Anger - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Anger

Anger
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Anger or wrath is an intense emotional response. It is an

emotion that involves a strong uncomfortable and emotional
response to a perceived provocation, hurt or threat.[1] Anger
can occur when a person feels their personal boundaries are
being or going to be violated. Some have a learned tendency
to react to anger through retaliation as a way of coping.
Raymond Novaco of University of California Irvine, who
since 1975 has published a plethora of literature on the
subject, stratified anger into three modalities: cognitive A drawing of faces expressing anger.
(appraisals), somatic-affective (tension and agitations), and
behavioral (withdrawal and antagonism).[2] William
DeFoore, an anger-management writer, described anger as a pressure cooker: we can only apply
pressure against our anger for a certain amount of time until it explodes.[3]

Anger is an emotional reaction that impacts the body. A person experiencing anger will also
experience physical conditions, such as increased heart rate, elevated blood pressure, and increased
levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline.[4] Some view anger as an emotion which triggers part of the
fight or flight brain response.[5] Anger is used as a protective mechanism to cover up fear, hurt or
sadness. Anger becomes the predominant feeling behaviorally, cognitively, and physiologically
when a person makes the conscious choice to take action to immediately stop the threatening
behavior of another outside force.[6] The English term originally comes from the term anger of Old
Norse language.[7] Anger can have many physical and mental consequences.

The external expression of anger can be found in facial expressions, body language, physiological
responses, and at times public acts of aggression.[8] Animals, for example, make loud sounds,
attempt to look physically larger, bare their teeth, and stare. [9] The behaviors associated with anger
are designed to warn aggressors to stop their threatening behavior. Rarely does a physical
altercation occur without the prior expression of anger by at least one of the participants.[9] While
most of those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of "what has happened to them,"
psychologists point out that an angry person can very well be mistaken because anger causes a loss
in self-monitoring capacity and objective observability.[10]

Modern psychologists view anger as a primary, natural, and mature emotion experienced by
virtually all humans at times, and as something that has functional value for survival. Anger is seen
as a supportive mechanism to show a person that something is wrong and requires changing. Anger
can mobilize psychological resources for corrective action. Uncontrolled anger can, however,
negatively affect personal or social well-being[10][11] and impact negatively on those around them.
It is equally challenging to be around an angry person and the impact can also cause
psychological/emotional trauma if not dealt with. While many philosophers and writers have

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warned against the spontaneous and uncontrolled fits of anger, there has been disagreement over
the intrinsic value of anger.[12] The issue of dealing with anger has been written about since the
times of the earliest philosophers, but modern psychologists, in contrast to earlier writers, have also
pointed out the possible harmful effects of suppressing anger.[12] Displays of anger can be used as a
manipulation strategy for social influence.[13][14]

Contents
1 Psychology and sociology
1.1 Neuropsychological perspective
2 Differences between related concepts
3 Characteristics
3.1 Passive anger
3.2 Aggressive anger
3.3 Six dimensions of anger expression
4 Causes
4.1 Cognitive effects
4.2 As a strategy
4.3 Coping strategies
4.3.1 Cognitive behavioral affective therapy
4.3.2 Suppression
4.4 Dual thresholds model
5 Neurology
6 Physiology
7 Philosophical perspectives
7.1 Antiquity
7.1.1 Control methods
7.2 Medieval era
7.2.1 Control methods
7.3 Modern times
8 Religious perspectives
8.1 Judaism
8.2 Christianity
8.2.1 Catholic
8.2.2 Protestant
8.3 Hinduism
8.4 Buddhism
8.5 Islam
8.6 Of God
8.7 Meher Baba's teachings
9 See also

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10 Further reading
11 References

Psychology and sociology

Three types of anger are recognized by psychologists:[15]

1. Hasty and sudden anger is connected to the impulse for

self-preservation. It is shared by human and other animals,
and it occurs when the animal is tormented or trapped.
This form of anger is episodic.
2. Settled and deliberate anger is a reaction to perceived
deliberate harm or unfair treatment by others. This form
of anger is episodic.
3. Dispositional anger is related more to character traits
than to instincts or cognitions. Irritability, sullenness and
churlishness are examples of the last form of anger.

Anger can potentially mobilize psychological resources and

boost determination toward correction of wrong behaviors, The Anger of Achilles, by
promotion of social justice, communication of negative Giovanni Battista Tiepolo depicts
sentiment and redress of grievances. It can also facilitate the Greek hero attacking
patience. In contrast, anger can be destructive when it does not Agamemnon.
find its appropriate outlet in expression. Anger, in its strong
form, impairs one's ability to process information and to exert cognitive control over their behavior.
An angry person may lose his/her objectivity, empathy, prudence or thoughtfulness and may cause
harm to themselves or others.[10][16][17] There is a sharp distinction between anger and aggression
(verbal or physical, direct or indirect) even though they mutually influence each other. While anger
can activate aggression or increase its probability or intensity, it is neither a necessary nor a
sufficient condition for aggression.[10]

Neuropsychological perspective

Extension of the Stimuli of the Fighting Reactions. At the beginning of life the human infant
struggles indiscriminately against any restraining force, whether it be another human being or a
blanket which confines his movements. There is no inherited susceptibility to social stimuli, as
distinct from other stimulation, in anger. At a later date the child learns that certain actions, such as
striking, scolding, and screaming, are effective toward persons, but not toward things. In adults,
although the infantile response is still sometimes seen, the fighting reaction becomes fairly well
limited to stimuli whose hurting or restraining influence can be thrown off by physical violence.[18]

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Differences between related concepts

The words annoyance and rage are often imagined to be at opposite ends of an emotional
continuum: mild irritation and annoyance at the low end and fury or murderous rage at the high
end. Rage problems are conceptualized as "the inability to process emotions or life's
experiences"[19] either because the capacity to regulate emotion (Schore, 1994)[20] has never been
sufficiently developed or because it has been temporarily lost due to more recent trauma. Rage is
understood as "a whole load of different feelings trying to get out at once" (Harvey, 2004)[21] or as
raw, undifferentiated emotions, that spill out when another life event that cannot be processed, no
matter how trivial, puts more stress on the organism than it can bear.

