Commentary on Standard Practice for Design and Construction of Concrete Silos and Stacking Tubes for Storing Granular Materials Reported by ACI Committee 313 John E, Sadler Chairman Vahe A. Aprahamian Abdul Q, Ghowrwal William D. Arockiasamy Albert J. Gouwens Peter J. Balles Ernest C. Harris Leon Bialkowski Donald S. Jack Alfred G. Bishara Robert D. Johnson Wi H. Bokhoven F. Thomas Johaston Joseph F. Camelleric Mostafa H. Mahmoud George D. Cathe Donald Midgley William L. Clark ‘Sargis S. Safa James M. Ebmeier Joseph R, Tucker Stephen G. Frankosky Prt tm of he contrast an amampn ef ACI Comin 318 fein rn ed hf Da itt ‘Cmemt Slos and Siding Terr Sg Corse Mia ao ros megetedmehols fr easy So Chapter 1--Genera, p. 3198-2 sd heh wall tmpwanes pan Gat ha med ac T-ltrodiction 12-Defiatons [Santon pace pron of Sundar pace mae 1 ia la Fo eee se 14--Drawings, specifications, and calculations "inthe cv fed pee df sce Chapter 2-Materlaly,p 33R2 2.2--Cemenis 23-Aggregates 23.-Adminares a eee peepenn eer Suter ee Sapoceacth et neces fi ‘whould be phrased la mandatory language and lacorporeted into the str ‘Chapter 3--Construction requirements, p. 3133 32-Concrete quality 3.3-Sampling and testing concrete Sri © m,n Coens ti ae ‘Al ahs wed lacing ser mpedncton an wt tay form oy 99 ‘ea nha ht lag ot top 9 toy ps proceso apse mecha Soe. pated owas oot rtg ft ae Ya ‘meric ofr we a aay boos et water pce ot de eset ‘Pemiaion wag olan lm hepa poprton:atana MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE 3,6-Conerete placing and finishing 3.7--Conctete protection and curing 3.8-Lining and costing (Chapter 4--Desiga, p. 3I3R-4 4.1-Notation 42-Generat 43-Details and placement of reinforcement 44-Loads 45.-Wall design .6-Bottom design 47-Columa design 4.8-Foundation design Chapter $-Stave silos, p. 3138-10 33 5.6--Hoops for stave silos ‘Concrete stave testing ‘Bonded tendons ‘Unbonded tendons 6.7-Post-tensioning ducts 6.8-Wrapped systems 6.12-Design 6.13-Vertical beading moment and shear due to post- tensioning 6.14--Tolerances Chapter Stacking tubes, p. 313R-13 72-General layout 73-Loads 1.6--Foundation or reclaim tunnel Silo failures have alerted design engineers to the danger of designing silos for only static pressures duc to ored material at rest. Those failures have inspired ‘widespread research into the variations of pressures and flow of materials. The research thus far has established beyond doubt that pressures during withdrawal may be significantly bigher'*™ or significantly lower than those present when the material is at rest. The excess (above static pressure) is called “overpressure” and the shortfall is called "underpressure." One of the causes of overpressure is the switch from active to passive conditions which occurs daring material withdrawal.’ Underpressures may occur at «flow channel in contact with the wall and overpressures may occur away from the flow channel at the same level. Underpressures concurrent with overpressures ‘cause circumferential bending in the wall, Impact during filling may cause toal pressure to exceed the static. While ‘overpressures and underpressures are generally important in deeper silos, impact is usualy critical only for shallow fones (bunkers) ia which large volumes are dumped suddealy. Obviously, to design with disregard for either ‘overpressure, underpressure or impact could be dangerous, 1.2-Defiations ‘The term” silo" used here includes both deep bins and shallow bins, the latter sometimes referred to as "bunkers* ‘Wherever the term "silo" is used it should be interpreted as meaning 2 silo, bin, or bunker of any proportion, shallow or deep. Stave silos are used principally in agriculture for storing chopped "sllage," but are finding increasing use in other industry for storing granlar materials. This Standard covers the industrial stave silo, but is not to be used as a standard for farm silos, The methods of computing’ pressures due to granular material are the same for industrial stave silos as for other silos (Chapter 4). However, design of stave silos relies heavily on strength and stiffness tests; consequently, this Standard includes several desiga requirements that are peculiar (0 stave silos only, 1.4--Drawings, specifications, and calculations Silos and bunkers are unusual structures and snany engineers are unfamiliar with computation of their design toads and with other design and detail requirements. It is important that the design and the preparation of construction drawings and