Reading (process)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Miss Auras, by John Lavery, depicts a woman reading a book

Youth reading, Persian miniature by Reza Abbasi (1625-6)

Part of a series on

Reading
 LANGUAGE

Language

Writing

Writing system

Orthography

Braille

TYPES OF READING

Slow reading

Speed reading

Subvocalization

LEARNING TO READ

Learning to read

Comprehension

Spelling

Vocabulary

Reading disability

Dyslexia
 Reading for special needs

READING INSTRUCTION

Alphabetic principle

Phonics

Whole language

LITERACY

Literacy

Functional illiteracy

Family literacy

English orthography

LISTS

Languages by writing system

Management of dyslexia

Reading is a complex "cognitive process" of decoding symbols in order to construct or derive

meaning (reading comprehension). Reading is a means of language acquisition, communication,
and of sharing information and ideas. Like all languages, it is a complex interaction between the
text and the reader which is shaped by the readers prior knowledge, experiences, attitude, and
language community which is culturally and socially situated. The reading process requires
continuous practice, development, and refinement. In addition, reading requires creativity and
critical analysis. Consumers of literature make ventures with each piece, innately deviating from
literal words to create images that make sense to them in the unfamiliar places the texts describe.
Because reading is such a complex process, it cannot be controlled or restricted to one or two
interpretations. There are no concrete laws in reading, but rather allows readers an escape to
produce their own products introspectively. This promotes deep exploration of texts during
interpretation.[1] Readers use a variety of reading strategies to assist with decoding (to translate
symbols into sounds or visual representations of speech) and comprehension. Readers may use
context clues to identify the meaning of unknown words. Readers integrate the words they have
read into their existing framework of knowledge or schema (schemata theory).

Other types of reading are not speech based writing systems, such as music notation or
pictograms. The common link is the interpretation of symbols to extract the meaning from the
visual notations or tactile signals (as in the case of Braille).

Contents
1 Overview

2 Reading skills

o 2.1 Skill development

2.1.1 Sub-lexical reading

2.1.2 Lexical reading

o 2.2 Methods

3 Assessment

o 3.1 Types of tests

4 Timed Reading

5 Cognitive benefits

6 Effects

o 6.1 Lighting

7 History

8 See also
 9 References

o 9.1 Notes

o 9.2 Bibliography

10 Further reading

11 External links

Overview

Volunteer reads to a girl at the Casa Hogar de las Nias in Mexico City

Girl Reading (1889), by Fritz von Uhde. Oil paint on canvas

Currently most reading is either of the printed word from ink or toner on paper, such as in a
book, magazine, newspaper, leaflet, or notebook, or of electronic displays, such as computer
displays, television, mobile phones or e-readers. Handwritten text may also be produced using a
graphite pencil or a pen. Short texts may be written or painted on an object.

Often the text relates to the object, such as an address on an envelope, product info on packaging,
or text on a traffic or street sign. A slogan may be painted on a wall. A text may also be produced
by arranging stones of a different color in a wall or road. Short texts like these are sometimes
referred to as environmental print.

Sometimes text or images are in relief, with or without using a color contrast. Words or images
can be carved in stone, wood, or metal; instructions can be printed in relief on the plastic housing
of a home appliance, or myriad other examples.

A requirement for reading is a good contrast between letters and background (depending on
colors of letters and background, any pattern or image in the background, and lighting) and a
suitable font size. In the case of a computer screen, it is important to be able to see an entire line
of text without scrolling.

The field of visual word recognition studies how people read individual words.[2][3][4] A key
technique in studying how individuals read text is eye tracking. This has revealed that reading is
performed as a series of eye fixations with saccades between them. Humans also do not appear to
fixate on every word in a text, but instead fixate to some words while apparently filling in the
missing information using context. This is possible because human languages show certain
linguistic regularities.[citation needed]

The process of recording information to be read later is writing. In the case of computer and
microfiche storage there is the separate step of displaying the written text. For humans, reading is
usually faster and easier than writing.

Reading is typically an individual activity, although on occasion a person will read out loud for
the benefit of other listeners. Reading aloud for one's own use, for better comprehension, is a
form of intrapersonal communication: in the early 1970s[5] has been proposed the dual-route
hypothesis to reading aloud, accordingly to which there were two separate mental mechanisms,
or cognitive routes, that are involved in this case, with output of both mechanisms contributing to
the pronunciation of a written stimulus.[5][6][7]

Reading to young children is a recommended way to instill language and expression, and to
promote comprehension of text. Personalised books for children are recommended to improve
engagement in reading by featuring the child themselves in the story.