Anger when viewed as a protective response or instinct to a perceived threat is considered as

positive. The negative expression of this state is known as aggression.[22] Acting on this misplaced
state is Rage due to possible potential errors in perception and judgement.

Examples

Expressions of anger used

negatively
Over-protective Instinct & Hostility
Entitlement & Frustration
Intimidation & Rationalization
Reasoning
To avoid conceived loss or fear that something will be taken
away.
To prevent change in functioning.
To meet one's own needs.

Characteristics
One simple dichotomy of anger expression is Passive anger versus Aggressive anger. These two
types of anger have some characteristic symptoms:

Passive anger

Passive anger can be expressed in the following ways:

Dispassion, such as giving someone the cold shoulder or a fake smile, looking unconcerned
or "sitting on the fence" while others sort things out, dampening feelings with substance
abuse, overreacting, oversleeping, not responding to another's anger, frigidity, indulging in
sexual practices that depress spontaneity and make objects of participants, giving inordinate
amounts of time to machines, objects or intellectual pursuits, talking of frustrations but
showing no feeling.
Evasiveness, such as turning one's back in a crisis, avoiding conflict, not arguing back,
becoming phobic.

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Defeatism, such as setting yourself and others up for failure, choosing unreliable people to
depend on, being accident prone, underachieving, sexual impotence, expressing frustration at
insignificant things but ignoring serious ones.
Obsessive behavior, such as needing to be inordinately clean and tidy, making a habit of
constantly checking things, over-dieting or overeating, demanding that all jobs be done
perfectly.
Psychological manipulation, such as provoking people to aggression and then patronizing
them, provoking aggression but staying on the sidelines, emotional blackmail, false
tearfulness, feigning illness, sabotaging relationships, using sexual provocation, using a third
party to convey negative feelings, withholding money or resources.
Secretive behavior, such as stockpiling resentments that are expressed behind people's backs,
giving the silent treatment or under the breath mutterings, avoiding eye contact, putting
people down, gossiping, anonymous complaints, poison pen letters, stealing, and conning.
Self-blame, such as apologizing too often, being overly critical, inviting criticism.

Aggressive anger

The symptoms of aggressive anger are:

Bullying, such as threatening people directly, persecuting, pushing or shoving, using power to
oppress, shouting, driving someone off the road, playing on people's weaknesses.
Destructiveness, such as destroying objects as in vandalism, harming animals, child abuse,
destroying a relationship, reckless driving, substance abuse.
Grandiosity, such as showing off, expressing mistrust, not delegating, being a sore loser,
wanting center stage all the time, not listening, talking over people's heads, expecting kiss and
make-up sessions to solve problems.
Hurtfulness, such as violence, including sexual abuse and rape, verbal abuse, biased or
vulgar jokes, breaking confidence, using foul language, ignoring people's feelings, willfully
discriminating, blaming, punishing people for unwarranted deeds, labeling others.
Manic behavior, such as speaking too fast, walking too fast, driving too fast, reckless
spending.
Selfishness, such as ignoring others' needs, not responding to requests for help, queue
jumping.
Threats, such as frightening people by saying how one could harm them, their property or
their prospects, finger pointing, fist shaking, wearing clothes or symbols associated with
violent behaviour, tailgating, excessively blowing a car horn, slamming doors.
Unjust blaming, such as accusing other people for one's own mistakes, blaming people for
your own feelings, making general accusations.
Unpredictability, such as explosive rages over minor frustrations, attacking indiscriminately,
dispensing unjust punishment, inflicting harm on others for the sake of it, using alcohol and
drugs,[23] illogical arguments.
Vengeance, such as being over-punitive. This differs from retributive justice, as vengeance is
personal, and possibly unlimited in scale.

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One should also consider the context or the bigger picture, e.g an aggressive action of manipulation
may in fact work to help an individual, although a contradiction in a PC sense, an important
distinction should be made when considering the context of anger when it promotes a positive
effect that outweighs the negative. For instance, a display of anger to shock an individual in order
to get them to stop sunbathing so intensely, this may save their life, and would be therefore
considered socially and morally acceptable in every sense.

Six dimensions of anger expression

Anger expression can take on many more styles than passive or aggressive. Ephrem Fernandez has
identified six bipolar dimensions of anger expression. They relate to the direction of anger, its
locus, reaction, modality, impulsivity, and objective. Coordinates on each of these dimensions can
be connected to generate a profile of a person's anger expression style. Among the many profiles
that are theoretically possible in this system, are the familiar profile of the person with explosive
anger, profile of the person with repressive anger, profile of the passive aggressive person, and the
profile of constructive anger expression.[24]

Causes
People feel angry when they sense that they or someone they care about has been offended, when
they are certain about the nature and cause of the angering event, when they are love someone else
is responsible, and when they feel they can still in fluence the situation or cope with it.[25] For
instance, if a person's car is damaged, they will feel angry if someone else did it (e.g. another driver
rear-ended it), but will feel sadness instead if it was caused by situational forces (e.g. a hailstorm)
or guilt and shame if they were personally responsible (e.g. he crashed into a wall out of
momentary carelessness). Psychotherapist Michael C. Graham defines anger in terms of our
expectations and assumptions about the world.[26] Graham states anger almost always results when
we are caught up "... expecting the world to be different than it is".[27]

Usually, those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of "what has happened to them"
and in most cases the described provocations occur immediately before the anger experience. Such
explanations confirm the illusion that anger has a discrete external cause. The angry person usually
finds the cause of their anger in an intentional, personal, and controllable aspect of another person's
behavior. This explanation, however, is based on the intuitions of the angry person who experiences
a loss in self-monitoring capacity and objective observability as a result of their emotion. Anger can
be of multicausal origin, some of which may be remote events, but people rarely find more than
one cause for their anger.[10] According to Novaco, "Anger experiences are embedded or nested
within an environmental-temporal context. Disturbances that may not have involved anger at the
outset leave residues that are not readily recognized but that operate as a lingering backdrop for
focal provocations (of anger)."[10] According to Encyclopdia Britannica, an internal infection can
cause pain which in turn can activate anger.[28]