specifications for silos and ‘bunkers be done under the supervision of an engineer with specialized knowledge and experience in design of such structures. If possible, the properties ofthe stored materials to be used in the design should be obtained from tests of the actual materials to be stored or from records of tests of, similar materials previousy stored. Properties assumed i, the design should be stated on the drawings. (CHAPTER 2 ~ MATERIALS 22-Coments ‘Cement for exposed parts of silos or bunkers should bbe of one particular type and braid if it is desired to ‘prevent variations in color of the concrete In general, the types of cement permitted by ACI318 are permitted under the recommended practice except noted, Experience bas shown that there can be some variation inthe physical properties of each type of cement. ‘Type I cement that is very finely ground (a fineness modulus greater than 2000 on the Wagner scale) can act in the same manner as Type III and cause dificulies by accelerating the intial set during a slipform operation. ‘Type IS and IP are not recommended for use inCOMMENTARY ON DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE SILO8 ANO STACKING TUBES nano rm or jumpform concrete because of long initial Setting time and low strength at an early age, 2aAggregates “Aggregates for exposed parts of silos or bunkers «should be the same type and source if it is desired to avoid ‘variations in appearance of the completed work. 2S-Admixtures 253 ~The use of admixtures in concrete silo walls i ‘common construction method of controlling the initial sei of concrete and, therefore, the rate at which slipforms andior jumpforms may be raised. During the actual con- siruction operation, the amount of adminture may be ad- jsted in the Geld to suit the ambient conditions and s0 maintain a constant rate of rise for the forms. Concrete which includes accelerators or retarders ‘should be placed in uniform depths in the slipform or jumpforms to maintain a consistent time of inital set at ‘any wall elevation. It should be recognized that while polifes of up to 1% hours are available, some super-plasticizer (high range water reducer) admixtures have a relatively short useful life (035 minutes) after being added to a concrete mixture, ‘This can create problems during placement of ‘stiff mixtures of high strength concrete or mistures using special cements auch as Type K, M and S. CHAPTER 3 - CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS 32-Conerete quality ‘321 ~ The committes recommends a statistical basis to establish an average strength, fu, 10 assure attainment of the design nrength, ‘ACI Committee 214 has noted that, with general construction having fxr contol standards, the required, should be attained in over 90 percent of field molded session specimens provided ,, 8 ot less than 4000 psi (27.6 MPa). Fair control standards, indicating a 20 percent coetfiient of variation, were assumed to establish the relation between the design and average sirength. Tt ean be shown that lower coefficients of variation ray rede the average strength requirements and, con- sequently, larger water-cemeat ratios than permitted in ‘ACI 301 should be possible. However, in the interest of durability, ratios larger than the maximums given in ACI 301 should nat be uted. tis important when determining slump for sipformed concrete, thal the proposed mix include the same pro- portions of materials that will actually be used, including mixtures such as accelerators, retarders, ar-entraining agents, and water-reducing plasticizers. Historical, concrete mixtures with a slump of 4 in, (100 mim) have been used successfully for construction of Alipformed concrete alo and stacking tube walls under a ‘wide variety of field conditions. 32.2 -- Concrete is considered exposed to freezing and thawing whea, in a cold climate, the concrete is in most contiauous contact with moisture prior to freezing. Entrained air in concrete will provide some protection ‘against damage from freezing against the effects of de-icer chemicals, 33-Sampling and testing concrete Non-destructive testing of in-place concrete may be used to determine the approximate strength or quality or to forecast the approximate 28-day strength, Some of these methods of testing are ultrasonic pulse, pulse echo, radioactive measurement ofthe absorption or scatter of x- ‘aysor gamma radiation, and surface hardness (rebound ot probe penetration). 