AIR COMPRESSORS

The function of an air compressor is to take a quantity of air and deliver it at a required pressure. The
most efficient machine is one that does this with the minimum amount of input work.

Theory

When the movement of a gas tight piston compresses a gas the pressure increases as the volume
decreases. The work done to compress the gas appears as heat energy in the gas and so the temperature
of the gas rises.

If during the compression process the heat generated is taken away via the cylinder wall to avoid any
temperature rise, then the gas is compressed at a constant temperature the process is referred to as an
Isothermal Compression. The relationship between the pressure and volume would follow Boyles law,
PV=C.

If there was insufficient time for any heat to be transferred from the compressed gas, then all the work
done during the compression would appear as stored heat energy. The temperature at the end of the
compression would be higher for the same ratio of compression as for the isothermal process, and then
the pressure would be consequently higher. This is known as the Adiabatic Compression and the
relationship between the pressure and volume would be PV= C.

Isothermal compression gives a smaller P~V area, thus the work required to compress the air is least. Due
to the rotational speed of the compressor there is not enough time available to dissipate all of the heat
energy, even though the cylinder walls are cooled.
The actual compression process for an air compressor is between the isothermal and the adiabatic and is
referred to as the Polytropic Compression. The relationship between the pressure and the volume is
PVn=C.

Volumetric Efficiency

This is the relationship between the quantity of air discharged when brought to atmospheric conditions
(referred to as the free air condition) and the swept volume of the first stage.

The swept volume is constant, so any factor, which reduces the volume of air discharged from the
compressor, will affect the volumetric efficiency. Such factors include;

Excessive piston end clearance (bumping clearance).

Defective valves.
Piston / ring leakage.
Restriction of intercooler.
Restriction of air take filter.
Abnormally high inlet temperature (location in engine room).
Restriction in discharge lines.

Bumping Clearance

The bumping clearance is the clearance between the piston and the cylinder cover when the piston is at
the top end of its stroke. This is normally between 0.5 & 1% of the cylinder bore. The effect on the
volumetric efficiency due to different bumping clearances is shown below.
The clearance is measured by removing the valves, inserting a lead wire under the cylinder cover and
rotating the piston by hand.

Bearing wear down causes the clearance to increase thus leaving more air in the cylinder. This air must
expand meaning that less air is drawn into the cylinder and so efficiency of the compressor will decrease.
There is also the chance that, if the total clearances in all bearings exceed the bump clearance, the piston
may strike the cylinder cover.

With tandem type pistons it is necessary to be able to adjust each stage independently.

Multi-Stage Compression

In order to start most large diesel engines it is required to overcome the resistance due to the compression
pressure of the other cylinders. A supply of around 30 bar is normal.

In order to provide this air pressure multi-stage reciprocating compressors are used. It is common for
control air compressors to be single stage. Compressing air more than about 7:1 results in excessive
delivery temperatures. Multi-staging means that delivery temperatures are reduced. Modern air cooled
compressors have three or four stages to further reduce the delivery temperature and thus the intercooler
performance.

The aim is get all the stages doing the same work, therefore a balanced load. To get more volume from a
compressor a larger piston is used. The aim is to get the air which enters the second stage and enters the
bottle cooled to the inlet temperature it entered the compressor at.

The effect of using multi stage compression to reach a discharge pressure of 30 bar can be seen in the
diagram below.
Advantages of multistage compressors;

Lower compression ratio per stage;

Lower air temperatures.
Reduced carbon build up.
Increased valve life.
Less valve / ring leakage.
Lower compressor speeds for same rate of discharge / air supply.
Use of intercooler reduces the amount of work required for a given qty of air.
This type of compressor has two pistons of different diameters mounted in a tandem arrangement. The
low pressure piston is normally adjacent to the crankcase so that any leakage of air will be low pressure
and temperature reducing the risk of explosion in the crankcase. It is normal to have both pistons cast as
one integral unit. Older compressors may have a self aligning HP piston.

The wear down on the bottom end bearing will be on the top half, due to the downward load, so adjusting
the bottom end bearing clearance will have no effect of the bumping clearance. This can be adjusted by
shims between the connecting rod and the bottom end bearing for the LP and by the head gasket for the
HP. Different manufacturers have different methods.

It is possible for lubrication to be either pressure fed or splash. If splash lubrication is used then the
bearings must be of the rolling contact type.

Cooling of both jacket and air coolers can be by either water or air.

Two Crank
Restrictions In Suction Air Filter

Any reduction of airflow through the air filter will result in a high-pressure drop across the filter, which
will cause a high delivery air temperature.

The air compressor delivers against a pressure of 25 to 30 bar, and the pressure of the first stage discharge
is about 6.2 bar with a suction temperature of 30C, the following discharge temperatures from the first
stage would be obtained using the Polytropic ration of 1.25.

Suction Pressure (Bar) Discharge Temperature (C)

0.9 172

0.4 251

0.14 374

The flash point of lubricating oil is around 210C, and the auto ignition temperature is around 380C.

By restricting the suction filter the air discharge temperature is raised to a dangerous level in that auto-
combustion of the lubricating oil in the system can occur. Note that the auto-ignition temperature is that
temperature at which a product will burn without a source of ignition.

Therefore it would be advisable to ensure that the filter is kept clean and under no circumstances should
it be muffled.

