ARTICLE IN PRESS

Building and Environment 42 (2007) 317324

www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

On the use of bioclimatic architecture principles in order to improve

thermal comfort conditions in outdoor spaces
N. Gaitania, G. Mihalakakoua,, M. Santamourisb
a
Department of Environment and Natural Resources Management, University of Ioannina, 30 100 Agrinion, Greece
b
Laboratory of Meteorology, Department of Physics, Division of Applied Physics, University of Athens, University Campus, Build. PHYS-V,
Athens, GR 15784, Greece
Received 29 April 2005; received in revised form 26 July 2005; accepted 18 August 2005

Abstract

The present paper describes a process for designing and applying several techniques based on bioclimatic architecture criteria and on
passive cooling and energy conservation principles in order to improve the thermal comfort conditions in an outdoor space location
located in the Great Athens area. For that reason, the thermal comfort conditions in 12 different outdoor space points in the
experimented location have been calculated using two different thermal comfort bioclimatic indices developed to be used for outdoor
spaces. The used indices were the following: (a) Comfa, which is based on estimating the energy budget of a person in an outdoor
environment and (b) thermal sensation, based on the satisfaction or dissatisfaction sensation under the prevailing climatic conditions
of the outdoor spaces. Calculations were performed during the summer period and two different scenarios of the constructed space
parameters have been considered. The rst scenario consists of a conventionally constructed space, while the second one includes various
architectural improvements according to the bioclimatic design principles. The two bioclimatic indicators were used for calculating the
outdoor thermal comfort conditions in the above-mentioned outdoor space locations for both scenarios and the effect of the bioclimatic
design architectural improvements on the human thermal comfort sensation was presented and analysed.
r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Thermal comfort conditions; Outdoor spaces; Bioclimatic architecture principles; Microclimate

1. Introduction
Within a particular region, deviations in the climate are
experienced from place to place within a few kilometers
distance, forming a small-scale pattern of climate, called
microclimate [1]. Microclimate is affected by the
following parameters: topography, soil structure, ground
cover and urban forms. In moderate climate zones it is
possible to modify the microclimate with simple strategies
such as installing windbreaks and shadings, or at least
radiation attenuating devices [2]. Urban forms can also
modify the climate of a city, creating the urban climate,
and differentiate it from the climate of the surrounding
rural areas. The space created by the urban buildings up to
Corresponding author. Tel.: +30 26 41 03 95 11;
fax: +30 26 41 03 37 16.
E-mail address: pmichala@cc.uoi.gr (G. Mihalakakou).
their roof level is referred to as the urban canopy [2]. The
energy needs of buildings and the human thermal comfort
conditions are mainly affected by the prevailing microcli-
matic conditions.
Air temperatures in densely populated and built areas
are higher than those measured in the surrounding rural
country. The phenomenon is known as heat island and it
is a reection of the microclimatic changes brought about
by man-made alterations of the urban surface [3]. The
thermal balance of the urban region mainly determines the
intensity of the heat island, while the temperature
distribution at various locations in the urban area could
differ by 15 1C [4]. Discomfort and unhealthy living
conditions caused by high temperatures, wind tunnel
effects and undesirable climatic conditions due to wrongly
designed high rise buildings are very common in the urban
areas [5]. Human thermal comfort is dened as a condition
of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal

0360-1323/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.08.018
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318 N. Gaitani et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 317324
environment [6], the person would prefer neither warmer
nor cooler surroundings [7]. Thermal comfort is a rather
difcult and complicated concept as it depends on various
inuencing parameters. The following four main physical
parameters characterize the thermal environment and
determine the thermal comfort sensation [810]:

Ambient air temperature: it affects the dry and humid
exchanges as well as the heat transfer coefcient.

Air velocity: it greatly affects convective and evaporative
losses. Near the clothed body, the body motion can
increase it. A minimum speed of 0.1 m/s always exists,
due to a permanent natural air movement everywhere.

Relative humidity: it presents a small impact when there
is not sweating, then, the latent respiratory exchange
and the insensible skin perspiration are the only two
transfers associated with humidity. Otherwise, the air
humidity strongly affects the sweat evaporation, and
thus, the skin wetness.

Mean radiant temperature: mean radiant temperature is
the uniform surface temperature of a black enclosure
with which an individual exchanges the same heat by
radiation as the actual environment considered. For
outdoors the mean radiant temperature represents the
uniform surface temperature of a ctional enclosure
for which all surfaces of the ctional enclosure are at the
same temperature [11].
Moreover, the following external parameters should be
considered for the thermal comfort conditions calculation:

Activity level: the body converts a part of food into
energy according to the kind of activity. The amount of
energy produced per unit of time is called metabolic rate
and it is expressed in Watt per m2 of body surface.

