usually observed
on the upper-surface. Due to abrasion from coal or iron ore or other cargo and
impact from unloading gear, it is characterised by dishing of the plating between
stieners, the absence of a protective coating, and an absence of corrosion products.
It follows that corrosion of the tank top plating proceeds without the possible
protective eect of a corrosion product layer and may be expected to remain
constant with time. The latter point is conditional on the vessel operation remaining
reasonably consistent with time.
Localised indentation of tank top plating, in addition to plate dishing, is also a
common occurrence. This does not appear to have any aect on the rate of corrosion
on the upper-surface (in the cargo hold), however it does lead to the breakdown of
protective coating on the under-surface (duct keel and double-bottom ballast tanks).
The corrosion product forming at areas of coating breakdown in the duct keel was
observed to have a clean, powdery composition. This type of corrosion product has
552 C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566

Hatchcover Topside Ballast Tank

Upper Stool
Sideshell
Cargo Hold

Tank Top Plating

Double Bottom
Duct Keel Ballast Tank
Fig. 1. Schemcatic diagram of bulk carrier cross-section.

also been observed on downwards-facing surfaces in semi-enclosed and open marine


atmospheric exposure sites [27,28]. Panchenko and Strekalov [27] found that the rust
layer oered minimal protection and that the corrosion rate remained constant with
time. Moreover, such indentations causing coating breakdown are caused by
excessive impacts from cargo grabs. Therefore, the incidence of coating breakdown
on the under-surface of tank top plating is related to the frequency of cargo changes.

2.2.1.2. Lower stools. The lower bulkhead stools and lower side stools are typically
uncoated. When coatings are used they usually have a short lifetime. Based on a
sample of thickness measurements from 27 bulk carriers, Yanamoto [29] calculated
the mean coating lifetime on bulkhead stools to be 2.05 yr. Observations undertaken
for this study showed corrosion to be uniformly distributed although the surface
condition was considerably dierent to that of the tank top plating. A thick
corrosion product layer and fewer indentations were observed on all lower stools.
Evidently, less mechanical abrasion and damage from cargo impact, grab and
bulldozer operations occurs on the lower stools compared to the adjacent tank top
plating.
Characterisation of the corrosive environment was also developed by analysing
samples of corrosion product. Crystal structures of a sample of corrosion product
taken from a lower side stool were determined using X-ray powder diraction. The
main constituents were ferrous hydroxides (Fe3O4 and a-Fe2O3), oxyhydroxides
(a-FeOOH, b-FeOOH, g-FeOOH and d-FeOOH), and an iron hydrogen sulphate
compound (Fe2(SO4)H2SO42H2O). The detection of magnetite (Fe3O4) was
conrmed by visual observation. It was observed in the inner layer of the corrosion
product, adjacent to the steel. Magnetite is commonly formed in the oxygen-reduced
zone of the corrosion product layer [30]. It follows that the supply of oxygen to the
C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566 553

lower side stool is reduced and the corrosion rate will decrease with time, as the
magnetite layer becomes thicker and less porous.
Detection of the akaganeite form of oxyhydroxide (b-FeOOH) conrms the
presence of chloride anions in the corrosive environment [31]. Further conrmation
was obtained by measuring the soluble chloride concentration of a sample taken
from the same location using ion chromatography. A concentration of 121 ppm (part
per million) was obtained. This is expected as coal cargoes contain chlorine and the
surfaces are sometimes washed with seawater between cargoes. Similarly, the iron
sulphate compound indicates the presence of sulphate anions, most likely from the
same sources.
Average corrosion rates deduced by Paik et al. [21], for bulk carriers up to the age
of 15 yr were approximately equal to and in some cases slightly higher than from
bulk carriers up to the age of 25 yr. This was attributed to the fact that members are
often replaced after about 15 yr. In addition to this, another eect appears to be
evident. For example, the average corrosion rate deduced for bulk carriers up to the
age of 15 yr, for tank top plating is 0.14 mm/yr. The corresponding rate for the lower
stools was 0.13 mm/yr. Based on data for ships up to the age of 25 yr, the rate of
corrosion of tank top plating was 0.13 mm/yr, and for lower stools, 0.08 mm/yr. The
decrease in average corrosion rate over time for lower stools is consistent with the
presence of magnetite in the corrosion product layer-a corrosion product layer is not
formed on the tank top plating.

