Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Chapter I
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
Medicinal plants have been identified and used throughout human history. The
term medicinal plant include various types of plants used in herbalism ("herbology" or
"herbal medicine"). It is the use of plants for medicinal purposes, and the study of such
uses. The word herb has been derived from the Latin word, herba and an old French
word herbe. Nowadays, herb refers to any part of the plant like fruit, seed, stem, bark,
flower, leaf, stigma or a root, as well as a non-woody plant. Earlier, the term herb was
only applied to non-woody plants, including those that come from trees and shrubs. These
medicinal plants are also used as food, flavonoid, medicine or perfume and also in certain
spiritual activities.
Plants have been used for medicinal purposes long before prehistoric period.
Ancient Unani manuscripts Egyptian papyrus and Chinese writings described the use of
herbs. Evidence exist that Unani Hakims, Indian Vaids and European and Mediterranean
cultures were using herbs for over 4000 years as medicine. Indigenous cultures such as
Rome, Egypt, Iran, Africa and America used herbs in their healing rituals, while other
developed traditional medical systems such as Unani, Ayurveda and Chinese Medicine in
drugs, prohibitive cost of treatments, side effects of several synthetic drugs and
development of resistance to currently used drugs for infectious diseases have led to
2
increased emphasis on the use of plant materials as a source of medicines for a wide
medicinal plants. The forest in India is the principal repository of large number of
medicinal and aromatic plants, which are largely collected as raw materials for
manufacture of drugs and perfumery products. About 8,000 herbal remedies have been
codified in AYUSH systems in INDIA. Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Folk (tribal)
medicines are the major systems of indigenous medicines. Among these systems,
Ayurveda and Unani Medicine are most developed and widely practised in India.
worldwide rely on herbal medicines for some aspect of their primary health care needs.
According to WHO, around 21,000 plant species have the potential for being used as
medicinal plants. As per data available over three-quarters of the world population relies
mainly on plants and plant extracts for their health care needs. More than 30% of the
entire plant species, at one time or other were used for medicinal purposes. It has been
estimated, that in developed countries such as United States, plant drugs constitute as
much as 25% of the total drugs, while in fast developing countries such as India and
China, the contribution is as much as 80%. Thus, the economic importance of medicinal
plants is much more to countries such as India than to rest of the world. These countries
provide two third of the plants used in modern system of medicine and the health care
medicinal plants is considered very safe as there is no or minimal side effects. These
remedies are in sync with nature, which is the biggest advantage. The golden fact
3
is that, use of herbal treatments is independent of any age groups and the sexes.
(www.nhp.gov.in/introduction-and-importance-of-medicinal-plants).
One such medicinal fruit is the star gooseberry. It is an ancient fruit, originating in
the tropical climates of Madagascar. Filipino botanist Eduardo Quisumbing explains that
although the fruit came to the Philippines in pre-historic times, the star gooseberries did
not achieve the same popularity there as it did when it spread to Indonesia, Malaysia,
Vietnam and Laos. Nonetheless, countries continue labeling the fruit as their own, hence
its other names such as Sri Lankan gooseberry, Malay gooseberry, and Madagascar
gooseberry. This pungent, sour fruit bears no relation with the more agreeable, reddish
Today, the fruit grows throughout Asia, parts of Central America, the Caribbean
and parts of South America. Garden hobbyists in Hawaii and Florida dabble with star
gooseberries as well. Pinpointing the fruits arrival in India is difficult because of its
ancient history. Star gooseberrys close relative the amla is distinctly native to parts of
India. How and when these two fruits crossed paths is a mystery. The flesh is juicy,
watery, crisp and densely compact, not unlike the texture of amla.
children in tropical and subtropical areas where people often defecate on the ground: in
rural parts of Africa, Middle East, South Asia, Indonesia and Central and South America.
In people from Mediterranean parts of Europe or south parts of North America, they
usually cause a relatively mild disease. Presence of parasites of any kind (including
4
intestinal worms) in or on the body is called infestation. Helminth is a medical term for
Herbs that cleanse the body of intestinal worms and parasites are called
vermicides (killing). Vermicide is an agent that kills intestinal parasitic worms. (Medical-
Raw star gooseberries have pungent, overwhelmingly sour and astringent taste.
