WOOD

Fibrous substance which composes the trunk and branches of a tree that lies
between the pitch and the bark.
Wood is defined as the lignified water conducting, strengthening, and storage
tissues of branches, stem and roots of trees.
Wood is known as xylem- xylon

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Strength ability of wood in resisting stress and strain. However, the strength
varies in different manners:
a. Wood resistant to compression along fibers
b. Stiffness as in floor joints, beams, and rafters supporting heavy loads.
c. Strength in tension
d. Shearing strength along or across the grain.

Moisture important factor affecting the strength of wood to a certain extent,

strength increases with the degree of wood seasoning.
Knots and other defects

A. Abnormal Growth
Heart shake
Wind shake or cup shake
Star shake
B. Due to deterioration
Dry-rot
Wet rot

Weight of wood heavy wood is generally stronger than lighter wood.

Hardness expressed as resistance to indentation or the saw or axe across the
grain.
Cleavability the resistance of wood to split along the grains.
Flexibility and Toughness refers to the combined stress, shock resistance and
flexibility.
Durability ability to resist decay or simply the length of its life.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
The mechanical properties of wood are its fitness and ability to resist applied or
external forces
The mechanical properties of wood considered are
stiffness and elasticity toughness
tensile strength hardness
compressive or crushing strength cleavability
shearing strength resilience
transverse or bending strength

1. Stiffness - is the property by means of which a body acted upon by external
forces tends to retain its natural size and shape, or resists deformation.
Stiff material that is difficult to bend or deform
Flexible material that is easily bent or deform

Flexibility is not the exact counterpart of stiffness, as it also involves
toughness and pliability.

Elastic limit may be defined as the unit stress at which the deformation
begins to increase in a faster ratio than the applied load. In practice the elastic limit of a
material under test is determined from the stress - strain diagram. It is that point in the
line where the diagram begins perceptibly to curve.

The measure of the stiffness of wood is termed the modulus of elasticity (or
coefficient of elasticity). It is the ratio of stress per unit of area, to the deformation
per unit of length.

unit stress
e=
unit strain

Is a number indicative of stiffness, not of strength, and only applies to

conditions within the elastic limit. It is nearly the same whether derived from
compression tests or from tension tests

2. Tensile Strength - of wood parallel to the grain depends upon the strength
of the fibers and is affected not only by the nature and dimensions of the wood
elements but also by their arrangement.
Tension - results when a pulling force is applied to opposite ends of
a body.
Wood exhibits its greatest strength in tension parallel to the grain,
cross grain of any kind materially reduces the tensile strength of wood, since the
tensile strength at right angles to the grain is only a small fraction of that parallel to
the grain.
 Failure of wood in tension parallel to the grain occurs sometimes in
flexure, especially with dry material. The tension portion of the fracture is nearly the
same as though the piece were pulled in two lengthwise. The fiber walls are torn
across obliquely and usually in a spiral direction. There is practically no pulling apart
of the fibers, that is, no separation of the fibers along their walls, regardless of their
thickness. The nature of tension failure is apparently not affected by the moisture
condition of the specimen, at least not so much so as the other strength values.
Tension at right angles to the grain is closely related to cleavability.
When wood fails in this manner the thin fiber walls are torn in two lengthwise while
the thick-walled fibers are usually pulled apart along the primary wall.
3. Compressive or Crushing Strength - Is very closely related to hardness and
transverse shear.
There are two ways in which wood is subjected to stress of this
kind, namely:
with the load acting over the entire area of the specimen
with a load concentrated over a portion of the area

4. Shearing Strength - Whenever forces act upon a body in such a way that one
portion tends to slide upon another adjacent to it the action is called a shear. In
wood this shearing action may be (1) along the grain, or (2) across the grain.

P
=
A

Oblique shearing stresses are developed in a bar when it is subjected to direct
tension or in compression.