2.2.1.3. Corrugated bulkhead plating. Regulations administered by the International


Association of Classication Societies [32] require protective coatings to be used on
corrugated bulkhead plating. Compilation of available survey thickness measure-
ments indicates that the transverse distribution of corrosion for a given bulkhead is
reasonably constant. However, it was apparent that there is a distinct variation of
corrosion rate with vertical position on a bulkhead. Average corrosion rates
calculated for the lower, mid and upper areas of four cape-size vessels are shown in
Figs. 2(ad). The lower corrugated bulkhead plating is consistently more corroded
than plating in the mid and upper regions. In contrast, data from two vessels
operated as tramp ships showed a reasonably consistent vertical distribution of
corrosion on the corrugated bulkhead plating (Figs. 3(a) and (b)). It is believed that
these patterns may be due to one, or both, of the following causes:

(1) iron ore is loaded just above the top of the lower stools in line with the lower
bulkhead plating (and lower sideshell bracket connections).
(2) the incidence of mechanical damage is likely to be higher in the lower region of
a cargo hold.

The signicance of the iron ore cargo line is related to the occurrence of increased
wear and corrosion up to and below this level. As stated, this includes the lower
section of corrugated bulkhead plating. A likely reason for the eect not being
observed on the tramp vessels is the typically longer voyage times. Longer voyages
with coal cargo, which is usually more corrosive than iron ore cargo, decrease the
554 C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566

1.6 Mid
2.4
Lower
1.4 Mid
2.0 Lower
1.2
1.6

Diminution (%)
Diminution (%)

1.0
0.8 1.2
0.6
0.8
0.4
0.2 0.4
0.0
0.0
-0.2
50 100 150 200 250 300 50 100 150 200 250 300
(a) Aft Frame Number Forward (b) Aft Frame Number Forward

9.0 Upper 18.0


Upper
Mid
8.0 16.0 Mid
Lower
7.0 14.0 Lower
6.0 12.0
Diminution (%)
Diminution (%)

5.0 10.0
4.0 8.0
3.0 6.0
2.0 4.0
1.0 2.0
0.0 0.0
90 120 150 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
(c) Aft Frame Number Forward (d) Aft Frame Number Forward

Fig. 2. (a)(d) Average corrosion of corrugated bulkhead plating.

eect because coal is loaded to the top of the cargo hold, thus exposing all regions to
the same condition.
It should be noted that the protective coating on the corrugated bulkhead plating
is not usually cleaned thoroughly after unloading coal cargo. Coal dust may remain
on the surface as a result. The aggressiveness of coal dust particles for corrosion has
been demonstrated by Askey et al. [33].

2.2.1.4. Sideshell framesFcorrosion rate. The sideshell frames support the sideshell
plating between the upper and lower ballast tanks (Fig. 1). They consist of a lower
bracket connection, mid frame region, and upper bracket connection (Fig. 4). Each
component of a sideshell frame is fully coated. Field observations for this study
indicate that the protective paint coating applied to the lower bracket connection
wears much more quickly than on other components. The mid and upper regions of
sideshell frames do not come into contact with iron ore cargo, regardless of the
loading condition. In contrast, the lower bracket connection is likely to come into
contact with iron ore. It follows that premature coating wear on the lower
connection appears to be associated with contact of iron ore cargo.
Similar observations can be made from data reported by the classication society
ClassNK [34], despite their overall conclusion to the contrary. Fig. 5 shows a
summary of corrosion rate data for sideshell frames of a vessel reported to carry coal
for approximately 80% of voyages and iron ore for 20%. It is apparent that
corrosion rates are higher for the lower connection. Furthermore, the increasing
C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566 555

7.0 Mid
Lower
6.0

5.0
Diminution (%)

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
(a) Aft Frame Number Forward

8.0
Mid
7.0 Lower
6.0
Diminution (%)

5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0

50 100 150 200 250 300


(b) Aft Frame Number Forward
Fig. 3. (a) Average corrosion of corrugated bulkhead platingFtramp vessel 1. (b) Average corrosion of
corrugated bulkhead platingFtramp vessel 2.