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Cognitive effects

Anger makes people think more optimistically. Dangers seem smaller, actions seem less risky,
ventures seem more likely to succeed, and unfortunate events seem less likely. Angry people are
more likely to make risky decisions, and make more optimistic risk assessments. In one study, test
subjects primed to feel angry felt less likely to suffer heart disease, and more likely to receive a pay
raise, compared to fearful people.[29] This tendency can manifest in retrospective thinking as well:
in a 2005 study, angry subjects said they thought the risks of terrorism in the year following 9/11 in
retrospect were low, compared to what the fearful and neutral subjects thought.[30]

In inter-group relationships, anger makes people think in more negative and prejudiced terms about
outsiders. Anger makes people less trusting, and slower to attribute good qualities to outsiders. [31]

When a group is in conflict with a rival group, it will feel more anger if it is the politically stronger
group and less anger when it is the weaker.[32]

Unlike other negative emotions like sadness and fear, angry people are more likely to demonstrate
correspondence bias the tendency to blame a person's behavior more on his nature than on his
circumstances. They tend to rely more on stereotypes, and pay less attention to details and more
attention to the superficial. In this regard, anger is unlike other "negative" emotions such as sadness
and fear, which promote analytical thinking.[33]

An angry person tends to anticipate other events that might cause them anger. They will tend to rate
anger-causing events (e.g. being sold a faulty car) as more likely than sad events (e.g. a good friend
moving away).[34]

A person who is angry tends to place more blame on another person for their misery. This can
create a feedback, as this extra blame can make the angry person angrier still, so they in turn place
yet more blame on the other person.

When people are in a certain emotional state, they tend to pay more attention to, or remember,
things that are charged with the same emotion; so it is with anger. For instance, if you are trying to
persuade someone that a tax increase is necessary, if the person is currently feeling angry you
would do better to use an argument that elicits anger ("more criminals will escape justice") than,
say, an argument that elicits sadness ("there will be fewer welfare benefits for disabled
children").[35] Also, unlike other negative emotions, which focus attention on all negative events,
anger only focuses attention on anger-causing events.

Anger can make a person more desiring of an object to which his anger is tied. In a 2010 Dutch
study, test subjects were primed to feel anger or fear by being shown an image of an angry or
fearful face, and then were shown an image of a random object. When subjects were made to feel
angry, they expressed more desire to possess that object than subjects who had been primed to feel
fear.[36]

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As a strategy

As with any emotion, the display of anger can be feigned or exaggerated. Studies by Hochschild
and Sutton have shown that the show of anger is likely to be an effective manipulation strategy in
order to change and design attitudes. Anger is a distinct strategy of social influence and its use (i.e.
belligerent behaviors) as a goal achievement mechanism proves to be a successful strategy.[13][14]

Larissa Tiedens, known for her studies of anger, claimed that expression of feelings would cause a
powerful influence not only on the perception of the expresser but also on their power position in
the society. She studied the correlation between anger expression and social influence perception.
Previous researchers, such as Keating, 1985 have found that people with angry face expression
were perceived as powerful and as in a high social position.[37] Similarly, Tiedens et al. have
revealed that people who compared scenarios involving an angry and a sad character, attributed a
higher social status to the angry character.[38] Tiedens examined in her study whether anger
expression promotes status attribution. In other words, whether anger contributes to perceptions or
legitimization of others' behaviors. Her findings clearly indicated that participants who were
exposed to either an angry or a sad person were inclined to express support for the angry person
rather than for a sad one. In addition, it was found that a reason for that decision originates from the
fact that the person expressing anger was perceived as an ability owner, and was attributed a certain
social status accordingly.[37]

Showing anger during a negotiation may increase the ability of the anger expresser to succeed in
negotiation. A study by Tiedens et al. indicated that the anger expressers were perceived as
stubborn, dominant and powerful. In addition, it was found that people were inclined to easily give
up to those who were perceived by them as powerful and stubborn, rather than soft and
submissive.[38] Based on these findings Sinaceur and Tiedens have found that people conceded
more to the angry side rather than for the non-angry one.[39]

A question raised by Van Kleef et al. based on these findings was whether expression of emotion
influences others, since it is known that people use emotional information to conclude about others'
limits and match their demands in negotiation accordingly. Van Kleef et al. wanted to explore
whether people give up more easily to an angry opponent or to a happy opponent. Findings
revealed that participants tended to be more flexible toward an angry opponent compared with a
happy opponent. These results strengthen the argument that participants analyze the opponent's
emotion to conclude about their limits and carry out their decisions accordingly.[40]

Coping strategies

According to Leland R. Beaumont, each instance of anger demands making a choice.[41] A person
can respond with hostile action, including overt violence, or they can respond with hostile inaction,
such as withdrawing or stonewalling. Other options include initiating a dominance contest;
harboring resentment; or working to better understand and constructively resolve the issue.