Clothing: it is an interface between body and environ-
ment. It can either assist or resist both thermal and
hydric exchanges.
The main differences between thermal comfort calculations
in indoor and outdoor spaces are (a) in clothing, (b) in the
activity level, and (c) in the exposition period, which is
usually short in outdoor spaces while in the indoor areas is
much longer.
It has recently been conrmed that microclimatic
parameters strongly inuence thermal sensation (TS) and
the use of open space throughout the year, even though
responses may be unconscious [12]. A great number of bio-
meteorological indices have been developed in order to
predict the thermal comfort in a given climatic situation.
To assess the thermal environmental conditions, there are
various bio-meteorological indices, which could be classi-
ed according to the prevailing meteorological conditions
as follows [13]:
1. In indices referring to the cold environment, where there is
a combination of ambient air temperature and air velocity.
2. In indices referring to the warm environment, where
there is a combination of the air temperature with
several humidity indices for calculating the human body
evaporation.
The most well known bio-meteorological indices have been
described by [8,1417].
The human body is a source of energy and can be
simulated. Various models simulating the human body
thermal balance have been developed. Some of them are
quite old and simple [1824]. More recently developed and
sufciently completed were the models of [7], which has
been improved by [23], and the model of [25].
The present paper aims at describing an application of
bioclimatic techniques in an open urban space in order to
improve thermal comfort. Thus, two different methods of
thermal comfort conditions calculations, in the experimen-
ted outdoor space have been presented and used in the
present paper. The thermal comfort conditions in the
experimented outdoor space were estimated using the two
above-mentioned methods and for two different scenarios
including a conventionally constructed space and a bio-
climatically designed area. The results of the two methods
were discussed and several conclusions were achieved
related to the inuence of bioclimatic design architectural
improvements on the thermal comfort conditions in the
outdoor spaces.
2. Modeling the thermal comfort conditions in outdoor
spaces
2.1. Estimation of the thermal comfort in outdoor spaces
using TS-Givoni method
The thermal comfort sensation in outdoor spaces is a
factor, which signicantly inuences the human activities in
outdoor areas. Actually the degree and intense of such
activities depend on the level of satisfaction or dissatisfac-
tion under the prevailing climatic conditions of the outdoor
spaces. In [26], methodological issues were discussed and
carried out problems in outdoor comfort research. The
authors described and presented the results of an experi-
mental study conducted in Japan in 19941995. The
objective of this research was to determine the quantitative
effect on the outdoor comfort of Japanese persons. The
amount and intensity of any human outdoor activity is
affected by the level of discomfort experienced by the
inhabitants when they are exposed to the climatic condi-
tions in the outdoor spaces. The research utilised a
questionnaire surveys on the subjects sensory responses
and included physical measurement of outdoor climate
data. The questionnaire was mainly concerned with the
following two elements: (a) TS, and (b) overall comfort. TS
is the perception of heat or cold, on a scale of one, (very
cold), to seven, (very hot). The scale of the overall comfort
is from one, (very uncomfortable), to seven, (very
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N. Gaitani et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 317324
comfortable). Level four is neutral, when somebody does
not feel any thermal discomfort, to correspond with level
four of the TS. In Table 1 can be seen the seven levels of the
TS scale of TS-Givoni method. Thermal comfort level is
strongly related to the TS. Thermal comfort could better be
dened just as the absence of any sense of discomfort.
The experiments were performed under controlled solar
insolation and wind speed in order to understand how
these physical factors inuence the TS and the comfort
level of Japanese persons staying in outdoor spaces. The
main sites selected for the experiments were a grassed open
space as well as an asphalt parking area in a park in
Yokohama city. The investigation was performed in
different seasons, from summer 1994 to summer of 1995.
The following climatic parameters were measured during
the experiment: (a) ambient air temperature in the shade,
(Ta, in 1C), (b) horizontal solar radiation, (SR, in W/m2),
(c) wind speed, (WS, in m/sec), (d) relative humidity, (RH,
%), and (e) the surrounding ground surface temperature,
(ST, in 1C).
After analysing the measured data, a formula has been
developed which can predict the TS of people staying
outdoors. Detailed results of the experimental study were
presented in [2628].
The developed multi-factor regression formula, which
expresses the TS in outdoor spaces as a function of the ve
above-mentioned climatic parameters can be written as
follows:
TS 1:7 0:1118  T a 0:0019  SR  0:322
 WS  0:0073  RH 0:0054  ST
with an R2 (regression coefcient) value of 0.8792. In the
above formula the negative sign for the effect of relative
humidity indicates that higher values of relative humidity
result in lowering the TS.
The cooling effect of higher humidity may have been
just an error resulting from the very small number of
human subjects and may not represent the real inde-
pendent effect of the humidity. On the other hand, it may
have resulted from the particular combinations of
solar radiation and humidity in Japan during the
study. The humidity was lower and the temperature higher
and the subjects felt warmer mainly because of solar
radiation.
Table 1
The seven level of the thermal sensation scale of TS-Givoni method
Level Sensation
1 Very cold
2 Quite cold
3 Cold
4 Comfort
5 Hot
6 Quite hot
7 Very hot
319
2.2. The Comfa method
Understanding thermal comfort in outdoor spaces is a
basic requirement for micro-climatically oriented urban
design including the design of green urban structures [29].
For outdoor activities, traditional thermal indices can be
used in combination with simplied tools in order to
evaluate the inuence of physical parameters of the
surrounding already existing or designed environment on
thermal comfort, taking always into account the interac-
tion between physical, physiological and psychological
parameters.
The Comfa method mainly consists of the following
basic formula expressing the energy budget of a person in
an outdoor environment [29,30]:
Budget M Rabs  Conv  Evap  TRemitted , (2)
where M is the metabolic energy used to heat up the
person, Rabs is the absorbed solar and terrestrial radiation,
Conv is the sensible heat lost or gained through convection,
Evap is the evaporative heat loss, and TRemitted is the
emitted terrestrial radiation.
When the budget is near zero, a person can be expected
to be thermally comfortable. If the budget presents a large
positive value, the person receives more energy than lost, so
overheating could occur and the person would be
uncomfortably warm. Moreover, if the budget is negative
the person could be cool. Table 2 shows the human
comfort feelings related to the budget values.
Eq. (2) includes several components, which can be
1
analysed as follows:
1. The total metabolic heat generated by a person, (M*)
is utilised by the body in the following two ways: (a) a small
part, is consumed during breathing through evaporation of
water and sensible heat loss, and (b) the remaining, (M), is
conducted to the outer body surfaces and ultimately is lost
through convection, evaporation, and radiation. Table 3
presents values of M* for some typical landscape activities.
2. The total solar radiation received by a person in any
environment, Rabs consists of two components: (a) the total
solar radiation absorbed, Kabs, and (b) the terrestrial
radiation absorbed, Labs.
The overall amount of the total solar radiation absorbed
by a human body can be calculated as follows:
K abs T D S R1  A, (3)
Table 2
The human comfort feelings related to the budget values
Budget (W/m2) Sensation
Budgeto150 Very cold
150obudgeto50 Cold
50obudgeto50 Comfort
50obudgeto150 Hot
150obudget Very hot
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320 N. Gaitani et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 317324