material loss with depth is more evident for the anges (Fig. 5(a)) than the webs
(Fig. 5(b)). Flanges are more freely exposed to cargo and therefore this observation
is consistent with cargo induced coating wear and hence loss of protection.
Data obtained from case 3 of [34] shows a reasonably even distribution of
corrosion over the vertical section of sideshell frames (Fig. 6). This is consistent with
the conclusions presented in the report, and, is also consistent with the suggestion
regarding iron ore induced coating wear of the lower connectionFthe vessel was
reported to exclusively carry coal cargo. It appears that the conclusion that the rate
of corrosion of sideshell frames over the vertical span is even, is only applicable to
vessels primarily engaged in the carriage of coal cargo. Vessels carrying a reasonable
proportion of iron ore appear to have higher corrosion at the lower bracket
connection, most likely due to premature coating wear.
556 C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566

Upper Stool

Upper Connection

Mid Region Flange

Lower Connection

Lower Stool

Fig. 4. Components of a sideshell frame.

Gauging data from case 1 in [34] was used to compare corrosion rates between
sideshell plating and sideshell frames. The average corrosion rate of sideshell frames
is approximately twice the rate of corrosion on sideshell plating (Fig. 7). This is
expected as both sides of the sideshell frame webs and anges are exposed to the
cargo hold environment. However, only one surface of the sideshell plating is
exposedFthe outer side has a full protective coating.

2.2.1.5. Sideshell framesFcorrosion causes. The discussion so far has focused on


explaining variation of corrosion rate. The cause of corrosion is also important.
Sideshell sweating has been reported in the literature to be the main cause of
corrosion when a cargo hold is loaded with coal [34,35]. The free moisture of coal
and iron ore in the loaded condition varies in the range 59 wt% and 35 wt%,
respectively [23]. Therefore, increased moisture at the sideshell due to sweating is not
necessarily the cause of corrosion. However, as will be shown, moisture variation
does aect the rate of corrosion. Hence the factors aecting sideshell sweating are
important.
Sideshell sweating occurs due to a temperature dierence between the bulk coal
and the sideshell plating. The cooler sideshell plating produces a local horizontal
temperature gradient in the coal cargo. The cooling of coal adjacent to the sideshell
causes a decrease of the local saturation vapour pressure of the interstitial air. A
vapour pressure gradient between the warmer bulk coal and the cooler coal at the
sideshell is produced. This is the driving force for diusion of water vapour from the
warmer to the colder, outer region. Voyage data shows that coal typically has a
temperature approaching 301C, although it may reach 401C in the aft cargo hold
adjacent to the machinery space. The inner side of the sideshell can be shown to have
the same temperature as the outer side, which is approximately equal to the
C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566 557

0.35

0.30
Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)

0.25

0.20

Upper
0.15
Lower
0.10

0.05

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Cargo Hold Number
(a) Forward Aft
0.35

0.30
Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)

0.25
Upper
0.20
Mid
Lower
0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(b) Forward Cargo Hold Number Aft
Fig. 5. (a) Average corrosion of sideshell frameFange plating, data from Case 4, NKK (1992).
(b) Average corrosion of sideshell frameFweb plating, data from Case 4, NKK (1992).

temperature of seawater. This is the case for all reasonable values of sideshell
thickness. Hence the class (or size) of a bulk carrier does not inuence the frequency
or degree of sideshell sweating. The process is aected by the coal and local seawater
temperaturesFthese are a function of trading route.

2.2.1.6. Summary of cargo hold environments. The corrosive environment which


exists in a cargo hold is dependent on the loading condition. An unloaded cargo hold
corrodes due to exposure to an enclosed atmosphere. Conversely, a hold loaded with
coal corrodes in the presence of a porous medium. Finally, when a hold is loaded
with iron ore the lower stools, tank top plating and lower portion of sideshell frames
558 C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566

0.50
0.45
Corrosion Rate (mm/yr) 0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
Upper
0.15
Mid
0.10 Lower
0.05
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(a) Forward Cargo Hold Number Aft
0.50
0.45
0.40
Corrosion Rate (mm/yr)

0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20 Mid
Lower
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

(b) Forward Cargo Hold Number Aft


Fig. 6. (a) Average corrosion of sideshell frameFweb plating, data from Case 3, NKK (1992).
(b) Average corrosion of sideshell frameFange plating, data from Case 3, NKK (1992).

and bulkhead plating corrode in the presence of a porous medium, and the upper
areas are exposed to an enclosed atmospheric environment. It is also important to
recognise that typically the lower stools and tank top plating are uncoated, while the
upper regions are fully coated.