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According to R. Novaco, there are a multitude of steps that were researched in attempting to deal
with this emotion. In order to manage anger the problems involved in the anger should be
discussed, Novaco suggests. The situations leading to anger should be explored by the person. The
person is then tried to be imagery-based relieved of his or her recent angry experiences.[12][42]

Conventional therapies for anger involve restructuring thoughts and beliefs to bring about a
reduction in anger. These therapies often come within the schools of CBT (or Cognitive
Behavioural Therapies) like modern systems such as REBT (Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy).
Research shows that people who suffer from excessive anger often harbor and act on dysfunctional
attributions, assumptions and evaluations in specific situations. It has been shown that with therapy
by a trained professional, individuals can bring their anger to more manageable levels.[43] The
therapy is followed by the so-called "stress inoculation" in which the clients are taught "relaxation
skills to control their arousal and various cognitive controls to exercise on their attention, thoughts,
images, and feelings. They are taught to see the provocation and the anger itself as occurring in a
series of stages, each of which can be dealt with."[12]

The Skills-deficit model states that poor social skills is what renders a person incapable of
expressing anger in an appropriate manner.[44] Social skills training has been found to be an
effective method for reducing exaggerated anger by offering alternative coping skills to the angry
individual. Research has found that persons who are prepared for aversive events find them less
threatening, and excitatory reactions are significantly reduced.[45] In a 1981 study, that used
modeling, behavior rehearsal, and videotaped feedback to increase anger control skills, showed
increases in anger control among aggressive youth in the study.[46] Research conducted with
youthful offenders using a social skills training program (aggression replacement training), found
significant reductions in anger, and increases in anger control.[47] Research has also found that
antisocial personalities are more likely to learn avoidance tasks when the consequences involved
obtaining or losing tangible rewards. Learning among antisocial personalities also occurred better
when they were involved with high intensity stimulation.[48] Social Learning Theory states that
positive stimulation was not compatible with hostile or aggressive reactions.[49] Anger research has
also studied the effects of reducing anger among adults with antisocial personality disorder
(ASPD), with a social skills program approach that used a low fear and high arousal group setting.
This research found that low fear messages were less provocative to the ASPD population, and high
positive arousal stimulated their ability to concentrate, and subsequently learn new skills for anger
reduction.[50]

Cognitive behavioral affective therapy

A new integrative approach to anger treatment has been formulated by Ephrem Fernandez
(2010)[51] Termed CBAT, for cognitive behavioral affective therapy, this treatment goes beyond
conventional relaxation and reappraisal by adding cognitive and behavioral techniques and
supplementing them with affective techniques to deal with the feeling of anger. The techniques are
sequenced contingently in three phases of treatment: prevention, intervention, and postvention. In
this way, people can be trained to deal with the onset of anger, its progression, and the residual

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features of anger.

Suppression

Modern psychologists point out that suppression of anger may have harmful effects. The
suppressed anger may find another outlet, such as a physical symptom, or become more extreme.
[12][52] John W. Fiero cites Los Angeles riots of 1992 as an example of sudden, explosive release of
suppressed anger. The anger was then displaced as violence against those who had nothing to do
with the matter. Another example of widespread deflection of anger from its actual cause toward
scapegoating, Fiero says, was the blaming of Jews for the economic ills of Germany by the
Nazis.[11]

However, psychologists have also criticized the "catharsis theory" of aggression, which suggests
that "unleashing" pent-up anger reduces aggression.[53]

Dual thresholds model

Anger expression might have negative outcomes for individuals and organizations as well, such as
decrease of productivity[54] and increase of job stress,[55] however it could also have positive
outcomes, such as increased work motivation, improved relationships, increased mutual
understanding etc. (for ex. Tiedens, 2000).[56] A Dual Thresholds Model of Anger in organizations
by Geddes and Callister, (2007) provides an explanation on the valence of anger expression
outcomes. The model suggests that organizational norms establish emotion thresholds that may be
crossed when employees feel anger. The first "expression threshold" is crossed when an
organizational member conveys felt anger to individuals at work who are associated with or able to
address the anger-provoking situation. The second "impropriety threshold" is crossed if or when
organizational members go too far while expressing anger such that observers and other company
personnel find their actions socially and/or culturally inappropriate.

The higher probability of negative outcomes from workplace anger likely will occur in either of
two situations. The first is when organizational members suppress rather than express their
angerthat is, they fail to cross the "expression threshold". In this instance personnel who might be
able to address or resolve the anger-provoking condition or event remain unaware of the problem,
allowing it to continue, along with the affected individual's anger. The second is when
organizational members cross both thresholds"double cross" displaying anger that is perceived
as deviant. In such cases the angry person is seen as the problemincreasing chances of
organizational sanctions against him or her while diverting attention away from the initial anger-
provoking incident. In contrast, a higher probability of positive outcomes from workplace anger
expression likely will occur when one's expressed anger stays in the space between the expression
and impropriety thresholds. Here, one expresses anger in a way fellow organizational members find
acceptable, prompting exchanges and discussions that may help resolve concerns to the satisfaction
of all parties involved. This space between the thresholds varies among different organizations and
also can be changed in organization itself: when the change is directed to support anger displays;

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the space between the thresholds will be expanded and when the change is directed to suppressing
such displays; the space will be reduced.[57]

Neurology
In neuroimaging studies of anger, the most consistently activated region of the brain was the lateral
orbitofrontal cortex.[58] This region is associated with approach motivation and positive affective
processes.[59] A good explanation on where anger and ego originate in the brain has been shown in
this article.[60]

Physiology
Neuroscience has shown that emotions are generated by
multiple structures in the brain. The rapid, minimal, and
evaluative processing of the emotional significance of the
sensory data is done when the data passes through the amygdala
in its travel from the sensory organs along certain neural
pathways towards the limbic forebrain. Emotion caused by
discrimination of stimulus features, thoughts, or memories
however occurs when its information is relayed from the
thalamus to the neocortex.[28] Based on some statistical An angry exchange between two
analysis, some scholars have suggested that the tendency for people, as evidenced by their
anger may be genetic. Distinguishing between genetic and
body language and facial
environmental factors however requires further research and
expressions. To hear the angry
actual measurement of specific genes and environments. [61][62] exchange, listen to the audio
below.
The external expression of anger can be found in physiological
responses, facial expressions, body language, and at times in
public acts of aggression.[8] The rib cage tenses and breathing Audio file of an angry exchange
through the nose becomes faster, deeper, and irregular. [63]
at a protest.
Anger activates the hypothalamicpituitaryadrenal axis. [64]
The catecholamine activation is more strongly norepinephrine
than epinephrine.[10] Heart rate and blood pressure increase. Blood flows to the hands. Perspiration
increases (particularly when the anger is intense).[65] The face flushes. The nostrils flare. The jaw
tenses. The brow muscles move inward and downward, fixing a hard stare on the target. The arms
are raised and a squared-off stance is adopted. The body is mobilized for immediate action, often
manifesting as a subjective sense of strength, self-assurance, and potency. This may encourage the
impulse to strike out.[10]