When shearing stress make an angle of 45 with the axis of the specimen:
P
=
2A

When shearing stress make an angle of less than45 with the axis of the
specimen
P
= sincos
2A

5. Transverse or Bending Strength: Beam - When external forces acting in the
same plane are applied at right angles to the axis of a bar so as to cause it to
 bend, they occasion a shortening of the longitudinal fibers on the concave side
and an elongation of those on the convex side.
Stress at any point that is equal to the resultant perpendicular to the
axis of the forces acting at this point is termed the transverse shear (or in the
case of beams, vertical shear).
Shearing stress, tending to move the fibers past one another in an
axial direction, which is called longitudinal shear (or in the case of beams,
horizontal shear).

Beams:
Simple beam-a bar resting upon two supports, one near each end
Cantilever beam-a bar resting upon one support or fulcrum, or that portion
of any beam projecting out of a mall or beyond a support
Continuous beam-a bar resting upon more than two supports.

Stiffness in Beams:
The formula for the modulus of elasticity (E) or measure of stiffness of a
rectangular prismatic simple beam loaded at the center and resting freely on
supports at either end is:
P' l 3
E=
4 D b h3

b = breadth or width of beam, inches.

h = height or depth of beam, inches.
l = span (length between points of supports) of beam, inches.
D = deflection produced by load P', inches.
P'= load at or below, elastic limit, pounds.
Strength of Beams:
The measure of the breaking strength of a beam is expressed in terms of unit
stress by a modulus of rupture, which is n purely hypothetical expression for
points beyond the elastic limit:
1.5 Pl
R=
b h3

b, It, I = breadth, height, and span, respectively, as in preceding formula.

R = modulus of rupture, pounds per square inch.
P = maximum load, pounds. In calculating the fiber stress at the elastic limit the
same

 Kinds of Load:
Uniform load occurs where the load is spread evenly over the beam.
Concentrated load occurs where the load is applied at single point or
points.
Live or immediate load is one of momentary or short duration at any one
point, such as occurs in crossing bridge.
Dead or permanent load is one of constant and indeterminate duration
Maximum load is the greatest load a material will support and is usually
greater than tile load at rupture.
Safe load is the load considered safe for a material to support in actual
practice.
ultimate load
FS=
safeload

Failures in Beams:
Simple tension, in which there is a direct pulling in two of the wood on the
underside of the beam due to a tensile stress parallel to the grain
Cross-grained tension, in which the fracture is caused by a tensile force
acting oblique to the grain. This is a common form of failure where the
beam has diagonal, spiral or other form of cross grain on its lower side.
Splintering tension, in which the failure consists of a considerable
number of slight tension failures, producing a ragged or splintery break on
the under surface of the beam. This is common in tough woods.
Brittle tension, in which the beam fails by a clean break extending
entirely through it. It is characteristic of a brittle wood which gives way
suddenly without warning, like a piece of chalk.
Compression failure has few variations except that it appears at various
distances from the neutral plane of the beam. It is very common in green
timbers. The compressive stress parallel to the fibers causes them to
buckle or bend as in an endwise compressive test.
Horizontal shear failure, in which the upper and lower portions of the
beam slide along each other for a portion of their length either at one or at
both ends is fairly common in air-dry material and in green material when
the ratio of the height of the beam to the span is relatively large.

6. Toughness: Torsion
Wood that is difficult to split is said to be tough
Toughness includes flexibility and is the reverse of brittleness, in that
tough woods break gradually and give warning of failure.
 Toughness is dependent upon the strength, cohesion, quality, length, and
arrangement of fiber, and the pliability of the wood

7. Hardness
The term hardness is used in two senses, namely: (1) resistance to
indentation, and (2) resistance to abrasion or scratching
In the latter sense hardness combined with toughness is a measure of the
wearing ability of wood and is an important consideration in the use of
wood for floors, paving blocks, bearings, and rollers.