Before the reintroduction of separated text in the late Middle Ages, the ability to read silently
was considered rather remarkable.[8]

Reading skills
Main article: Learning to read
Addy Vannasy reads aloud to children at a village "Discovery Day" in Laos. Reading aloud is a
common technique for improving literacy rates. Big Brother Mouse, which organized the event,
trains its staff in read-aloud techniques: Make eye contact with the audience. Change your voice.
Pause occasionally for dramatic effect.

Literacy is the ability to use the symbols of a writing system. It is the ability to interpret what the
information symbols represent, and to be able to re-create those same symbols so that others can
derive the same meaning. Illiteracy is the inability to derive meaning from the symbols used in a
writing system. Dyslexia refers to a cognitive difficulty with reading and writing. It is defined as
brain-based type of learning disability that specifically impairs a person's ability to read.[9] The
term dyslexia can refer to two disorders: developmental dyslexia[10][11][12][13] which is a learning
disability; alexia (acquired dyslexia) refers to reading difficulties that occur following brain
damage, stroke, or progressive illness.[14][15]

Major predictors of an individual's ability to read both alphabetic and nonalphabetic scripts are
phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming and verbal IQ.[16] Being taught to read at an
early age (such as five years old) does not ultimately result in better reading skills, and if it
replaces more developmentally appropriate activities, then it may cause other harms.[17]

Skill development

Both lexical and sub-lexical cognitive processes contribute to how we learn to read.

Sub-lexical reading

Sub-lexical reading,[18][19][20][21] involves teaching reading by associating characters or groups of

characters with sounds or by using phonics or synthetic phonics learning and teaching
methodology, sometimes argued to be in competition with whole language methods.

Lexical reading

Lexical reading[18][19][20][21] involves acquiring words or phrases without attention to the characters
or groups of characters that compose them or by using whole language learning and teaching
methodology. Sometimes argued to be in competition with phonics and synthetic phonics
methods, and that the whole language approach tends to impair learning how to spell.

Other methods of teaching and learning to read have developed, and become somewhat
controversial.[22]
Learning to read in a second language, especially in adulthood, may be a different process than
learning to read a native language in childhood. There are cases of very young children learning
to read without having been taught.[23] Such was the case with Truman Capote who reportedly
taught himself to read and write at the age of five. There are also accounts of people who taught
themselves to read by comparing street signs or Biblical passages to speech. The novelist
Nicholas Delbanco taught himself to read at age six during a transatlantic crossing by studying a
book about boats.[citation needed]

Brain activity in young and older children can be used to predict future reading skill. Cross
model mapping between the orthographic and phonologic areas in the brain are critical in
reading. Thus, the amount of activation in the left dorsal inferior frontal gyrus while performing
reading tasks can be used to predict later reading ability and advancement. Young children with
higher phonological word characteristic processing have significantly better reading skills later
on than older children who focus on whole-word orthographic representation.[24]

Methods

Reading is an intensive process in which the eye quickly moves to assimilate text. Very little is
actually seen accurately. It is necessary to understand visual perception and eye movement in
order to understand the reading process.[25]

There are several types and methods of reading, with differing rates that can be attained for each,
for different kinds of material and purposes:

Subvocalized reading combines sight reading with internal sounding of the words as if
spoken. Advocates of speed reading claim it can be a bad habit that slows reading and
comprehension, but other studies indicate the reverse, particularly with difficult texts.[26]
[27]

Speed reading is a collection of methods for increasing reading speed without an

unacceptable reduction in comprehension or retention. Methods include skimming or the
chunking of words in a body of text to increase the rate of reading. It is closely connected
to speed learning.

Proofreading is a kind of reading for the purpose of detecting typographical errors. One
can learn to do it rapidly, and professional proofreaders typically acquire the ability to do
so at high rates, faster for some kinds of material than for others, while they may largely
suspend comprehension while doing so, except when needed to select among several
possible words that a suspected typographic error allows.
 Rereading is reading a book more than once. "One cannot read a book: one can only
reread it," Vladimir Nabokov once said.[28] A paper published in the Journal of Consumer
Research (Cristel Antonia (2012)) found re-reading offers mental health benefits because
it allows for a more profound emotional connection and self-reflection, versus the first
reading which is more focused on the events and plot.[29]

Many take notes while reading.