Philosophical perspectives

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Antiquity

Ancient Greek philosophers, describing and commenting on the

uncontrolled anger, particularly toward slaves, in their society
generally showed a hostile attitude towards anger. Galen and
Seneca regarded anger as a kind of madness. They all rejected
the spontaneous, uncontrolled fits of anger and agreed on both
the possibility and value of controlling anger. There were
however disagreements regarding the value of anger. For
Seneca, anger was "worthless even for war." Seneca believed
that the disciplined Roman army was regularly able to beat the
Germans, who were known for their fury. He argued that "... in The Fury of Athamas by John
Flaxman (17551826).
sporting contests, it is a mistake to become angry".[12]

Aristotle on the other hand, ascribed some value to anger that has arisen from perceived injustice
because it is useful for preventing injustice.[12][66] Furthermore, the opposite of anger is a kind of
insensibility, Aristotle stated.[12] The difference in people's temperaments was generally viewed as
a result of the different mix of qualities or humors people contained. Seneca held that "red-haired
and red-faced people are hot-tempered because of excessive hot and dry humors."[12] Ancient
philosophers rarely refer to women's anger at all, according to Simon Kemp and K. T. Strongman
perhaps because their works were not intended for women. Some of them that discuss it, such as
Seneca, considered women to be more prone to anger than men.[12]

Control methods

Seneca addresses the question of mastering anger in three parts: Wikisource has
1. how to avoid becoming angry in the first place 2. how to original text related to
cease being angry and 3. how to deal with anger in others.[12] this article:
Seneca suggests, to avoid becoming angry in the first place, that Of Anger
the many faults of anger should be repeatedly remembered. One
should avoid being too busy or deal with anger-provoking people. Unnecessary hunger or thirst
should be avoided and soothing music be listened to.[12] To cease being angry, Seneca suggests
"one to check speech and impulses and be aware of particular sources of personal irritation. In
dealing with other people, one should not be too inquisitive: It is not always soothing to hear and
see everything. When someone appears to slight you, you should be at first reluctant to believe this,
and should wait to hear the full story. You should also put yourself in the place of the other person,
trying to understand his motives and any extenuating factors, such as age or illness."[12] Seneca
further advises daily self-inquisition about one's bad habit.[12] To deal with anger in others, Seneca
suggests that the best reaction is to simply keep calm. A certain kind of deception, Seneca says, is
necessary in dealing with angry people.[12]

Galen repeats Seneca's points but adds a new one: finding a guide and teacher can help the person
in controlling their passions. Galen also gives some hints for finding a good teacher. [12] Both

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Seneca and Galen (and later philosophers) agree that the process of controlling anger should start in
childhood on grounds of malleability. Seneca warns that this education should not blunt the spirit of
the children nor should they be humiliated or treated severely. At the same time, they should not be
pampered. Children, Seneca says, should learn not to beat their playmates and not to become angry
with them. Seneca also advises that children's requests should not be granted when they are
angry.[12]

Medieval era

During the period of the Roman Empire and the Middle Ages, philosophers elaborated on the
existing conception of anger, many of whom did not make major contributions to the concept. For
example, many medieval philosophers such as Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Roger Bacon and Thomas
Aquinas agreed with ancient philosophers that animals cannot become angry.[12] On the other hand,
al-Ghazali (also known as "Algazel" in Europe), who often disagreed with Aristotle and Ibn Sina
(Avicenna) on many issues, argued that animals do possess anger as one of the three "powers" in
their Qalb ("heart"), the other two being appetite and impulse. He also argued that animal will is
"conditioned by anger and appetite" in contrast to human will which is "conditioned by the
intellect."[67] A common medieval belief was that those prone to anger had an excess of yellow bile
or choler (hence the word "choleric").[12] This belief was related to Seneca's belief that "red-haired
and red-faced people are hot-tempered because of excessive hot and dry humors."

By gender

Wrath was sinful because of the social problems it caused, sometimes even homicide. It served to
ignore those who are present, contradicts those who are absent, produces insults, and responds
harshly to insults that are received.[68] Aristotle felt that anger or wrath was a natural outburst of
self- defense in situations where people felt they had been wronged. Aquinas felt that if anger was
justified, it was not a sin. For example, "He that is angry without cause, shall be in danger; but he
that is angry with cause, shall not be in danger: for without anger, teaching will be useless,
judgments unstable, crimes unchecked. Therefore to be angry is not always an evil."[69]

The concept of wrath contributed to a definition of gender and power. Many medieval authors in
1200 agreed the differences between men and women were based on complexion, shape, and
disposition. Complexion involved the balance of the four fundamental qualities of heat, coldness,
moistness, and dryness. When various combinations of these qualities are made they define groups
of certain people as well as individuals. Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen all agreed on that, in
terms of biology and sexual differentiation, heat was the most important of the qualities because it
determined shape and disposition. Disposition included a balance of the previous four qualities, the
four elements and the four humors. For example, the element of fire shared the qualities of heat and
dryness: fire dominated in yellow bile or choler, meaning a choleric person was more or hot and dry
than others. Hot and dry individuals were active, dominant, and aggressive. The opposite was true
with the element of water. Water, is cold and moist, related closely to phlegm: people with more
phlegmatic personalities were passive and submissive. While these trait clusters varied from
individual to individual most authors in the Middle Ages assumed certain clusters of traits

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characterized men more than women and vice versa.[70]

Women

Scholars posted that females were seen by authors in the Middle Ages to be more phlegmatic (cold
and wet) than males, meaning females were more sedentary and passive than males.[70] Women's
passive nature appeared "natural" due to their lack of power when compared to men. Aristotle
identified traits he believed women shared: female, feminine, passive, focused on matter, inactive,
and inferior. Thus medieval women were supposed to act submissively toward men and relinquish
control to their husbands.[70] However Hildegard of Bingen believed women were fully capable of
anger. While most women were phlegmatic, individual women under certain circumstances could
also be choleric.