8. Cleavability
Cleavability is the term used to denote the facility with which wood is split.
A splitting stress is one in which the forces act normally like a wedge.

9. Resilience
Is the amount of work done upon a body in deforming it. Within the elastic
limit it is also a measure of the potential energy stored in the material and
represents the amount of work the material would do upon being released
from a state of stress

Commercial Grades of Wood
Lumber is graded by the various associations of lumber manufacturers
having jurisdiction over various species.
Two principal sets of grading rules are employed: (1) for softwoods, and (2) for
hardwoods.
Softwoods
Softwood lumber is classified as dry, moisture content 19% or less; and
green, moisture content above 19%.
According to the American Softwood Lumber Standard, softwoods are classified
according to use as:
Yard Lumber. Lumber of grades, sizes, and patterns generally intended for
ordinary construction and general building purposes.
Structural Lumber. Lumber 2 in or more nominal thickness and width for use
where working stresses are required.
 Factory and Shop Lumber. Lumber produced or selected primarily for
manufacturing purposes.

Softwoods are classified according to extent of manufacture as:
Rough Lumber. Lumber that has not been dressed (surfaced) but has been
sawed, edged, and trimmed.
Dressed (Surfaced) Lumber. Lumber that has been dressed by a planning
machine (for the purpose of attaining smoothness of surface and uniformity of
size) on one side (S1S), two sides (S2S), one edge (S1E), two edges (S2E),
or a combination of sides and edges (S1S1E, S1S2, S2S1E, S4S).
Worked Lumber. Lumber that, in addition to being dressed, has been
matched, shiplapped or patterned:
Matched Lumber. Lumber that has been worked with a tongue on one edge of
each piece and a groove on the opposite edge
Shiplapped Lumber. Lumber that has been worked or rabbeted on both
edges, to permit formation of a close-lapped joint.
Patterned Lumber. Lumber that is shaped to a pattern or to a molded form.

Softwoods are also classified according to nominal size:
Boards. Lumber less than 2 in in nominal thickness and 2 in or more in
nominal width. Boards less than 6 in in nominal width may be classified as
strips.
Dimension. Lumber from 2 in to, but not including, 5 in in nominal thickness,
and 2 in or more in nominal width. Dimension may be classified as framing,
joists, planks, rafters, studs, small timbers, etc.
Timbers. Lumber 5 in or more nominally in least dimension. Timber may be
classified as beams, stringers, posts, caps, sills, girders, purlins, etc. Actual
sizes of lumber are less than the nominal sizes, because of shrinkage and
dressing. In general, dimensions of dry boards, dimension lumber, and timber
less than 2 in wide or thick are 1 4 in less than nominal; from 2 to 7 in wide or
thick, 1 2 in less, and above 6 in wide or thick, 3 4 in less. Green-lumber less
than 2 in wide or thick is 1 32 in more than dry; from 2 to 4 in wide or thick, 1
16 in more, 5 and 6 in wide or thick, 1 8 in more, and 8 in or above in width
and thickness, 1 4 in more than dry lumber. There are exceptions, however.

Yard lumber is classified on the basis of quality as:
Appearance. Lumber is good appearance and finishing qualities, often called
select.
o Suitable for natural finishes
o Practically clear
o Generally clear and of high quality
o Suitable for paint finishes
 o Adapted to high-quality paint finishes Intermediate between high-
finishing grades and common grades, and partaking somewhat of the
nature of both

Common. Lumber suitable for general construction and utility purposes, often
given various commercial designations.
o For standard construction use
o Suitable for better-type construction purposes
o Well adapted for good standard construction
o Designed for low-cost temporary construction
o For less exacting purposes Low quality, but usable