Valves

The valves, on most air compressors, are plate type with concentric rings. Leaf type valves may be used
on some makes. The advantages of this type of valve are;

Fast acting due to being light weight, small distances to travel.

Efficient seal created.

Efficient at stopping the delivered air back into the cylinder on intake stroke. If to much air is
drawn back then the temperature will go up, aim for nor more than 20% hot air and no less than
80% cold air.

No inertia due to the weight.

Excellent air flow for a small area.

Valve impact limited due to small movements thus saving the seat and valve damage.
The materials used for the construction of the valves are;

Valve body 0.4% carbon steel with a hardened seat area, normally forged.

Valve plates alloy steel (nickel or chrome molybdenum).

Plate springs spring steel.

Leaking discharge valves will result in air flowing back into the cylinder on the suction stroke resulting in
reduced efficiency and high operating temperatures.

The HP discharge valve will have more damage to it due to the higher forces involved and the higher air
temperatures associated with intercooled / aftercooled air production.

Leaking suction valves will result in air returning to the suction space during the compression stroke
resulting in reduced air delivery and increase the running time. If the second stage suction valve is leaking
this will cause high pressure in the intercooler. The compressor will virtually run unloaded if the suction
valve leakage is extreme.

Intercooler/Aftercooler

The purpose of the intercooler is to reduce the temperature of the air discharged from the first stage back
to the same temperature as the first stage thus reducing the amount of useful work required to compress
the air to the required pressure.

The type shown is a two pass, U-Type cooler. The cooling water is directed through the cooler via baffles
to increase heat transfer.
The tube plate is sealed between the inlet / outlet cover and the cooler body. The tubes are free to move
within the casing to allow for expansion. Baffles within the casing increase the heat transfer by directing
the water in a tortuous path and act as tube supports. A drain cock, which may or may not act as an
unloader, is provided at the lowest point on the cooler, on the delivery side, to allow any moisture to be
drained off. The air relief valves are often fitted on the inlet side of the air header. There must be some
relief device incorporated into the water side in case of tube failure.

In straight tube intercoolers expansion is allowed for by the use of a moveable tube plate, either the
sealing is achieved by using sealing rings or thin steel diaphragms. The advantages of the straight tube
type of cooler over the U-Tube type are that they are easier to clean, less prone to fouling and offer less
restriction to airflow.

It is important that the coolers are kept clean as possible, so that the heat transfer is not affected and
flow through the compressor is not restricted.

Condensate is either regularly drained while the compressor is running by opening the drain valves /
unloaders or by use of automatic drain traps.
Condensate Auto Drain

Safety Devices

The safety devices usually fitted to air compressors are;

Relief valve fitted to every stage at LP and HP, ( set to lift at 10% above normal pressure)
Fusible plug (melts at 121C). on Aftercooler
Bursting disc on aftercooler
Automatic pressure drain valve
Relieve valve on crankcase LO pump
Alarms and cut outs for:-
High cooling temperature/ Cooling water failure
High discharge air temperature.
Low L.O. pressure.

LP discharge pressure 4 bars and HP discharge pressure 30 bar

Intercooler inlet air 130C and intercooler outlet air 35C
Aftercooler inlet air 130C and Aftercooler outlet air 35C:

The bursting disc or relief valve on the water space is provided so that in the event of a failure of the air
cooler, any excess pressure is relived so that there is no damage caused to the casing of the compressor.
In the case of a bursting disc, the disc is made from material such as copper, brass or rubber sheet. It is
designed to burst at a predetermined safe pressure, therefore preventing any damage to the compressor
and personnel. If at any time the disc has to be renewed, it must only be replaced with one of the same
material and thickness as the original supplied by the manufacturer.
Lubrication

Lubrication of compressors can be by mineral oils for the lubrication of the bearings, rings and liners.
However in order to achieve good valve plate life without breakage, some oil has to be present in the air
stream.

Lubrication of cylinders can be controlled either by oil control rings or by an external pump supplying a
measured amount to lubricator quills.

Too much oil in the air stream can cause the following problems;

Oxidation forming carbon deposits.

Reduced sealing abilities of valves.
Blocking passages in valves.
Increasing wear on valve.
Reduced heat transfer at hot end of coolers.
Oil deposits on cooler surfaces reduce heat transfer.
Oil in air stream will coat all lines and receivers causing a risk of explosion.

The use of synthetic oil for lubrication of compressors is increasing as the oil forms fewer deposits on the
valves. Even though the cost is higher than that for mineral oil the benefits of greatly extended valve life,
shorter running periods due to minimal deposits on valve and longer running life of the oil outweigh the
cost.

Air Compressor Faults

Low output;

Leaking joints.
 Fouling intake filters.

Fouled valves.

Worn rings / liners.

Excessive bumping clearance.

Auto unloader fault.

High air discharge temperature;

Restricted cooling water flow.

Leaking valves recirculation.

Excessive bump clearance (not all air in cyl is passed to next stage).

Fouled intercooler, scale, oil, carbon.

Fouled intake filter.

High intercooler pressure;

2nd stage suction or delivery valve leaking. 30 bar will leak back to the intercooler making the
1st stage overcome this before the delivery valve will open.

Low intercooler pressure;

1st stage suction or delivery valve leaking.

Fouled air intake filter.

Oil carryover;

Defective oil control rings.

Excessive cylinder lubrication.

Auto drain valve defective.

Oiled intake filter.

Oil emulsification;

Coolant leak into crankcase. / Operating in humid conditions.