Based on this fact, this study was conducted to evaluate the vermicidal property of star
gooseberry (Phyllantus acidus) as other sour tasting fruits like lemon, citron, etc., are
was used in this study because they are anatomically similar and advanced to the phylum
the Phylum Platyhelminthes and Phylum Aschelminthes that have parasitic worms. Star
gooseberry is an easily available fruit and is also cheap. This study, proven positive is a
boon to all classes of people having helminths diseases who cannot afford to buy the
expensive medicines used to treat the disease. It could also benefit people having
1. What is the vermicidal property of Star Gooseberry (Phyllanthus acidus) fruit extract
on the test organism Eudrilus eugeniae in terms of the paralyzing time using the
following treatments?
2. What is the vermicidal property of Star Gooseberry (Phyllanthus acidus) fruit extract
on the test organism Eudrilus eugeniae in terms of the death time using the above
mentioned treatments?
3. Is there a significant difference in the paralyzing time between and among the groups
acidus) fruit?
6
4. Is there a significant difference in the death time between and among the groups
acidus) fruit?
This study mainly focused on the evaluation of the vermicidal property of Star
Gooseberry (Phyllanthus acidus) fruit extracts in terms of the paralyzing time and death
The plant samples were procured from the Vigan public Market. The test
organism used was Eudrilus eugeniae which was obtained from accredited animal
distributors. The control for the experiment used was Mebendazole antiox which was
Only the fresh berries of Star Gooseberry plant were used in the experimental
investigation. Plant berries extraction and the Vermicidal property testing was conducted
The following reviews of literature and studies aided the researchers in the
Medicinal plants
Those plants that have healing properties are termed as medicinal plants or herbs.
Medicinal plants can be simply classified as trees, shrubs, woody perennials, annuals and
7
biennials, and climbers. Medical herbalism is the practice of healing with medicinal
plants. The ancient scholars only believed that herbs are only solutions to cure a number
of health related problems and diseases. They conducted thorough study about the same,
experimented to arrive at accurate conclusions about the efficacy of different herbs that
have medicinal value. Most of the drugs, thus formulated, are free of side effects or
reactions. This is the reason why herbal treatment is growing in popularity across the
globe. These herbs that have medicinal quality provide rational means for the treatment
of many internal diseases, which are otherwise considered difficult to cure. Medicinal
plants such as Aloe, Tulsi, Neem, Turmeric and Ginger cure several common ailments.
Lots of consumers are using Basil (Tulsi) for making medicines, black tea, in pooja and
other activities in their day to day life. In several parts of the world many herbs are used
to honour their kings showing it as a symbol of luck. Now, after finding the role of herbs
in medicine, lots of consumers started the plantation of tulsi and other medicinal plants in
their home gardens. Medicinal plants are considered as a rich resources of ingredients
synthetic drugs. A part from that, these plants play a critical role in the development of
human cultures around the whole world. Moreover, some plants are considered as
important source of nutrition and as a result of that they are recommended for their
therapeutic values. Some of these plants include ginger, green tea, walnuts, aloe, pepper
and turmeric etc. Some plants and their derivatives are considered as important source for
active ingredients which are used in aspirin and toothpaste etc. Apart from the medicinal
uses, herbs are also used in natural dye, pest control, food, perfume, tea and so on. In
many countries different kinds of medicinal plants/ herbs are used to keep ants, flies,
8
mice and flee away from homes and offices. Nowadays medicinal herbs are important
sources for pharmaceutical manufacturing. Recipes for the treatment of common ailments
such as diarrhoea, constipation, hypertension, low sperm count, dysentery and weak
penile erection, piles, coated tongue, menstrual disorders, bronchial asthma, leucorrhoea
and fevers are given by the traditional medicine practitioners very effectively. Over the
past two decades, there has been a tremendous increase in the use of herbal medicine;
however, there is still a significant lack of research data in this field. Therefore, since
1999, WHO has published three volumes of the WHO monographs on selected medicinal
plants. (www.nhp.gov.in/introduction-and-importance-of-medicinal-plants).