Hardwood Lumber
The principal use of hardwood lumber is for remanufacture into furniture,
cabinetwork, and pallets or direct use as flooring, paneling, molding, and millwork.
Hardwood lumber is graded and marketed in three main categories: (1) Factory
lumber, (2) dimension parts, and (3) finished market products.
Factory Lumber. The rules adopted by the National Hardwood Lumber
Association are considered standard in grading hardwood lumber intended for
cutting into smaller pieces to make furniture or other fabricated products
The best grade in the Factory lumber category is termed FAS.
The second grade is F1F.
The third grade is Selects
No. 1 Common
No. 2A Common,
No. 2B Common,
Sound Wormy,
No. 3A Common,
No. 3B Common

Standard Dimensions
Standard lengths of hardwood lumber are in 300-mm (1-ft)
increments from 1.2 to 4.8 m (4 to 16 ft.)



Firsts and Seconds (FAS)

The best and most expensive grade. Boards 6" and wider, 8' and longer. Yields
83-1/3 percent of clear face cuttings with minimum sizes of 4" x 5', or 3" x 7'.
Board is graded from the poorer face. Suitable for fine furniture, cabinetry and
applications where clear, wide boards are needed.

FAS One Face (F1F)

The same as FAS except the board is graded from the better face.

Selects (SEL)
Face side is FAS, back side is No. 1 Common. Boards are 4" and wider, 6' and
longer. Yields 83-1/3 percent clear face cuttings with minimum sizes of 4" x 5', or
3" x 7'. A cost effective substitute for FAS when only one good face is required or
smaller cuttings are acceptable.

No. 1 Common
A typical thrift or "shop" grade. Boards are 3" and wider, 4' and longer. Yields 66-
2/3 percent clear face cuttings with minimum sizes of 4" x 2', or 3" x 3'. Provides
good value, especially if relatively small pieces can be used.

No. 2A & 2B Common

Boards are 3" and wider, 4' and longer. Yields 50 percent clear face cuttings 3"
and wider by 2' and longer. Suitable for some paneling and flooring applications.

No. 3A Common
Boards are 3" and wider, 4' and longer. Yields 33-1/3 percent clear face cuttings
3" and wider by 2' and longer. Economical choice for rough utility applications:,
crates, palettes, fencing, etc.

No. 3B Common
Boards are 3" and wider, 4' and longer. Yields 25 percent clear face cuttings 1-
1/2" and wider by 2' and longer. Applications same as No. 3A Common.


Finished Market Products

Some hardwood lumber products are graded in relatively finished form, with little
or no further processing anticipated
First gradeone face practically free of all imperfections; variations in natural
color of wood allowed
Second gradetight, sound knots (except on edges or ends) and other slight
imperfections allowed; must be possible to lay flooring without waste
Third grademay contain all visual features common to hard maple, beech, and
birch; will not admit voids on edges or ends, or holes over 9.5-mm (3/8-in.) in
 diameter; must permit proper laying of floor and provide a serviceable floor; few
restrictions on imperfections; must be possible to lay flooring properly
Fourth grademay contain all visual features, but must be possible to lay a
serviceable floor, with some cutting

Wood Grain
Is the longitudinal arrangement of wood fibers or the pattern resulting from
this.
GRAIN STRUCTURE
As the cambium grows, it generates two types of wood cells. Most of
these are long, narrow longitudinal cells that align themselves with the axis of the trunk,
limb, or root. These are what give the wood its grain. The cambium also produces a
smaller number of ray cells that line up in rays extending out from the pith,
perpendicular to the axis.
As the wood grows outward, the living protoplasm inside the cells dies and
deteriorates, leaving behind just the cell walls. These walls are composed mostly
of cellulose fibers, which give the wood its strength. The fibers are bound together
with lignin, a glue-like substance. The hollow longitudinal cells become part of the
sapwood, conducting the sap up and down the tree. The hollow rays store plant sugars.
After several seasons, the older sapwood turns to heartwood. The sap dries up, and
mineral compounds called extractives form on the cell walls. These chemicals turn the
wood darker, giving it the characteristic color of its species. They also affect its strength,
stability, and hardness.
TYPES OF GRAIN
Because of the manner in which wood grows, every board has a definite
grain direction, parallel to the length of the longitudinal cells. The grain appears
differently depending on how the board is sawed.
When you cut a board across the grain (perpendicular to the grain direction and
the growth rings), you reveal end grain
Cut wood parallel to the grain direction and tangent to the growth rings, and youll
see plain grain (also called tangential or flat grain)
Cut it parallel to the grain direction but through the radius of the growth rings to
see quarter grain (also referred to as radial grain)
Both flat grain and quarter grain are sometimes called long grain