2.2.2. Ballast tanks


In the vessels inspected, localised coating breakdown in the double bottom ballast
tank on the under-surface of tank top plating was evident, similar to that described
in the duct keel space. There was no evidence of pitting corrosion in the tanks
inspected. Lower horizontal surfaces are typically covered with mud whilst other
surfaces were moist due to the high humidity in the tanks inspected (approaching
100%).
Corrosion in topside tanks was mostly conned to the anges of deck longitudinal,
upper side shell longitudinal and edges on web frames. Pitting was not observed.
C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566 559

0.50
0.45
Corrosion Rate (mm/yr) 0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15 Flanges
Webs
0.10
Sideshell Plate
0.05
0.00

Upper Mid Lower


Fig. 7. Average corrosion rate for sideshell frame, web and ange plating.

Accelerated coating wear was evident in the aft topside tanks. The topside tanks
were also observed to have larger areas of coating breakdown and rust than double
bottom ballast tanks. Consideration of the location of the DBBT and TST makes it
clear that corrosion rates will be dierent for the two tanks, for the following
reasons:

(1) unlike DBBTs, topside tanks are not subjected to coating breakdown caused
by indentation of plating due to cargo handling procedures,
(2) it is likely that the mean temperature and its range in topside tanks is
considerably higher than in DBBTs. The reason for this is that temperature in a
TST depends both on the air temperature outside a vessel and the degree of
solar radiation on the deck plating. In contrast, in double bottom ballast tank
seawater temperature dominates the average temperature and its range.

The second point is consistent with corrosion rates calculated by Paik et al. [21]
showing that deck plating and deck longitudinal corroded faster than external
plating and longitudinal at other locations. Paik et al. [21] also noted higher
corrosion rates of sideshell plating within the cargo hold region compared to
sideshell plating within the upper and lower wing tanks, thus indicating that cargoes
are likely to be more corrosive than ballast water.
The eect of each corrosive environment is dependent on the type of corrosion
protection system installed in a ballast tank. Some operators use only protective
coatings, and some use protective coatings and sacricial anodes. If sacricial anodes
are not installed then areas of exposed steel (where protective coating
has deteriorated) will corrode both during ballast and de-ballast conditions.
However, if sacricial anodes are installed then areas of exposed steel will
be protected when a tank is ballasted and unprotected when a tank is de-ballasted
(since anodes must be fully immersed to be eective). Therefore the rate of
560 C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566

corrosion is dependent on the type of corrosion protection system, and the


tank status (inuenced by the loading condition) of the vessel, as shown in
Fig. 8.
As noted in Section 1, the main environmental parameters inuencing corrosion
for a ballasted tank are temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen concentration.
However, for a de-ballasted tank, temperature and salt concentration are the main
inuencing factors [23]. Since both temperature and the composition of seawater are
functions of the trading route for a vessel, it follows that the trading route is an
important variable governing corrosion in ballast tanks.

2.2.3. Void spaces


The main void spaces containing steelwork contributing to hull girder strength are
the duct keel and the space within corrugated bulkheads (including bulkhead stools).
As noted previously, corrosion within the duct keel is mainly conned to the inner
bottom plating wherever the protective paint coating has failed due to impact
damage initiated from within the cargo hold. A similar condition was also observed
within lower bulkhead stools. However, coating failure did not appear to be as
common as in the duct keel. This observation is consistent with the formation of a
corrosion product layer on the lower stool surfaces indicating that impact damage is
not a common occurrence.

2.3. Parameters aecting bulk carrier corrosion

Based on the patterns noted above, it is clear that the parameters relating to the
operation and design of a bulk carrier can have an inuence on the corrosion rate.