Modern western treatment is different from medical herbalism, but at some point
these two merge. For example, the use of friar's balsam or benzoin tincture for treating
colds, the use of Aloe vera gel for treating sunburn and bruises and the use of cascara or
Senn to relieve constipation. The tendency in modern medicine is to use synthetic drugs,
that eventually were modelled on compounds obtained mainly from plants. Therefore,
whether the plants are used as a whole, or extracts or their synthetics, their discovery
(kafura12.blogspot.com/p/medicinal-plants).
worlds population. In developing countries, they pose a large threat to public health and
helminths parasites mainly subsist in human body in intestinal tract, but they are also
found in tissue, as their larvae migrate towards them. Most diseases caused by helminths
are of a chronic, debilitating nature; they probably cause more morbidity and greater
economic and social deprivation among humans and animals than any single group of
parasites. Chemical control of helminths coupled with improved management has been
which is transmitted through contaminated water. It lies burrowed within the skin and
causes severe inflammatory reactions. Loiasis or African eye worm disease is caused by
the filaria Loa loaworm, which is contracted through Deer fly or Mango fly bites. The
adult worms move through subcutaneous tissue towards the sub conjunctiva of the eye.
The illness causes red, itchy swellings in the skin referred to as Calabar swellings.
Cysticercosis is caused by the pork tapeworm or Taenia solium. Symptoms often do not
present for years, but eventually painless bumps develop in the skin and muscles or cause
is usually affected first, followed by the lungs and brain. Liver disease may cause
abdominal pain and jaundice while lung disease leads to breathlessness and coughing.
Filariasis is caused by several species of small nematodes that infect humans through the
bite of an insect. Most including Wucheria spp. and Brugia spp. are Lymphatic filaria
that cause disease by inhabiting and disrupting the function of lymphatics. They are the
most common cause of elephantiasis gross swelling and thickening of skin secondary
10
to chronic obstruction of lymphatics. Onchocerca volvulus has a predilection for the eye
the developing world with more than 200 million people affected. It is caused by several
species of blood flukes the most important of which are S. hematobium and S.
important to look for alternative strategies against gastrointestinal nematodes, which have
led to the proposal of screening medicinal plants for their anthelmintic activity. (Invitro
anthelmintic activity of Luffa cylindrical leaves in Indian adult Earthworm, Sangh Partap
et al., 2012)
There are some effective natural remedies for treating Ascaris lumbricoides
infection. They can be used as an adjuvant therapy. Coconut oil is an effective home
remedy to flush out roundworms. It has anti-parasitic properties. Drink one to two
tablespoon of coconut oil daily in the morning for few days. Oil contains medium chain
11
triglyceride which will help to flush out the parasite from intestine. Unripe papaya
contains an enzyme called papain. It has valuable anti parasitic properties which help to
kill the worm and at the same time facilitate its expulsion. Wormwood is a powerful
anthelminthic natural medicine that has been in use since ancient times. Mix half
teaspoon of wormwood oil and one teaspoon of olive oil to get rid of roundworm. Bitter
gourd, pumpkin seeds, carrots are other natural home remedies that will help in
Paico and Peppermint both possess vermicidal properties, with the former the
blend.html). Other plants that have been proved to have anthelmintic property are spongy
guard, lemongrass, lead tree, banana plant, combination of ginger and turmeric, Mimosa
Star Gooseberries
Though star gooseberries do not receive as much attention as Amla- the star of
the Phyllanthus genusthese fruits may still be considered super fruits for their
incredible health benefits. Traditionally, star gooseberries are used in India to treat a
number of illnesses. According to the book, Biodiversity in India, these fruits are used
as a blood purifier and appetite stimulant. They are also used to remedy bronchitis,
biliousness, and treat digestive disorders such as urinary concretions, diarrhoea, and piles.
As is the case with Amla, star gooseberry concoctions also act as a liver tonic and blood
enrichment remedy. Another concoction includes making a leaf poultice with added
Scientific studies also prove the efficacy of star gooseberry as a health remedy. A
2006 study published in Phytomedicine confirms its antibacterial activity when tested for
inhibition against E. coli and staph. A 2007 study published in Molecular Pharmacology
indicates that star gooseberry plant extracts may provide treatment against cystic fibrosis
of the lungs. A 2008 study published in Nature and Science indicates that the leaves have
gooseberry fruit have a hepatoprotective effect on the liver. A 2010 article published in
the European Journal of Pharmacology found that leaf extracts reduced blood pressure,
thereby suggesting potent hypotensive properties. A 2012 study published in the Asian
Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine indicates that leaf extracts exhibit strong anti-
inflammatory, analgesic and antioxidant properties. The study suggests that star
(http://inflibnet.ac.in/ojs/index.php/AUJSAT/article/viewFile/519/504)
In Malaya, the ripe or unripe fruits of Phyllantus acidus is cooked and served as a
relish or made into a thick syrup or sweet preserve. It is also combined with other
fruits in making chutney and jam because, it helps these products to "set".