Table 3 where T0 is the temperature of each object, and E0 is the

M* values for some typical landscape activities
emissivity of each object.
Activities M* (W/m2)
G E g 5:67  108 T 4g ,
Sleeping 50
Awake, resting 60 where Tg is the ground surface temperature, and Eg is the
Standing, sitting 90 ground surface emissivity.
Working at a desk or driving 95 3. The convective heat ow from a person to the open air
Standing, light work 120 can be described as follows:
Walking slow (4 km/hr) 180
Walking moderate (5.5 km/hr) 250 Conv 1200T c  T a =rt rc ra ; (5)
Short spurts of intense activity 600
where Tc is the core temperature of a person, Ta the air
temperature, rt the resistance to heat ow of body tissue, rc
is the resistance of the clothing; ra is the resistance of the
where T is the direct solar radiation received by a person, D boundary layer around the body.
is the diffuse solar radiation received by the person, S is the Tc, rt, ra, and rc can be estimated using the following
diffuse radiation reected from objects in the sky onto the equations:
person, R is the solar radiation reected from the ground
surface onto the person, while A is the albedo of the human T c 36:5 0:0043  M,
body. rt 0:1M  65,
Each component of Eq. (3) can be calculated as follows:
rc 0:17Ren  Pr0:33  K;
T fK  K d =tane=pgt,
ra rco 1  0:5  P0:4  W 0:5 ,
where K is total solar radiation measured on a horizontal
at plate, Kd is the diffuse solar radiation, t is the solar where rco is the insulation value of clothing, P is the air
transmissivity of vegetation or other any other object permeability of clothing fabric, Re is the Reynolds number,
placed between the person and the sun, and e is the solar Pr is the Prandtl number, W is the wind speed, and K is the
elevation angle. Solar elevation angle represents the angle thermal diffusivity of air.
the sun makes with the horizontal ground plane. For Table 4 shows the insulation and permeability values of
calculations on the 15th of August and 12:00 LT, solar some typical clothing ensembles for Comfa calculations.
elevation angle equal to 66.221 and tane 2:269. 4. The evaporative heat losses occur through respiration
and perspiration. Respiration losses were dealt with
D K d  SVF; through M. Perspiration can be divided into insensible
where SVF is the proportion of the sky hemisphere losses, (Ei), through the skin and sensible losses, (Es),
unobstructed by trees or other objects, the sky view factor. through perspiration. Thus,