33.2 ~ ASTM C 684 describes three different pro- ‘cedures for the accelerated curing of test eylinders: Warm Water Method, Boiling Water Method, and Autogenous Method. ‘The first two methods permit testing the cylinders at 24 and 28% hours respectively, while the third requires hours (£15 min), ACI 2141R "Use of Accelerated Strength Testing” provides guidance for interpretation of these test results, ‘3.4--Detalls and placement of reinforcement 3.42 ~ Bars not tied can be moved during vibration ‘or even intially mislocated in slipforming. Failures have ‘occurred because of incorrect spacing of horizontal steel. A positive means of controlling location is essential. Because no reinforcing bars can project beyond the face of slipform silo wall, dowels that project into abutting walls, slabs or silo bottoms must frequently be field bent. Its recommended that any reinforcing bars to be field bent conform to ASTM A 615 Grade 40 to mia- imize cracks in the bar. See ACI318 Commentary Sect. 73 for discussion on cold bending and bending by prehe If reinforcing bars are to be welded or to have items attached to them, itis essential to know the carbon content of the bars in order to select the proper procedure and materials for the weld, 3.43 ~- Designers should be cautious about selecting walls thinner than 9 in. 230 min) since such will not generally accomodate two curtains of reinforcement. Two- face reinforcement substantially improves performance of the wall when the wall is subjected to both tension and bending forces. ‘3.4.4 ~ In general, the minimum cover for reinforcing, bars placed on the inside face of silo walls should be 1 in. ‘Additional cover should be provided where conditions of ‘wear, chemical attack or moisture can occur. 35-Forms Slipform and/or jumpform systems should be designed, constructed and operated by or under the supervision of persons experienced in this type of onstruction, ACI Special Publication No.4, Fomonk for general Concrete, and References 9 and 10 conts19n4 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE ‘The rate of advancement of the slipform system shall be slow enough that concrete exposed below the bottom of the forms will be capable of supporting itself and the concrete placed above it, but rapid enough to prevent concrete from bonding to the forms. ‘The advancement of the jumpform system shall be stow enough that hardened concrete in contact with the forms is capable of supporting the jumpform system, the construction loads and the fresh concrete placed above it, 3.6--Concrete placing and flshing During the construction of slipformed silo or stacking ‘ube walls, itis possible that the concrete placing operation ‘must be interrupted due to unforeseen or unavoidable field conditions and an unplanned construction joint wil occur. In this event, the engineer of record should be notified and concrete placement recommenced only upon the engineer's approval 3.7-Concrete protection and curing 3.73 ~ In many cases atmospheric conditions are such that excess water from “bleeding” of concrete as placed in the forms is sulficient 10 keep the surface of the newly formed walls moist for $ days and no additional provisions for curing need be made. Where deck forms or other ‘enclosures retain the atmosphere in a highly humid condition, no additional curing measures are needed ‘Where the above conditions cannot be met, a curing ‘compound may be used or a water spray or mist applied to keep the wall surface continuously moist, the amount of water being carefully regulated to avoid damage by concrete Stel ‘Cement clinker ® 10 2 0s 03 Cement porland ‘4.100 145.1600 241030 040080 030 oy 106-138 170.2210 131040 0205 036.07 Cont buninous 50-65 #001000 Rot 035085 030) Coal, aucace 0-70 960-1120 ox | 045030 030 Coke « 510 o oso 030 Flour = a0 “ 030 030 Gravel 100-125 16002000 ass | _o«oaas ‘Grains (smal: Wheat com, barey. | Beans (navy. Kidney), oats Fe, ne | 442 116.990 neon onoa | 026002 Gypsum in lps imestone 100 1a o os 03 YH [iron oe 165, 2640 « as 036 Lime, bumed (pebbles) 50-60 800-960 3510 55 soos | 030 Line, burned, fine A a0 8 as 0 Line, bumed, oar 8 120 s as 0s Line, powder “ 00 35 050.070 030, Manganese ore 15 2700 “ Sand 100-125 10.2000 a0 | oor | 035.050 Soy beans, peas 30-40 100.960 a 025 020 Sugar granular a 100 a ow * The properties listed here are ilusrative of values which might be determiaed from physical testing, Ranges of values show the| variability of sore materials. Design parameters should preferably be determined by test and the values above used with caution, ‘See Coninientary on Section 44.1. particles under pressure in a silo may lead, with time, to a \U Better “it” increasing both density and friction anges. ‘Chemically unstable materials may develop strong bonds at the contact surface between particles, leading to high Iriction angles. 