Often, the fruits are candied, or pickled in salt. In the Philippines, they are used
agent. The juice is used in cold drinks in the Philippines (Morton et aI.,1987).
(http://inflibnet.ac.in/ojs/index.php/AUJSAT/article/viewFile/519/504)
13
Conceptual Framework
The experimental paradigm that was used in the conduction of this study is
presented in Figure 1.
By submersion process
and noting the
Star Gooseberry Vermicidal
paralyzing and death
(Phyllanthus Property
time.
acidus) fruit
extract
Figure 1
Figure 1.
As shown in the paradigm, the Star Gooseberry (Phyllanthus acidus) fruit extract
was used in the vermicidal testing. The paralyzing time and death time of the test
organism namely Eudrilus eugeniae was used with justification of the vermicidal activity
Definition of Terms
For better and clear understanding of the study, the following terms are defined.
Vermicidal Activity: Vermicidal Activity of drugs kill infesting helminths and other
worms. The gastrointestinal tract is the abode of many helminths, although some also live
14
in tissues, or their larvae migrate into tissues. This mainly aims in killing helminths and
Third New International Dictionary,2000). In this, it refers to the crude extract obtained
from freshly, handpicked Star Gooseberry (Phyllanthus acidus) using a porcelain mortar
Paralyzing time: To make unable to move or act in a particular time. To impair the
until when no movement of any sort could be observed except the worms were shaken
Death time: Conceptions of death will influence the organism oriented toward seeking
an end to life. When it becomes painful or burdensome in a particular time. The organism
until when the worms neither moved when shaken vigorously nor when dipped in warm
water at 50C.
HYPOTHESIS
This study posited the following null hypothesis and tested at 0.01 level of
significance.
paralyzing time and death time between and among the groups of worms subjected to the
Research Methodology
This section presents the design of the study, the materials and the experimental
procedures which were used and strictly followed in the conduct of the study.
Research Design
This study employed the experimental method of the research to gather all the
data needed.
Phase II: This phase involved the testing of test organisms with the extracts
prepared.
Phase III: This phase involved recording of the paralyzing and the death time of
The laboratory equipments and materials that were used are the following:
Procedure
This portion includes the experimental procedures which were followed during the
conduct of the study. This procedure was adopted and modified from Ajayieoba E.O et al
16
Earthworm Eudrilus eugenia (Annelida) was collected from the authorized animal
distributors. The average size of Eudrilus eugeniae was 6-8cm. They were washed
B. Sterilization Process
Autoclaving was used in the sterilization of the apparatus that was used in the
The berries of the plant were washed with Ethyl alcohol and the seed were also
removed. The fleshy part of the berries was placed in the Porcelain Mortar to get the
crude extract. The extract thus prepared was filtered using the filter paper.
greater at 25C than 15C, 20C or 30C (25C = 77F) of the earthworm (Eudrilus
eugeniae). The habitat for the earthworms was soil at room temperature. The
earthworms fed on decaying roots and leaves. Animal manure is also a good food for
the earthworm.
E. Experiment Property
(25% of the pure extract + 75% of distilled water, 50% of the pure extract + 50% of
distilled water, 75% of the pure extract + 25% of distilled water and 100% of the pure
extract) were prepared. 10ml of the positive control Mebendazole antiox and the
crude extracts were taken in different Petri dishes and four earthworms (same type)
were placed in the solutions respectively. All the test solution and standard drug
solution were prepared freshly before starting the experiments. For each treatment,
Time for paralysis was noted when no movement of any sort could be observed
except the worms were shaken vigorously. The worms moved when they were dipped
in warm water at 50C. Time for death of worms was recorded after ascertaining that
the worms neither moved when shaken vigorously nor when dipped in warm water at
50C. Mebendazole antiox (10 mg/ml) was used as reference standard while distilled
G. Statistical Treatment
The following statistical tools were used in the analysis of the data gathered.
Mean. The mean was used to get the average of the paralyzing time and death
time.
in terms of the paralyzing time and death time, subjected to different treatments.
Scheffe Test. It was used to find out which pairs of the treatments significantly
differed.
18