Men

Medieval scholars believed most men were choleric, or hot and dry. Thus they were dominant and
aggressive. (Barton) Aristotle also identified characteristics of men: male, masculine, active,
focused on form, potent, outstanding, and superior. Men were aware of the power they held. Given
their choleric "nature", men exhibited hot temperatures and were quick to anger.[70] Peter of Albano
once said, "The male's spirit, is lively, given to violent impulse; [it is] slow getting angry and
slower being calmed." Medieval ideas of gender assumed men were more rational than women.
Masculinity involved a wide range of possible behaviors, and men were not angry all the time.
Every man's humoral balance was different, some men were strong, other weak, also some more
prone to wrath then others.[70]

Control methods

Maimonides considered being given to uncontrollable passions as a kind of illness. Like Galen,
Maimonides suggested seeking out a philosopher for curing this illness just as one seeks out a
physician for curing bodily illnesses. Roger Bacon elaborates Seneca's advices. Many medieval
writers discuss at length the evils of anger and the virtues of temperance. In a discussion of
confession, John Mirk, an English 14th-century Augustinian writer, tells priests how to advise the
penitent by considering the spiritual and social consequences of anger:[12]

Agaynes wrae hys helpe schal be,
ef he haue grace in herte to se
How aungelus, when he ys wroth,
From hym faste flen and goth,
And fendes faste to hym renneth,
And wy fuyre of helle hys herte breneth,
And maketh hym so hote & hegh,
at no mon may byde hym negh.[71]
Against wrath his help shall be,
if he has grace in heart to see,
how angels, should his anger rise,
flee fast from him and go
and demons run to him in haste;
hell's fury burns his heart
and makes him so hot and high
that none may stand him nigh.

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In The Canon of Medicine, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) modified the theory of temperaments and argued
that anger heralded the transition of melancholia to mania, and explained that humidity inside the
head can contribute to such mood disorders.[72]

On the other hand, Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi classified anger (along with aggression) as a type of
neurosis,[73] while al-Ghazali (Algazel) argued that anger takes form in rage, indignation and
revenge, and that "the powers of the soul become balanced if it keeps anger under control."[74]

Modern times

The modern understanding of anger may not be greatly advanced over that of Aristotle.[12]
Immanuel Kant rejects revenge as vicious. Regarding the latter, David Hume argues that because
"anger and hatred are passions inherent in our very frame and constitution, the lack of them is
sometimes evidence of weakness and imbecility."[15] Two main differences between the modern
understanding and ancient understanding of anger can be detected, Kemp and Strongman state: one
is that early philosophers were not concerned with possible harmful effects of the suppression of
anger; the other is that, recently, studies of anger take the issue of gender differences into account.
The latter does not seem to have been of much concern to earlier philosophers.[12]

The American psychologist Albert Ellis has suggested that anger, rage, and fury partly have roots in
the philosophical meanings and assumptions through which human beings interpret
transgression.[75] According to Ellis, these emotions are often associated and related to the leaning
humans have to absolutistically depreciating and damning other peoples' humanity when their
personal rules and domain are transgressed.

Religious perspectives
Judaism

In Judaism, anger is a negative trait. In the Book of Genesis, Jacob condemned the anger that had
arisen in his sons Simon and Levi: "Cursed be their anger, for it was fierce; and their wrath, for it
was cruel."[76]

Restraining oneself from anger is seen as noble and desirable, as Ethics of the Fathers states:

"Ben Zoma said: Who is strong? He who subdues his evil inclination, as it is stated, 'He who is
slow to anger is better than a strong man, and he who masters his passions is better than one who
conquers a city' (Proverbs 16:32)."[77]

Maimonides rules that one who becomes angry is as though that person had worshipped idols.[78]
Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi explains that the parallel between anger and idol worship is that by
becoming angry, one shows a disregard of Divine Providence whatever had caused the anger was
ultimately ordained from Above and that through coming to anger one thereby denies the hand of

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God in one's life.[79]

In its section dealing with ethical traits a person should adopt, the Kitzur Shulchan Aruch states:
"Anger is also a very evil trait and it should be avoided at all costs. You should train yourself not to
become angry even if you have a good reason to be angry."[80]

In modern writings, Rabbi Harold Kushner finds no grounds for anger toward God because "our
misfortunes are none of His doing."[81] In contrast to Kushner's reading of the Bible, David
Blumenthal finds an "abusing God" whose "sometimes evil" actions evoke vigorous protest, but
without severing the protester's relationship with God.[82]

Christianity

Both Catholic and Protestant writers have addressed anger.

Catholic

Wrath is one of the Seven Deadly Sins in Catholicism; and yet

the Catechism of the Catholic Church states (canons 1772 and
1773) that anger is among the passions, and that "in the
passions, as movements of the sensitive appetite, there is neither
good nor evil." The neutral act of anger becomes the sin of
wrath when it's directed against an innocent person, when it's
unduly unbending or long-lasting, or when it desires excessive
punishment. "If anger reaches the point of a deliberate desire to
kill or seriously wound a neighbor, it is gravely against charity;
it is a mortal sin." (CCC 2302) Hatred is the sin of desiring that
The Seven Deadly Sins and the
someone else may suffer misfortune or evil, and is a mortal sin
Four Last Things, by
when one desires grave harm. (CCC 2302-03)
Hieronymus Bosch (1485).
Medieval Christianity vigorously denounced wrath as one of the "Wrath" is depicted at the bottom
seven cardinal, or deadly sins, but some Christian writers at in a series of circular images.
times regarded the anger caused by injustice as having some Below the image is the Latin
value.[11][12] Saint Basil viewed anger as a "reprehensible inscription Cave Cave Deus Videt
temporary madness."[11] Joseph F. Delany in the Catholic ("Beware, Beware, God is
Encyclopedia (1914) defines anger as "the desire of vengeance" Watching").
and states that a reasonable vengeance and passion is ethical
and praiseworthy. Vengeance is sinful when it exceeds its limits in which case it becomes opposed
to justice and charity. For example, "vengeance upon one who has not deserved it, or to a greater
extent than it has been deserved, or in conflict with the dispositions of law, or from an improper
motive" are all sinful. An unduly vehement vengeance is considered a venial sin unless it seriously
goes counter to the love of God or of one's neighbor.[83]