2. Temperature ofthe materia ~ Materials of low melting temperature may soften at storage temperature, increasing the friction angles. Temperature Quctuation may Jead to moisture migration as well as physical and/or ‘chemical changes at the particle surface, thus causing friction angles to increase. 3, Rate of filing » A fine material entrains excess air during fling. When the filing rate is low, air escapes and terminal density and frictional properties are reached rapidly. Ata high filling rate, the material may be fluidized with friction angles close to zero, 4. Amount of eeration during filing - When conveyed pneumatically, a fine material entrains more than when conveyed mechanically. The higher excess of air amplifies effect B3, above 5. Aeration during withdrawal - Air injected into a silo during withdrawal reduces density and friction angles in the fluidized portion of the mass.” ‘Table 4-A gives properties of granular materials ‘The values shown have oftea been used in silo design. ‘The table values ee given only as examples, however, and itis recommended that design parameters be determined by {ests on samples ofthe actual materials to be stored, rather than taken from the table 442.1 The Janssen method” generally gives ee sci icidesi‘COMMENTARY ON DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE SILOS AND ETACKWa TUBES stone higher vertical pressures than the Reimbert method! and, therefore, lower frictional forces. The factor 0.8 in Eq (G-5) causes the wall frictional force computed by Eg, (4-3) to be approximately equal to that given by Eq, (4-16) in ‘which q is computed by the Reimbert method. Even though it does not conform to 1 Mohs circle analysis, Eq. (4-17) is commonly used to determine normal pressures on sloping hopper surfaces. Other, more pr equations ate available for use where the added precision is advisable." 44.2.2 Design pressures are not necessarily equal to the maximum point-intensties of pressure, Rather, they represent reasonable averages of such marimums’ over areas large enough to be significant in structural design, ‘Thus, some allowance is made for the fact that the effects of intense point pressures are disteibuted vertically rough bending and shear stiffness of the silo wall ‘The C; factors recommended by Table C.1 are based partly on test results and largely on the compromise of ‘engineers having successful experience in the design of silos. The values of C, given by Table C1 are for flow conditions. Both concentric and asymmetric Now patterns ean exis as funnel flow, mass flow, or expanded flow config. rations and each can impart different loading patterns on the silo, 1. Funnel low ~- This is the most common condition Material flows toward the outlet within an upwardly ‘expanding channel formed within a stagnant mass. If the expanding flow channel never reaches the wall, the silo wall pressures during discharge are rarely ever more than the pressures immediately after the silo is intially filled. Under certain conditions a funnel flow channel can deviate from vertical and meander to the slo wal, thus ‘ausing clrcumnferentil bending moments in the wall 2. Mass Flow ~~ This pattern is said to prevail if all the material ia a silo is in motion whenever any of it is Withdrawn. This flow pattern leads to large overpressures At the top of the hopper (converging bottom of the silo). To insure that mass flow will occur requires that: () the outlet be large enough for the material 10 flow without arching; (&) the device which controls ow permits ‘material flow through the whole area of the outlet; and (@) the hopper wallsbe smooth enough and steep enough to allow material to slide (thus expanding the flow ¢hannel all the way tothe cylindrical wall ofthe silo). Jenike'™ has provided design information in graph form for two common shapes of hopper outlet. The hopper shapes and the related graphs are shown here by Fig. -C. ‘The occurrence of mass flow or funnel flow is seen 10 epend on the values of hopper slope angles @, and Q, and friction angled" (@" = tan’) 3. Border area between funnel ond mass flow -- The fegion labeled “uncertain* on the of Fig. 4. isa