Structure-proposition-evaluation (SPE) method, popularized by Mortimer Adler in How

to Read a Book, mainly for non-fiction treatise, in which one reads a writing in three
passes: (1) for the structure of the work, which might be represented by an outline; (2) for
the logical propositions made, organized into chains of inference; and (3) for evaluation
of the merits of the arguments and conclusions. This method involves suspended
judgment of the work or its arguments until they are fully understood.[citation needed]

Survey-question-read-recite-review (SQ3R) method, often taught in public schools, which

involves reading toward being able to teach what is read, and would be appropriate for
instructors preparing to teach material without having to refer to notes during the lecture.
[citation needed]
 Reader, a painting by Honor Daumier.

Multiple intelligences-based methods, which draw upon the reader's diverse ways of
thinking and knowing to enrich his or her appreciation of the text. Reading is
fundamentally a linguistic activity: one can basically comprehend a text without resorting
to other intelligence's, such as the visual (e.g., mentally "seeing" characters or events
described), auditory (e.g., reading aloud or mentally "hearing" sounds described), or even
the logical intelligence (e.g., considering "what if" scenarios or predicting how the text
will unfold based on context clues). However, most readers already use several
intelligences while reading, and making a habit of doing so in a more disciplined manner
i.e., constantly, or after every paragraphcan result in more vivid, memorable
experience.[citation needed]

Rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) reading involves presenting the words in a
sentence one word at a time at the same location on the display screen, at a specified
eccentricity. RSVP eliminates inter-word saccades, limits intra-word saccades, and
prevents reader control of fixation times (Legge, Mansfield, & Chung, 2001). RSVP
controls for differences in reader eye movement, and consequently is often used to
measure reading speed in experiments.

Assessment
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of
the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a
new article, as appropriate. (September 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template
message)
Further information: Speed reading, English language learning and teaching, and Proofreading
Average reading rate in words per minute (wpm) depending on age and measured with different
tests in English, French and German

Note: the data from Taylor (English) and Landerl (German) are based on texts of increasing
difficulty; other data were obtained when all age groups were reading the same text.

Rates of reading include reading for memorization (fewer than 100 words per minute [wpm]);
reading for learning (100200 wpm); reading for comprehension (200400 wpm); and skimming
(400700 wpm). Reading for comprehension is the essence of the daily reading of most people.
Skimming is for superficially processing large quantities of text at a low level of comprehension
(below 50%).

Scientific studies have demonstrated that readingdefined here as capturing and decoding all
the words on every pagefaster than 900 wpm is not feasible given the limits set by the
anatomy of the eye.[30]

Advice for choosing the appropriate reading-rate includes reading flexibly, slowing when
concepts are closely presented and when the material is new, and increasing when the material is
familiar and of thin concept. Speed reading courses and books often encourage the reader to
continually accelerate; comprehension tests lead the reader to believe his or her comprehension
is continually improving; yet, competence-in-reading requires knowing that skimming is
dangerous, as a default habit.[citation needed]

Reading speed requires a long time to reach adult levels. The table to the right shows how
reading-rate varies with age,[31] regardless of the period (1965 to 2005) and the language
(English, French, German). The Taylor values probably are higher, for disregarding students who
failed the comprehension test. The reading test by the French psychologist Pierre Lefavrais
("L'alouette", published in 1967) tested reading aloud, with a penalty for errors, and could,
therefore, not be a rate greater than 150 wpm. According to Carver (1990), children's reading
speed increases throughout the school years. On average, from grade 2 to college, reading rate
increases 14 standard-length words per minute each year (where one standard-length word is
defined as six characters in text, including punctuation and spaces).

Reading speed has been used as a measure in research to determine the effect of interventions on
human vision. A Cochrane Systematic Review used reading speed in words per minute as the
primary outcome in comparing different reading aids for adults with low vision.[32]
Types of tests

Sight word reading: reading words of increasing difficulty until they become unable to
read or understand the words presented to them. Difficulty is manipulated by using words
that have more letters or syllables, are less common and have more complicated spelling
sound relationships.[citation needed]

Nonword reading: reading lists of pronounceable nonsense words out loud. The difficulty
is increased by using longer words, and also by using words with more complex spelling
or sound sequences.[citation needed]

Reading comprehension: a passage is presented to the reader, which they must read either
silently or out loud. Then a series of questions are presented that test the reader's
comprehension of this passage.

Reading fluency: the rate with which individuals can name words.

Reading accuracy: the ability to correctly name a word on a page.