Ballast Tank
Corrosion

Corrosion Protective Protective Coating &


Protection Coating Sacrificial Anodes

Tank Status Ballast De-ballast Ballast

Corrosion Immersion Enclosed Atmospheric Area of Coating


Condition Corrosion at Exposure at Coating Breakdown Protected
Coating Breakdown by Sacrificial Anodes
Breakdown

Fig. 8. Inuence of corrosion protection system and ballast condition on the type of corrosion in a ballast
tank.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566 561

These parameters may be considered in two broad categories; operational and


internal parameters, as will now are discussed.

2.3.1. Operational parameters


Five operating parameters identied to aect the rate of corrosion are as follows:

(a) Cargo ratios: The cargo ratio may be dened for each cargo number, i; as
time with cargo typei
Cargo ratio :
age of vessel
Coal cargo has signicantly more corrosive impurities than has iron ore. It also tends
to have much higher moisture content. As noted, the cargo line is dierent for each
cargo, and hence the proportion of plating corroding due to atmospheric and porous
media exposure is also dierent. It follows that the overall progress of corrosion for a
particular vessel is a function of the relative time a vessel carries coal and iron ore.
This may be dened by the cargo ratios.
(b) Ballast ratios: The corrosion of ballast tank and cargo hold spaces depends
on the overall time a vessel is in the ballast condition. The ballast ratio denes
the total time the lower region of a cargo hold is exposed to an enclosed atmos-
phere condition. It also partially denes the exposure condition for the upper region
of a cargo hold (the upper region is also exposed when loaded with iron ore). The
total time the ballast tank surfaces are exposed to seawater (as opposed to an
enclosed atmosphere) is also dened by the ballast ratio. The ballast ratio may be
dened as
time with ballast
Ballast ratio :
age of vessel
The ballast ratio can be related to the cargo ratio as follows:
X
in
Ballast ratio 1:0  Cargo ratioi ;
i1

where, n=number of cargo types.


(c) Trade route: As noted previously, the rate of atmospheric corrosion is
a function of temperature, and the rate of ballast tank corrosion is a function
of temperature, seawater salinity and dissolved oxygen concentration. As these
are unlikely to be constant, it is likely that corrosion rates will vary with trading
route.
(d) Coal corrosivity: The corrosivity of coal depends on its properties and
constituents. The most signicant constituents which aect corrosivity are
chlorine and pyritic sulphur. These chemicals provide sources for Cl and SO2 4
anions, respectively. Pyritic sulphur may also facilitate the formation of acidic
leachate [36].
The mining location and source of coal governs the properties and quantity of
various constituents of coal. For example, Australian black coals are known to have
generally lower quantities of sulphate compared to coal from other countries [37].
562 C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566

The potential for coal to leach sulphate anions is dependent on the form of sulphur
in the coalFit can exist in three forms; organic, sulphate and pyritic. The rst two
forms are bound to the coal and do not leach out [38]. Hence, the pyritic sulphur
(and not the total sulphur) content is important when comparing the relative
corrosiveness of dierent coals.
Generally, the potential for dierent coal types to leach corrosive impurities
such as chloride and sulphate anions is variable. Analysis of published data indi-
cates that a salt (sulphate plus chloride) concentration range of 501000 ppm appears
to be reasonably consistent, although values up to 7000 ppm are possible [23].
(e) Frequency of cargo changes: As noted previously, breakdown of coating and
subsequent corrosion on the under-surface of tank top plating can occur at locations
of plate indentation caused by cargo handling procedures. It is therefore reasonable
to assume that the frequency of cargo changes also has an inuence on the rate of
corrosion.

2.3.2. Internal parameters


It is possible that vessels subjected to the same operating conditions may corrode
at dierent rates due to dierences in their internal design. The following factors are
considered to be the most relevant.

(f) Corrosion protection system: It is evident from the discussion of ballast tank
corrosion (Fig. 8) that the rate of corrosion is dependent on the type of corrosion
protection system.
(g) Structural member location and orientation: The location of a structural
member determines to what extent it is exposed to ballast or dierent types of cargo,
and wear and mechanical damage from cargo handling. However, for the purposes
of comparing corrosion rates of similar structural members from dierent vessels,
location is not an issue because all single skin bulk carriers are built to the same
structural conguration. A direct comparison is not possible, in general, for double
sided bulk carriers.