cag te me between funnel flow and mass low, with large masses of material being in nonsteady flow and the consequent development of shock loads." Such flow conditions wal alto lead to on-rymmeiric flow patterns and, hence, 10 ‘onsymmetric loads on the silo walls. This condition can seriously damage the so, In addition, problems of large stable arches should be considered, because when an arch collapses, there is 2 severe shock which may damage the structure. Arching occurs when either the outlet is not sufficiently large to assure unobstructed gravity flow, or the silo is discharged at the maximum flow rate of the system. These con siderations require additional analysis which isnot covered herein 4. Expanded flow ~ A combination of the mass Now and funnel flow configuration i used frequently. The lower Portion of the hopper is smooth and steep enough to produce mass flow. extends upward until the top execeds the stable rathole diameter of the material. The bopper above the mass flow portion is usually smooth and less steep but tll with enough inclination to cause the hopper to be self-cleaning, If self-cleaning is not desired, the upper hopper is frequently omitted. 5. Anmmeirc low ~ Any flow condition that causes ‘unequal pressures on silo walls. Asymmetric flow can result {om eeeenttic locations of filing and discharge openings, ‘of material segregation over concentric discharge openings. Where there erists sufficient segregation, flow channels ‘may not form vertically over a concentric opening but may seek out alesser path of resistance through coarse material against the wall. Wall bending moments can result from 2 flow channel in contact with the wall E oa, © Fig, +C-Mass versus funnel flow-boundsaraR0 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE The C, values given by Table C.1 do not compensate for cixcumferemtial (horizontal) bending. Wherever such ending is present it shall be computed. The C, factor applied to the computed value of lateral pressure to obtain lateral design pressure, This design pressure is then used {o compute horizontal tension and (jf present) horizontal bending moment, Impact factor Cis applied (or relatively small, shallow silos (bunkers and hoppers) used to receive iruck or railroad ear volumes of material in almost instantaneous filing. ‘When computing design forces Vu, C, = C, = 1.0 may be assumed, 4423. Pressures in homogenizing silos -- Homogenizng slos are those in which air pressure is used to mix dustike materials. The material being mixed moy behave as @ fluid; thus, the possibility of hydraulic pressures should be considered. The factor 0.6 reflects the fact that the suspended particles are not in contact, and the average density is less than for the material at rest Partially se yy experience aeration pressures directly additive to non-aerated intergranular pressures." 4.4.24 Eccentric discharge -- Discharge through | pecentrically located openings causes changes in lateral Pressure, unbalanced loading and bending mo- ments.“42205 The silo walls (including circular) should have adequate bending strength and stiffness to resist the unbalanced loading that occurs during eccentric drawoff. Even though the filing and discharge openings are ‘concentric, unequal pressures may develop around the silo perimeter ifthe top surface ofthe stored material becomes unsymmetrical, ‘This might happen, for example, if the taterial entering does aot fall vertically, or if internat ‘obstructions encourage faster flow on one side than on the other. The resuling unequal pressures cause horizontal beading moments, and perhaps vertical bending moments. These bending moments should be considered in wall design. Methods of evaluating the effects on wall design of asymmetric filing or discharge of silos have been Published” None of these methods are Particularly endorsed by the Commitee. 