Some tests incorporate several of the above components at once. For instance, the Nelson-Denny
Reading Test scores readers both on the speed with which they can read a passage, and also their
ability to accurately answer questions about this passage.[citation needed] Recent research has
questioned the validity of the Nelson-Denny Reading Test, especially with regard to the
identification of reading disabilities.[33]

Timed Reading
Timed Reading is an educational tool used in many schools to improve and advance reading
skills. Timed reading involves the use of various strategies in conjunction with in-class exercises
and extensive timed reading. Timed reading isn't reading as-fast-as-you-can over a passage and
simply marking the gradual improvement (if there are any). It involves reading strategies via the
teacher's instruction. Training in strategic use is what timed reading promotes and reflects what
Devine means by, "...training enhances the metacognitive knowledge base of readers and results
in improved reading performance."(Devine 1993)[34][35]

Cognitive benefits
Reading books and writing are among brain-stimulating activities shown to slow down cognitive
decline in old age, with people who participated in more mentally stimulating activities over
their lifetimes having a slower rate of decline in memory and other mental capacities.[36] Reading
for pleasure has been linked to increased cognitive progress in vocabulary and mathematics
during adolescence. [37][38] Moreover, the cognitive benefits of reading continue into mid-life and
old age.[39][40][41]
Effects

Night reading has benefits to calm the nerves by eliminating excess sound and vision stimulus
resulting in better sleep.

Men reading

Lighting

Reading from paper and from some screens requires more lighting than many other activities.
Therefore, the possibility of doing this comfortably in cafs, restaurants, buses, at bus stops or in
parks greatly varies depending on available lighting and time of day.

Reading from screens which produce their own light is less dependent on external light, except
that this may be easier with little external light. For controlling what is on the screen (scrolling,
turning the page, etc.), a touch screen or keyboard illumination further reduces the dependency
on external light.

History
The history of reading dates back to the invention of writing during the 4th millennium BC.
Although reading print text is now an important way for the general population to access
information, this has not always been the case. With some exceptions, only a small percentage of
the population in many countries was considered literate before the Industrial Revolution. Some
of the pre-modern societies with generally high literacy rates included classical Athens and the
Islamic Caliphate.[42]

Scholars assume that reading aloud (Latin clare legere) was the more common practice in
antiquity, and that reading silently (legere tacite or legere sibi) was unusual.[43] In his
Confessions, Saint Augustine remarks on Saint Ambrose's unusual habit of reading silently in the
4th century AD.[43][44]

During the Age of Enlightenment, elite individuals promoted passive reading, rather than
creative interpretation. Reading has no concrete laws, but rather allows readers an escape to
produce their own products introspectively, promoting deep exploration of texts during
interpretation. Construction, or the creation of writing and producing a product, was believed to
be a sign of initiative and active participation in society, while consumption or reading, was
viewed as simply taking in what constructors made.[1] Also during this era, writing was
considered superior to reading in society. Readers during this time were considered passive
citizens, simply because they did not produce a product. Michel de Certeau argued that the elites
of the Age of Enlightenment were responsible for this general belief. Michel de Certeau believed
that reading required venturing into an author's land, but taking away what the reader wanted
specifically. Writing was viewed as a superior art to reading during this period, due to the
hierarchical constraints the era initiated.[1]

See also

Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud List of language disorders

Educational software Phonics

Least distance of distinct vision Primary education

Library Synthetic phonics

Transportation theory (psychology), the

immersion of individuals within
narrative content

Typoglycemia

References
Notes

1.