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A more positive view of anger is espoused by Roman Catholic

pastoral theologian Henri J. M. Nouwen. Father Nouwen points
to the spiritual benefits in anger toward God as found in both
the Old Testament and New Testament of the Bible. In the
Bible, says Father Nouwen, "it is clear that only by expressing
our anger and hatred directly to God will we come to know the
fullness of both his love and our freedom."[84]

Georges Bernanos illustrates Nouwen's position in his novel

The Diary of a Country Priest. The countess gave birth to the
son she had long wanted, but the child died. She was fiercely Angel with Temperance and
angry. When the priest called, the countess vented her anger Humility virtues versus Devil
toward her daughter and husband, then at the priest who with Rage and Wrath sins. A
responded gently, "open your heart to [God]." The countess fresco from the 1717 Saint
rejoined, "I've ceased to bother about God. When you've forced Nicolas Orthodox church in
me to admit that I hate Him, will you be any better off?" The Cukovets, Pernik Province,
priest continued, "you no longer hate Him. Hate is indifference Bulgaria
and contempt. Now at last you're face to face with Him ... Shake
your fist at Him, spit in His face, scourge Him." The countess
did what the priest counseled. By confessing her hate, she was enabled to say, "all's well."[85]

Protestant

Everyone experiences anger, Andrew D. Lester observes, and furthermore anger can serve as "a
spiritual friend, a spiritual guide, and a spiritual ally." Denying and suppressing anger is contrary to
St. Paul's admonition in his Epistle to the Ephesians 4:26.[86] When anger toward God is denied
and suppressed, it interferes with an individual's relation with God. However, expressing one's
anger toward God can deepen the relationship.[87] C. FitzSimons Allison holds that "we worship
God by expressing our honest anger at him."[88]

Biblical scholar Leonard Pine concludes from his studies in the Book of Habakkuk that "far from
being a sin, proper remonstration with God is the activity of a healthy faith relationship with
Him."[89] Other biblical examples of anger toward God include the following:[90]

Moses was angry with God for mistreating his people: "Lord, why have you mistreated [lit.
done evil to] this people?" (Book of Exodus 5:22).
Naomi was angry with God after the death of her husband and two sons: "The Almighty has
dealt bitterly with me. The Almighty has brought calamity upon me" (Book of Ruth 1:2021
abr).
Elijah was angry with God after the son of the widow died: "O Lord my God, have you
brought calamity even upon the widow with whom I am staying, by killing her son?" (1 Kings
17:20).
Job was angry with God: "You have turned cruel to me; with the might of your hand you

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persecute me" (Book of Job 30:21).

Jeremiah was angry with God for deceiving his people: "Ah, Lord God, how utterly you have
deceived this people and Jerusalem." (Book of Jeremiah 4:10).

Hinduism

In Hinduism, anger is equated with sorrow as a form of unrequited desire. The objects of anger are
perceived as a hindrance to the gratification of the desires of the angry person. [91] Alternatively if
one thinks one is superior, the result is grief. Anger is considered to be packed with more evil
power than desire.[92] In the Bhagavad Gita Krishna regards greed, anger, and lust as signs of
ignorance and leads to perpetual bondage. As for the agitations of the bickering mind, they are
divided into two divisions. The first is called avirodha-prti, or unrestricted attachment, and the
other is called virodha-yukta-krodha, anger arising from frustration. Adherence to the philosophy of
the Myvds, belief in the fruitive results of the karma-vds, and belief in plans based on
materialistic desires are called avirodha-prti. (Reference needed)

Jns, karms and materialistic planmakers generally attract the attention of conditioned souls, but
when the materialists cannot fulfill their plans and when their devices are frustrated, they become
angry. Frustration of material desires produces anger.[93]

Buddhism

Anger is defined in Buddhism as: "being unable to bear the object, or the intention to cause harm to
the object." Anger is seen as aversion with a stronger exaggeration, and is listed as one of the five
hindrances. Buddhist monks, such as Dalai Lama, the spiritual leader of Tibetans in exile,
sometimes get angry.[94] However, there is a difference; most often a spiritual person is aware of
the emotion and the way it can be handled. Thus, in response to the question: "Is any anger
acceptable in Buddhism?' the Dalai Lama answered:[94]

Buddhism in general teaches that anger is a destructive emotion and although anger
might have some positive effects in terms of survival or moral outrage, I do not accept
that anger of any kind as (sic) a virtuous emotion nor aggression as constructive
behavior. The Gautama Buddha (sic) has taught that there are three basic kleshas at the
root of samsara (bondage, illusion) and the vicious cycle of rebirth. These are greed,
hatred, and delusionalso translatable as attachment, anger, and ignorance. They bring
us confusion and misery rather than peace, happiness, and fulfillment. It is in our own
self-interest to purify and transform them.

Buddhist scholar and author Geshe Kelsang Gyatso has also explained Buddha's teaching on the
spiritual imperative to identify anger and overcome it by transforming difficulties:[95]

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When things go wrong in our life and we encounter difficult situations, we tend to
regard the situation itself as our problem, but in reality whatever problems we
experience come from the side of the mind. If we responded to difficult situations with a
positive or peaceful mind they would not be problems for us. Eventually, we might even
regard them as challenges or opportunities for growth and development. Problems arise
only if we respond to difficulties with a negative state of mind. Therefore if we want to
be free from problems, we must transform our mind.