4.4.5 Earthquake forces In computing ateral seismic force due the mass of the \ dered granular material, the silo is assumed to be full but Fig. 4-D--Computation of BT Jor a wall of a cement storage silo the lateral force less than it would be for a solid mass, The reduction of lateral force is allowed because of energy loss through intergranular movement and grain-to-grain friction in the stored material 4 -Wall design 4.84 Thermal siesses ~ Storage of hot materials may ‘cause appreciable thermal stresses in the walls of silos. In mn, these thermal stresses are likely to occur ‘concurrent with the maximum hoop forces from the filled silo, Therefore, the required strength should be Us 14D 412 (4ay In the above, U is the required strength to resist in- ternal force or moment, Lis the force or moment due to live load, and D is the force or moment due to combined dead and thermal loads. To design reinforcing for thermal effects requires: (1) determining the temperature profile through the walls and @) computing the added bending moment due to temperature differences. ‘A method that has been used to determine the additional reinforcement to resist the thermal siresses is as follows: Caleulate temperature difference AT between inside and outside of the wall. in building design, certain levels of temperature difference are commonly ignored in design, Sinviarly, for walls of silos having hot stored materials, a difference of up to 80 F (44.5 C) is often ignored, When this is done, the design temperature of the hot material whose actual internal temperature is 7; becomes: aa (7,- 80 F) or (4B) (Tam ™ (T,- 44.5 CY It has been observed” that the temperature of hot granvlar_ materials in silos is not uniform but drops appreciably near the wall. Ths i a function of the rate of charging the silo, the temperature ofthe material as it goes in, rate of withdrawal from the silo and coefficients of thermal conductivity, as well as daily and seasonal emperature fluctuations. Without a rigorous analysis of these variables, approximations are commonly used. In the 1 w reopeaarune oF sronco cement Tans = (1-60 1) (R448) oesw TeveRATERE for sranto.cemtn Te = cesiew wurta on b= sno sau taicnes adi woe lise Bi wer oftcase of bot cement, for example, aa 8 in, layer of cement SGjcea tothe inside face ofthe sis commonly assumed ager as an insulating material with temperature varying Sealy across the stip af "Fig, 4-D shows the temperature variation through the in, @00 mm) of cement and the silo wall. The lemperature difference AT between inside and outside face ofthe wall i: areT,+T, Q ‘Temperature drop, AT, within the wall isa portion of the total design temperature difference, corresponding to tbe ratio K, of the thermal resistance of the wall alone to that of cement, wall and outside air combined. Values of AT may be obtained from: AT = [aw ~ Te) K aD) K, is determined by he ‘cement, iti given by Fig. 4-E. “Astuming shape andor restraint to prevent warping (curing, the thermal factored bending moment per unit cof wall height is M,, = M, transfer principles. For = 14E,ha,AT/(1-v) (4B) (in-lb per ft when E, is psi and h is in.) ‘The factor of 1.4 in the above equation is the load factor. Caution should be used in sclecting an E, which is lowered for creep or cracked section effects, since the time available for relaxation of thermal stresses may be short, [ABOVE CURVE 15 BASED ON THE FOLLOIONG ASSUNETON® Te RESSTANGE OF 8 20S) COMENT (CONEOERED TOucT AS WOUATHG MATENAL "392 2 RESISTANCE OF IN. 23An)THIEK CONCRETE +008 {A RESSSANCE OF OUTER SURFACE FLM®-OIT Fig. ¢E-Determination of K, for use in computing AT fora wall of« cement storage silo” ‘COMMENTARY ON DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE SILOS AND STACKING TUBES 319K. particularly during the initial loading of a new silo with hot material ‘The einforcement added for thermal bending moments should be placed near the cooler (usually out side) face of the wal. In singly reinforced walls, it should bbe added to the main hoop reinforcement, which should be near the outside face. Ta doubly reinforced walls, the entire amount should be added 10 the outer layer. (For simplicity an equal amount is often added to the inner layer to avoid having bar sizes or spacings differ from one layer to the other.) Vertical tensile thermal stress is usually offset by vertical dead load compressive stress, so that added vertical temperature steel is often not needed. It should also be recognized that structural steel items like roof beams inside a concrete silo may expand more rapidly than the concrete and cause overstressing at con- {act areas if room for expansion is not provided. Alternate methods of computing reinforcement for thermal sirestes are available." 4.5 Circular walls in pressure zone ven though circular walls are analyzed as it subject to dizect tension only, bending moments may occur with temperature differentials and with non- uniformity of radial pressures (such as from eccentric discharge). 