De Certeau, Michel. "Reading as Poaching." The Practice of Everyday Life. Trans. Steven F.
Rendall. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984. 165-176.
Cornelissen PL, Kringelbach ML, Ellis AW, Whitney C, Holiday IE, Hansen PC;
Kringelbach; Ellis; Whitney; Holliday; Hansen (2009). Aleman, Andr, ed. "Activation of the left
inferior frontal gyrus in the first 200 ms of reading: evidence from magnetoencephalography
(MEG)". PLoS ONE. 4 (4): e5359. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.5359C.
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005359. PMC 2671164 . PMID 19396362.
Wheat KL, Cornelissen PL, Frost SJ, Hansen PC; Cornelissen; Frost; Hansen (April
2010). "During visual word recognition, phonology is accessed within 100 ms and may be
mediated by a speech production code: evidence from magnetoencephalography". Journal of
Neuroscience. 30 (15): 522933. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4448-09.2010. PMC 3419470 .
PMID 20392945.
Nation K (December 2009). "Form-meaning links in the development of visual word
recognition". Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological
sciences. 364 (1536): 366574. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0119. PMC 2846312 . PMID 19933139.
Pritchard SC, Coltheart M, Palethorpe S, Castles A (October 2012). "Nonword reading:
comparing dual-route cascaded and connectionist dual-process models with human data". J Exp
Psychol Hum Percept Perform. 38 (5): 126888. doi:10.1037/a0026703. PMID 22309087.
Coltheart, Max; Curtis, Brent; Atkins, Paul; Haller, Micheal (1 January 1993). "Models
of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches.". Psychological
Review. 100 (4): 589608. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.589.
Yamada J, Imai H, Ikebe Y (July 1990). "The use of the orthographic lexicon in reading
kana words". J Gen Psychol. 117 (3): 31123. PMID 2213002.
"THE SILENT READERS". Alberto Manguel, Chapter 2 of A History of Reading (New
York; Viking, 1996). Retrieved 2013-06-20.
"NINDS Dyslexia Information Page". National Institute for Neurological Disorders and
Stroke. Retrieved November 12, 2011.
Heim S, Tschierse J, Amunts K; Tschierse; Amunts; Wilms; Vossel; Willmes; Grabowska;
Huber (2008). "Cognitive subtypes of dyslexia". Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis. 68 (1):
7382. ISSN 0065-1400. PMID 18389017.
Facoetti A, Lorusso ML, Paganoni P, et al. (April 2003). "Auditory and visual automatic
attention deficits in developmental dyslexia". Brain Res Cogn Brain Res. 16 (2): 18591.
doi:10.1016/S0926-6410(02)00270-7. PMID 12668226.
Ahissar M (November 2007). "Dyslexia and the anchoring-deficit hypothesis". Trends
Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.). 11 (11): 45865. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.08.015. PMID 17983834.
Chung KK, Ho CS, Chan DW, Tsang SM, Lee SH; Ho; Chan; Tsang; Lee (February
2010). "Cognitive profiles of Chinese adolescents with dyslexia". Dyslexia. 16 (1): 223.
doi:10.1002/dys.392. PMID 19544588.
Cherney LR (2004). "Aphasia, alexia, and oral reading". Top Stroke Rehabil. 11 (1): 22
36. doi:10.1310/VUPX-WDX7-J1EU-00TB. PMID 14872397. *Temple CM (August 2006).
"Developmental and acquired dyslexias". Cortex. 42 (6): 898910. doi:10.1016/S0010-
9452(08)70434-9. PMID 17131596.
Sinanovi O, Mrkonji Z, Zuki S, Vidovi M, Imamovi K; Mrkonji; Zuki; Vidovi;
Imamovi (March 2011). "Post-stroke language disorders". Acta Clin Croat. 50 (1): 7994.
PMID 22034787.
Powell D, Stainthorp R, Stuart M, Garwood H, Quinlan P; Stainthorp; Stuart; Garwood;
Quinlan (September 2007). "An experimental comparison between rival theories of rapid
automatized naming performance and its relationship to reading". Journal of Experimental
Child Psychology. 98 (1): 4668. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2007.04.003. PMID 17555762.
 Strauss, Valerie (13 January 2015). "Report: Requiring kindergartners to read as
Common Core does may harm some". The Washington Post.
Borowsky R, Esopenko C, Cummine J, Sarty GE; Esopenko; Cummine; Sarty (2007).
"Neural representations of visual words and objects: a functional MRI study on the modularity
of reading and object processing". Brain Topogr. 20 (2): 8996. doi:10.1007/s10548-007-0034-
1. PMID 17929158.
Borowsky R, Cummine J, Owen WJ, Friesen CK, Shih F, Sarty GE; Cummine; Owen;
Friesen; Shih; Sarty (2006). "FMRI of ventral and dorsal processing streams in basic reading
processes: insular sensitivity to phonology". Brain Topogr. 18 (4): 2339. doi:10.1007/s10548-
006-0001-2. PMID 16845597.
Sanabria Daz G, Torres Mdel R, Iglesias J, et al. (November 2009). "Changes in reading
strategies in school-age children". Span J Psychol. 12 (2): 44153.