The orientation of a member may also be a consideration, independent


of location. This is primarily related to the potential to form a protective corrosion
product layer. Experimental results from the published literature indicate that
the orientation of a component can inuence the protectiveness of a corrosion
product if the substrate is exposed in an open atmosphere and hence inuenced
by solar radiation and precipitation. Within a bulk carrier, however, these factors
are not relevant and it may be suggested that orientation does not inuence
the capacity of corrosion product layers to protect the underlying steel. The
comparison between corrosion products in the duct keel and the lower stools in
the cargo hold provides an interesting case study. The corrosion products taken
from each location were signicantly dierent in thickness and texture (Section 2.2).
This is due to the contrasting environments in each location. It is unclear if
the dierences in orientation of each plate also contribute to the variation of
C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566 563

corrosion product morphology and hence, corrosion rates between the two
components.

2.3.3. Summary of inuencing parameters


Based on the identication of the main patterns of corrosion occurring on
bulk carriers and an understanding of the main corrosion processes, it is sugges-
ted that parameters aecting the corrosion rate of bulk carriers can be classied
into two categories: (a) operational parameters, and (b) internal parameters
(Table 1).

3. Discussion

In 1992 the IACS Council, in response to the high loss rates of the time,
introduced an enhanced survey program for bulk carriers [39]. This became
mandatory for ships classed with non-members of IACS when it was incorporated
into the SOLAS Convention in 1995 by the International Maritime Organisation
(IMO). This has lead to greater vigilance in inspection strategy and a larger quantity
of survey thickness data than previously. Following from these change classication
societies began to develop computer databases of survey data. The following
references provide relevant discussion of some approaches; Lloyds Register of
Shipping [40], ClassNK [41], Det Norske Veritas [42], Bureau Veritas [43], American
Bureau of Shipping [44]. Most systems contain data relating to original structural
scantlings, repair history, voyage history, minimum allowable thickness, measured
thickness and condition of coating. This should now make it possible to assess
measured corrosion in terms of maintenance history and vessel operation.
Previously, it was dicult to obtain all the relevant information to investigate the
progress of coating deterioration and corrosion in relation to voyage and
maintenance history [16,45]. This is important in terms of future eorts to predict
corrosion rates of ship structures.
As noted earlier, the ability of an empirical model to represent corrosion progress
is dependent, amongst other factors, on the quality of the data used to determine the
empirical model parameters. The available corrosion data shows that corrosion rates
of bulk carriers are highly variable. It is consequently dicult to estimate corrosion

Table 1
Parameters aecting corrosion in bulk carriers

Operational parameters Internal (vessel-related) parameters

Cargo ratio Type of corrosion protection


Ballast ratio Member location
Trade route
Coal corrosivity
Frequency of cargo changes
564 C.P. Gardiner, R.E. Melchers / Marine Structures 16 (2003) 547566

model parameters, regardless of model structure. Progress at obtaining more


representative estimates of corrosion rates for a particular vessel may be made by
developing predictive models which use input parameters such as those shown in
Table 1. It is suggested that the information now being collected for classication
society databases is consistent with the needs of predictive modelling requirements.

4. Conclusion

The breakdown of protective paint coatings and corrosion of structural members


within bulk carriers is inuenced by many factors. Consequently, as shown in
previous studies [20,21], corrosion rate data is highly variable. Exposure to porous
cargoes, seawater, an enclosed atmospheric environment, and also impact and
abrasion from cargo handling equipment all contribute to deterioration at various
locations. Based on an understanding of the corrosion process occurring within each
environment, and consideration of bulk carrier operation, the following parameters
have been identied to inuence corrosion; cargo ratio, ballast ratio, trade route,
coal corrosivity, frequency of cargo changes, type of corrosion protection and
member location. It is proposed that such parameters should provide a good starting
point for the development of corrosion rate databases dened by dierent levels of
vessel operation. This should enhance the reliability of currently available corrosion
prediction models for bulk carriers.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the Australian Maritime Engineering Cooperative Research


Centre and contributing partners for the nancial support of this work.

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