45.550 ~ Eq, (432) is obtained directly from ‘equivalent equations for permissible stress under ACI 318 alternate design methods, but with the original factor of 0.225 multiplied by the load factor, K, for live load and divided by ¢ of 0.70, Proportions of castin-place silo walls a ‘buckling de to vertical compressive stress ordinarily is not possible, and the design vertical compressive strength given, by Eq, (432) need not be reduced. ‘However, for silos of unusual proportions, and for some silo walls next 40 openings, the design vertical com pressive strength may be less than given by Eq. (4-34), ‘No rationally-derived or experimentally proved form- las are available giving the permissible ultimate stress for its 1968 report® and ACI Committee 313 had presented approximate formulas, accounting for the nature of the effect of various parameters affecting buckling and suggesting allowable stresses for working stress design “These formulas are reproduced below, but adjusted for average load factors to give design vertical compressive strengths. For 2 circular wall, continous throughout its perimeter and having uniform external or internal lateral Pressure to prevent buckling, the design vertical com- pressive strength is ax determined by Eq. (4-32). For a circular wall, continuous throughout its circum. ference and having neither internal nor external Iateral load to prevent local buckling, the design vertical ‘compressive strength isai9R2 [MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE Savers * O556f, [1 = (D/120R)3] (AF) D and h must be in consistent units (ie, both in inches or both in millimeters, for example). Where the wall is discontinu. ) When the spacing between tendons exceeds then adjacent tendons do not contribute signifi to the magnitude of bending moment and sheat tendon under consideration. In that case the ium vertical bending moment and maximus BARhgar per unit width of wall are Myae = FI4By Ve = FI2TABLE 6-A--VALUES OF FACTORS ¢, AND @, FOR USE IN EQ. (6A) AND (6B) COMMENTARY ON DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF CONCRETE SILOS AND STACKING TUBES 21aR.17 Control of vertical location of tendons in slipforming is fairly easy while control of horizontal location is more difficult, Unfortunately, control of the horizontal location is more important; hence the horizontal tolerance should be observed closely, both at support points and between support points. Values of bending moments duc to presttess of wires say be obiained from References 42 and 50. CHAPTER 7 ~ STACKING TUBES 72--General layout Stacking tubes (sometimes known as lowering tubes) are free-standing tubular structures used to stack conical piles of granular bulk materials up to 150 ft, (45 m) high (Fig. 7-A). They are used mechanically as lowering tubes to control loss of significant dust to the atmosphere and they are used structurally to support the stacking conveyor. Concrete stacking tubes normaly vary in diameter from 6 to 16 ft (2 to $ m) and in wall thickness from 6 to 16 in. (250 t0 400 mm). ‘The bulk material is discharged into the top of the tube and as the material builds up in the bottom, it spills out through the wall openings to form the pile, The g5 are generally equipped with hinged dust flaps. tacking tubes are frequently built directly over conveyor-equipped tunnels which reclaim material by gravity from the pile above, Typically, tunnel rec ‘openings arc furnished on either side of the tbe. ‘Sometimes openings are furnished directly under the tube ‘ig. 7-B). Even though the latter location is less effective in reclaiming from the pile, it does provide a method of keeping non-free flowing material {rom plugging the tube. Operators of stacking tube systems (especially for coal) frequently work on top of the piles with bulldozers to push the material away from the tube during stockpiling ‘and back toward the pile during reclaiming, The bulldozers create fines and compact the material into a denser st ‘This action, added to the natural densification of fin the center of the pile from segregation during stockpiling, frequently causes ow problems in the vicinity of the tube, Such problems include: 1. Formation of stable ratholes into which dozers on workers can inadvertently fall, (A stable rathole for when the stockpiled material has sufficient cohesion an internal strength to arch horizontally around 9. flow ‘channel and remain stable even after the flowing material is gone, Stable ratholes vary in size from 5 10 20 ft (1.5 to 6 m) in diameter. 2. Creation of high vertical walls of dense material