doi:10.1017/S1138741600001827. PMID 19899646.
Chan ST, Tang SW, Tang KW, Lee WK, Lo SS, Kwong KK; Tang; Tang; Lee; Lo; Kwong
(November 2009). "Hierarchical coding of characters in the ventral and dorsal visual streams of
Chinese language processing". NeuroImage. 48 (2): 42335.
doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.078. PMID 19591947.
Feitelson, Dina (1988). Facts and Fads in Beginning Reading: A Cross-Language
Perspective. Norwood, New Jersey, United States: Ablex. ISBN 0-89391-507-6.[page needed]
Hughes, Diana; Stainthorp, Rhona (1999). Learning from children who read at an early
age. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-17495-3.[page needed]
McNorgan C, Alvarez A, Bhullar A, Gayda J, Booth JR; Alvarez; Bhullar; Gayda; Booth
(June 2011). "Prediction of reading skill several years later depends on age and brain region:
implications for developmental models of reading". The Journal of Neuroscience. 31 (26): 9641
8. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0334-11.2011. PMC 3147303 . PMID 21715629.
Hunziker, Hans-Werner (2006). Im Auge des Lesers foveale und periphere
Wahrnehmung: vom Buchstabieren zur Lesefreude (In the eye of the reader: foveal and
peripheral perception - from letter recognition to the joy of reading) (in German). Transmedia
Zurich. ISBN 978-3-7266-0068-6.[page needed]
Moidel, Steve. Speed Reading for Business. Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational.
pp. 2324. ISBN 978-0-7641-0401-5.
Rayner, Keith (1995). The Psychology of Reading. Pollatsek, Alexander. London:
Routledge. pp. 192194. ISBN 978-0-8058-1872-7.
Patricia Meyer Spacks (2011). On Rereading, Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-
674-06222-1
Rob Waugh. "Reading a book really is better the second time round - and can even offer
mental health benefits", Daily Mail, 15 Feb 2012.
Bremer, Rod. The Manual: A Guide to the Ultimate Study Method (2 ed.). Fons
Sapientiae Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9934964-0-0.
Im Auge des Lesers, foveale und periphere Wahrnehmung: vom Buchstabieren zur
Lesefreude(2006), ppgs. 117.
Virgili G, Acosta R, Grover LL, Bentley SA, Giacomelli G; Acosta; Grover; Bentley;
Giacomelli (2013). "Reading aids for adults with low vision". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 10:
CD003303. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003303.pub3. PMID 24154864.
Coleman C, Lindstrom J, Nelson J, Lindstrom W, Gregg KN; Lindstrom; Nelson;
Lindstrom; Gregg (2010). "Passageless comprehension on the Nelson-Denny reading test: well
above chance for university students". J Learn Disabil. 43 (3): 2449.
doi:10.1177/0022219409345017. PMID 19933897.
Devine, J. "The role of metacognition in second language reading and writing". Carson
& Leki: 105127.
Browning, Jeremy. "Why Teachers Should Use Timed Reading in ESL Classes". Retrieved
5 March 2015.
Koren, Marina (July 23, 2013). "Being a Lifelong Bookworm May Keep You Sharp in
Old Age". Smithsonian. Archived from the original on July 5, 2013. which cites Wilson, Robert
S.; et al. (July 3, 2013). "Life-span cognitive activity, neuropathologic burden, and cognitive
aging (Abstract)". Neurology. Archived from the original on July 5, 2013.
"Reading for pleasure puts children ahead in the classroom". Centre for Longitudinal
Studies.
Sullivan, A., Brown, M. (2015) "Reading for pleasure and progress in vocabulary and
mathematics". British Educational Research Journal .
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/berj.3180/abstract
"Long term vocabulary benefits from 'reading for pleasure' in childhood". Centre for
Longitudinal Studies.
Sullivan A.; Brown M. (2015). "Vocabulary from adolescence to middle age".
Longitudinal and Life Course Studies. 6 (2): 173189. doi:10.14301/llcs.v6i2.310.
Bavishi A.; Slade MD.; Levy BR (2016). "A chapter a day: Association of book reading
with longevity". Social Science & Medicine. 164: 44 48. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.07.014.
Andrew J. Coulson. "Delivering Education" (PDF). Hoover Institution: 117. Retrieved
2008-11-22.
Carruthers, Mary. 2008. The Book of Memory: A Study of Memory in Medieval Culture.
2nd. ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 212 ff..

1. Jajdelska, Elspeth. 2007. Silent Reading and the Birth of the Narrator.
Toronto: University of Toronto Press, p. 5.

Bibliography

Carver, Ronald P. (1990). Reading rate: a review of research and theory. Boston:
Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-162420-X.

Legge GE, Mansfield JS, Chung ST (March 2001). "Psychophysics of reading. XX.
Linking letter recognition to reading speed in central and peripheral vision". Vision
Research. 41 (6): 72543. doi:10.1016/S0042-6989(00)00295-9. PMID 11248262.