 WOOD GRAIN IN LUMBER
Sawyers use several methods to cut up a tree, each of which reveals different
grain patterns.
The most common method is plain sawing because it produces the highest
quantity of usable lumber. The sawyer begins by sawing several boards from one
side of the log, turns it 90 degrees and saws several more, and continues in this
manner sawing around the log. Plain-sawn boards show flat grain on their faces
and quarter grain on the edges.
The sawyer might also quarter saw a log. First, he saws the log in quarters, then
slices each quarter into boards, either by cutting boards from the two flat sides
alternately or by gang-sawing the quarter (making parallel cuts). Quarter sawn
boards show mostly quarter grain on their faces and flat grain on the edges
On special request, a sawyer will live saw a log for a woodworker, gang-sawing
the entire log. (This is sometimes called sawing through and through.) Live
sawing produces much wider boards than other methods, and these boards
show mostly mixed grain flat grain near the center of the face and quarter
grain near the edges.

TEXTURE AND PATTERN
The size, type, and arrangement of the wood cells differ with the species,
and this also affects the appearance of the grain. The texture of the wood is determined
by the relative size of the longitudinal cells. Wood species with large cells are said to
have a coarse texture, while those with smaller cells have a fine texture.
Hardwoods have vessel elements, a special type of longitudinal cell much
larger in diameter than the surrounding cells. When these vessels are sliced open, they
leave tiny hollows in the wood called pores. These pores give the hardwoods a distinct
look from softwoods, which have none. Some hardwoods have a larger concentration of
pores in the springwood these are known as ring-porous woods. Hardwoods in which
the pores are distributed evenly throughout the springwood and summerwood are ring-
diffuse. The arrangement of pores has an enormous effect on the grain. Ring-porous
hardwoods have a pronounced or strong grain pattern, while the grain pattern of ring-
diffuse stock is much less distinct.
Hardwood pores also come in a wide range of sizes. Woods with large
pores that are easily visible to the naked eye are said to have an open grain. Those with
smaller pores, too small to see clearly, have a closed grain. Open-grain woods appear
coarser than closed-grain woods because the surface isn't as smooth. When the wood
is sawn and the pores are split, the open pores create tiny valleys and rifts. Oftentimes
these pores must be filled before the wood is finished so the finish will dry to a smooth,
flat surface.

Wood grain isnt always straight and even. The longitudinal and ray cells
sometimes grow in unusual patterns, many of which are strikingly beautiful. These are
known as figured grain.
A few wood species, such as white oak, have especially prominent rays. When
quarter sawn, these produce silver grain.
Crotch figure, such as this walnut crotch, is cut from the part of a tree where the
trunk divides into smaller limbs and branches.
Curly grain occurs when the longitudinal cells grow in waves. This occurs in
many species but is especially striking in maple.
Birds eyes like those in this maple are caused by small dimples in the layers of
cells. These are thought to be caused by a fungus that affects the growth of the
longitudinal cells.
Larger dimples result in quilted figure, like the quilting in this soft maple. This,
too, is the result of a fungus.
The longitudinal cells of certain species, such as mahogany, sometimes spiral
around the trunk, reversing direction every few growth rings. This creates ribbon
figure.
Sometimes a tree produces a large growth on the side of the trunk or a branch.
The cells seem to swirl around each other inside these growths. When sliced,
these produce a burl figure such as this elm burl.