The Buddha himself on anger:[96]

An angry person is ugly & sleeps poorly. Gaining a profit, he turns it into a loss, having
done damage with word & deed. A person overwhelmed with anger destroys his wealth.
Maddened with anger, he destroys his status. Relatives, friends, & colleagues avoid him.
Anger brings loss. Anger inflames the mind. He doesn't realize that his danger is born
from within. An angry person doesn't know his own benefit. An angry person doesn't
see the Dharma. A man conquered by anger is in a mass of darkness. He takes pleasure
in bad deeds as if they were good, but later, when his anger is gone, he suffers as if
burned with fire. He is spoiled, blotted out, like fire enveloped in smoke. When anger
spreads, when a man becomes angry, he has no shame, no fear of evil, is not respectful
in speech. For a person overcome with anger, nothing gives light.

Islam

Qur'an, chapter 3 verse 134 "The ones who spend in prosperity and adversity, repress anger, and
pardon the people; God loves the good doers." [Edip-Layth-Martha (Quran: A Reformist
Translation)]

Anger (Arabic:, ghadab) in Islam is considered to be instigated by Satan (Shaitan).[97] Factors

stated to lead to anger include selfishness, arrogance and excessive ambition.[98] Islamic teachings
also state that anger hinders the faith (iman) of a person.[99] The Quran attributes anger to prophets
and believers as well as Muhammad's enemies. It mentions the anger of Moses (Musa) against his
people for worshiping a golden calf and at the moment when Moses strikes an Egyptian for fighting
against an Israelite.[100] The anger of Jonah (Yunus) is also mentioned in the Quran, which led to
his departure from the people of Nineveh and his eventual realization of his error and his
repentance.[101] The removal of anger from the hearts of believers by God (Arabic: [[Allah|]]
Allh) after the fighting against Muhammad's enemies is over.[102][103] In general, suppression of
anger (Arabic: , kazm) is deemed a praiseworthy quality in the hadis.[103][104][105] Ibn Abdil
Barr, the Andalusian Maliki jurist explains that controlling anger is the door way for restraining
other blameworthy traits ego and envy, since these two are less powerful than anger. The hadis state
various ways to diminish, prevent and control anger. One of these methods is to perform a ritual

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ablution, a different narration states that the angry person should lie down and other narrations
instructs the angry person to invoke God and seek refuge from the Devil, by reciting I take refuge
with Allah/God from the accursed Devil.

It has also been stated by the Imam Ali, the "Commander of the faithful" and the son-in-law of
prophet Muhammad that "A moment of patience in a moment of anger saves a thousand moments
of regret." As well as "Anger begins with madness, and ends in regret." [98]

Of God

In many religions, anger is frequently attributed to God or gods.

Primitive people held that gods were subject to anger and
revenge in anthropomorphic fashion.[106] The Hebrew Bible
says that opposition to God's Will results in God's anger.[106]
Reform rabbi Kaufmann Kohler explains:[76]

God is not an intellectual abstraction, nor is He The Great Day of His Wrath, by
conceived as a being indifferent to the doings of John Martin (17891854).
man; and His pure and lofty nature resents most
energetically anything wrong and impure in the
moral world: "O Lord, my God, mine Holy One ...
Thou art of eyes too pure to behold evil, and canst
not look on iniquity."

Christians believe in God's anger at the sight of evil. This anger is not inconsistent with God's love,
as demonstrated in the Gospel where the righteous indignation of Christ is shown in the Cleansing
of the Temple. Christians believe that those who reject His revealed Word, Jesus, condemn
themselves, and are not condemned by the wrath of God.[106]

Meher Baba's teachings

The spiritual teacher Meher Baba held that anger results from unfulfilled desires:

Anger is the fume of an irritated mind. It is caused by the thwarting of desires. It feeds
the limited ego and is used for domination and aggression. It aims at removing the
obstacles existing in the fulfillment of desires. The frenzy of anger nourishes egoism and
conceit and it is the greatest benefactor of the limited ego. Mind is the seat of anger, and
its expressions are mostly through the activities of the mind.[107]

See also

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Angry Cognitions Scale

Emotion
Angra Mainyu
Anger management

Further reading
Books Wikimedia Commons
has media related to
Theodore I. Rubin (1998). The Angry Book. Simon and Anger.
Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-84201-1.
Harriet Lerner (2014). The Dance of Anger: A Woman's Wikiquote has
Guide to Changing the Patterns of Intimate Relationships. quotations related to:
HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-232852-6. Anger
Monica Ramirez Basco (2000). Never Good Enough: How
to Use Perfectionism to Your Advantage Without Letting it Look up anger in
Ruin Your Life. Simon and Schuster. Wiktionary, the free
ISBN 978-0-684-86293-4. dictionary.
Jesse Wright; Monica Ramirez Basco (2010). Getting Your
Life Back. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-1486-5.

Articles

Maintaining A Good and Healthy Anger (http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177

/003463730109800403)
Managing emotions in the workplace (http://www.questia.com
/googleScholar.qst?docId=5001520967)
Controlling Anger -- Before It Controls You (http://www.apa.org/topics/controlanger.html)
What Your Anger May Be Hiding - Leon F Seltzer Ph.D. (https://www.psychologytoday.com
/blog/evolution-the-self/200807/what-your-anger-may-be-hiding)
The Interpersonal Effects of Anger and Happiness in Negotiations
(http://home.medewerker.uva.nl/g.a.vankleef/bestanden
/Van%20Kleef%20et%20al.%20(2004a%20JPSP).pdf)
Why are we angry? Interesting analysis on anger, rage and aggression
(http://urujk.wordpress.com/2011/03/29/why-are-we-angry)
Get mad and get more than even: When and why anger expression is effective in negotiations
(https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&
lr=&q=Get+mad+and+get+more+than+even%3A+The+benefits+of+anger+expressions&
btnG=Search)
Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: the effect of negative emotion
expressions on social status conferral (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites
/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11195894&dopt=Citation)

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