S K d 1  SVFA0 , Evap E i E s . (6)

where A0 is the albedo of the objects in the sky hemisphere. Es is given by the following expression:

R K  t  Ag , E s 0:42M  58.

where Ag is the albedo of the ground surface. While Ei can be calculated as follows:
The terrestrial radiation absorbed by a person, (Labs), is E i 5:24  106 qs  qa =rcv rav rtv ,
given by the following equation:
where qs is the saturation specic humidity at skin
Labs f0:5V F  0:5  Gg1  A; (4) temperature (Ts), and is given as follows:
where V is the sky radiation, F is the radiation from objects
Qs 0:6108fexp17:269  T s =T s 237:3g,
in the sky hemisphere, G is the radiation from the ground
surface, and A the albedo of a person.
Table 4
Each component of Eq. (4) is given as follows: The insulation and permeability values of some typical clothing ensembles
for Comfa calculations
V L  SVF;
where L is the terrestrial radiation emitted by the sky, and Clothing ensemble Rco (s/m) P
is given as follows: T-shirt, short pants, socks, running shoes 50 175
T-shirt, long pants, socks, shoes or boots 75 150
L 1:25:67  10 8
T 4a   171, T-shirt, long pants, socks, windbreaker 100 100
Shirt, long pants, socks, shoes, windbreaker 125 65
where Ta is the air temperature.
Shirt, long pants, socks, shoes, sweater 175 125
Shirt, long pants, socks, shoes, sweater, windbreaker 250 50
F E 0 5:67  108 T 40 1  SVF,
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N. Gaitani et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 317324 321

qa is the saturation specic humidity at air temperature, the 15th of August and the 12th hour under clear sky
(Ta) and can be presented as follows: conditions. The exposition period was 1 day, (15th of August).
August is a warm and dry month in the Athens area,
qa 0:6108fexp17:269  T a =T a 237:3g.
usually without weather phenomena such as cloud cover-
Moreover, the subscript v in rcv, rav, and rtv, denoted age or storms.
resistance to water vapour.
5. The terrestrial radiation, (TRemitted), emitted by a
Table 5
person can be estimated by the following equation: The thermal comfort conditions values for the 12 different considered
points of the selected outdoor space in its existing situation using TS-
TRemitted 5:67  108 T s 2734 , (7) Givoni and Comfa methods
where Ts is the surface temperature of a person and can be
Number of place TS (scenario 1) Budget (scenario 1)
calculated by the following equation:
1 6.80 105.15
T s  T a =ra T c  T a =rt rc ra . 2 6.79 104.46
3 6.82 104.68
4 6.81 102.20
3. Improving microclimate in an outdoor space in the Great 5 7.32 121.79
Athens area 6 7.65 120.13
7 6.70 98.88
8 6.42 97.08
3.1. Investigation of the area microclimatic conditions in its 9 7.27 108.68
existing situation 10 6.99 107.14
11 7.07 107.04
A climatic conscious design of outdoor spaces and the 12 7.09 101.79
appropriate use of natural components are key elements to
reduce the outcome of unsound evolution of urban areas
where impermeable surfaces and denuded landscapes deter-
mine undesirable climatic effects and unhealthy life conditions.
The experimented area is still under construction and it
is of great architectural importance as it is a space of 2300
residences designed with the principles of bioclimatic
architecture. Primarily, the scenario of the already existing
microclimatic situation was considered.
Fig. 1 shows the selected outdoor space and the 12
experimented locations for the rst scenario.
Furthermore, in order to estimate the thermal comfort
conditions in the experimented area and for the existing
situation scenario, the two thermal comfort calculation
methods presented in Chapter 2, were used. The thermal
comfort calculations were calculated for the specic area in
Athens using the two methods. As regards the weather
conditions, summer season conditions for the Athens area
were considered. Specically, calculations were performed for

Fig. 2. The spatial variation of the thermal sensation and energy budget,
Fig. 1. The experimented outdoor space and the 12 experimented calculated using TS-Givoni and Comfa methods, for the rst
locations for the rst scenario. scenario.
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The used in the present research climatic data for the
particular region of study and for the above-mentioned
time period could be described as follows:

Ground surface temperature (ST) 30 1C.

Relative humidity (RH) 35%.

Solar radiation (SR) 700 W/m2.
The used in the present study activity level can be described
as follows:

For Givoni method (TS): 1Met 58:8 W=m2 corre-
sponding to resting activity level.

For Comfa: Also 1Met.
The used clothing insulation:

For both TS and Comfa: clo value 0:10 (rco 50 and
P 175, T-shirt, short pants, socks, running shoes).
Table 5 shows the calculated thermal comfort conditions
values for the 12 different considered points of the selected
outdoor space in its existing situation using TS-Givoni
and Comfa methods. From this table it can be observed
the high values for both TS and energy budget for the
majority of places, resulting in quite poor thermal comfort
conditions.
Fig. 3. The experimented outdoor space with the improvements of the second scenario.
Fig. 2 shows the spatial variation of the TS and energy
budget, calculated using TS-Givoni and Comfa
methods, for the rst scenario and it is obvious that the
microclimate should be improved.
3.2. Improving the microclimate
An alternative scenario was proposed in order to
improve microclimate and specically the thermal comfort
conditions. The main objectives identied in the urban
planning for improving microclimate in outdoor spaces can
be summarized as follows:

Promotion of all forms of passive natural devices
according to the potential effects of minimizing localized
pollution problems and enhancing urban microclimate.

Increase of permeable surface in the outdoor spaces.

Improvement of natural cooling minimizing solar heat
gains

CO2 absorption by plants and urban pollutant disper-
sion by natural ventilation.
For the alternative scenario, and in order to meet the above
objectives, in the investigated open space, the following
improvements have been proposed, (Fig. 3):
a. Dense vegetation with evergreen trees along the
Northern area of the space in order to avoid high
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N. Gaitani et al. / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 317324 323

values of wind velocity and to create simultaneously a c. Low and average vegetation in the park and everywhere
green space in the area. between the buildings.
b. Pergolas with deciduous plants along all streets of the d. Small water sources in the park, which can create a
area in order to achieve solar control and to create a feeling of coolness especially where high temperature
pleasant cooling feeling during the summer period. values have been measured.
e. Use of construction materials with high emissivity and
reectivity values.
Table 6
The thermal comfort conditions values for the 12 different considered
points of the selected outdoor space using TS-Givoni and Comfa
methods for the second-alternative scenarios Table 6 shows the calculated thermal comfort condi-
tions values for the 12 different considered points of
Number of Place TS (scenario 2) Budget (scenario 2) the selected outdoor space and when the alternative
scenario was applied using TS-Givoni and Comfa
1 6.47 61.60
2 6.48 62.37 methods. From this table it can be seen that the thermal
3 6.46 60.13 comfort has been signicantly improved in the second
4 6.45 58.55 scenario.
5 6.68 75.65 In Fig. 4, it can be seen the spatial variation of the
6 6.65 66.23
thermal comfort, as calculated using both methods, for
7 6.50 63.85
8 6.50 63.84 the second alternative scenarios, with application of the
9 7.07 88.74 improvements. As shown, the thermal comfort conditions
10 6.43 51.40 values calculated using both methods, are remarkably
11 6.51 59.67 lower than those of the rst scenario.
12 6.65 64.15
The application of both methods has shown that
the thermal comfort conditions were improved in the
second scenario. This is mainly caused by the existence
of green and water spaces as well as by the use of materials
of high emissivity and reectivity values. From the
application of both thermal comfort conditions methods
it was observed that the energy budget of a person
when the second scenario was applied, was reduced
in an average 40%, while in the majority of places
an improvement of the hot sensation in an average of
6% was achieved with the application of the second
scenario.

4. Concluding remarks

An integrating alternative scenario for improving

Fig. 4. The spatial variation of the thermal sensation and energy budget,
calculated using TS-Givoni and Comfa methods, for the second use of construction materials with high emissivity and
scenario.
microclimate in an open space area located in Athens is
presented in this paper. Thermal comfort conditions were
used as an indicator of the microclimatic situation. Thus,
the thermal comfort conditions in 12 different outdoor
space places of the investigated area for the summer period
were calculated using two different methods, the Comfa
method and the TS-Givoni one. For the calculation of the
thermal comfort conditions, two different scenarios have
been considered. The rst one includes the investigated
area as it is, while the second one includes various
architectural improvements according to the bioclimatic
design principles. Both bioclimatic indices showed that the
thermal comfort conditions were signicantly improved
with the use of the second scenario, mainly because of
the use of green and water spaces as well as because of the
reectivity values.
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