TOFD

Time of Flight Diffraction

By: Nick Bublitz
Diffraction
Based on Huygens principal

The incoming wave

vibrates the defect.

Each point of the

defect generates new
elementary spherical
waves called
diffraction
2
Waves
Incident
wave Diffracted
waves All directions

Low energy
Reflected FLAW
wave Independent of
incidence angle

Diffracted
waves

3
Diffraction

Modification or deflection of sound beam

Sound striking defect causes oscillation
Ends of defect become point sources
Not related to orientation of defect
Weaker signal than reflected needs higher gain or
amplification (preamp on receive side)
Sharp defects provide best emitters
Tip signals are located accurately
Time of flight of tip signals used to size
Wide beam longitudinal

4
How it Happens
beam spread in material

beam spread in shoe

60 deg
defined exit point

shear wave component center beam

appro. long. center beam

shear wave beam spread

5
Beam Spread
Conventional theory only focuses on
dominant frequency.
In reality differences in wavelength occur
due to the range of frequencies produced by
a single probe. (bandwidth)
Beam spread can be recalculated using
lower frequency component.
The presence of a lateral wave for 45
degree and above can be justified.
6
Rough Examples 60 Degree Wedge (2.7mm/us,
6mm crystal @ 5 MHz

Beam spread in wedge- center beam 23.3

deg. (incident)
2MHz +/- 10.3 deg. (13-33.6deg)
3 MHz +/- 6.8 deg. (16.5-30.1 deg)
4 MHz +/- 5.1 deg. (18.2-28.4 deg)
5 MHz +/- 4.1 deg. (19.2-27.1 deg)

7
Beam Spread in Material-60 degree (refracted)

2 MHz- 29.4-90 deg

3 MHz- 38.3-90 deg
4 MHz- 43-90 deg
5 MHz- 45.9-90 deg

8
Modes of travel
Some waves may go all the way
as LW
Some will go part way as LW,
part way as SW
Some will go all the way as SW

This is why we use LW!- LWs

are about twice as fast as SW
so they are sure to get to the
receive probe first. We never
use the mode-converted area
for depth measurements as we
are unsure of how those waves
traveled.

9
The display

LW
BW
mode converted bw

mode-converted area
volume of material

10
 A-Scan Signals
Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave

Back-wall reflection

LW BW

Upper tip Lower tip

11
The Lateral Wave
The lateral wave- compression velocity,
arrives first, for curved surfaces will travel
straight across the metal. Not a true surface
wave, but a bulk wave generated at the
edge of the wide beam generated by the
send transducer. Frequency content tends
to be lower than the center of the beam.
Becomes weaker with increased PCS.

12
The LW Backwall
Combination of reflected/diffracted energy.
Strong signal

13
Mode Converted signals
Occur after LW Backwall
due to slower speed.
Strong signals typically
Not used for measurement
of defects as velocity is
uncertain.
Near surface defects may
be more resolvable here
due to more spatial
resolution.

14
Why RF?
To observe phase shifts to observe tips
A wave traveling in a higher acoustic
impedance material will shift 180 deg in
phase when it is reflected at an interface of
lower impedance. (ex: steel to air).

15
The Effect
If the wave starts in a positive cycle
and hits a vertical defect-
1. the wave from the top tip acts like
energy reflected off the bw and
changes phase 180 deg. (-)
2. the wave from the bottom of the
defect acts like it runs around
the bottom without a phase change
and remains like the lateral wave (+)

Slag and porosity are often too thin to

produce separate top and bottom signals.

16
Data Visualization
A-scan
LW

D-scan BW

Upper Back wall

surface
17
Why Grayscale?
Typical pulse echo techniques often
associate a full color scale based on % FSH
amplitude with red being highest amplitude
because it is a natural attention getter for
people.
Since TOFD does not rely on amplitude but
rather TOF, we want to take out an natural
preference of color and view each defect
individually.
18
Data Visualization
Amplitude
White
+

Time

- Black

Time
One A-scan picture is replaced by one gray-coded line
19
Typical TOFD Scans
2 typical TOFD scans
used-
nonparallel scans-
ultrasonic beam is
perpendicular to the
scan axis-most
common
parallel scan-ultrasonic
beam is parallel to scan
axis

20
Non-parallel scan

Notch
SDH

21
The View-D-scan (Omniscan=B-scan)

x is
a na
Sc View

22
Non-Parallel

23
Non-parallel Scans
Locate flaws
Determine depth
length in scan axis
not the highest precision for TW height
measurements
rapid, easiest to employ, especially with
weld caps
Probes usually centered around area of
interest in index axis- weld etc
24
Parallel Scan

Notch top of plate

25
Parallel Scans
precision TW height
determination
width assessment
tilt
lateral positioning-
amplitude will be
greatest when flaw is
directly center of
probes

26
The View-B-scan

w Scan axis
V i e

27
Other Types of Scans
Double Skip-used when there are problems
resolving near surface defects-skipping off
backwall

28
Other Types of Scans
Off-axis Scans-Non-parallel
If a near surface flaw lies close to one
probe in a normal centered non-parallel
scan, the signal from the defect can
have a short time delay from the LW,
causing poor resolution. Resolution can
often be improved by performing off-axis
scan. Depth measurement may become
less accurate depending on
positioning.

29
Other Types of Scans
Manual scanning- unencoded
Used only when is only resort typically
Negatives-
1.Sampling interval not constant-
operator left to try to match PRF - works best
in teams with area marked out at intervals-
no better than +/- 5mm accuracy should be
expected

30
TOFD Advantages
Permanent data recording with B-scan type imaging (side view)
Accurate sizing capability (height)-through-wall height most
critical for fracture mechanics.
Technique allows for rapid scanning
Detection and sizing almost orientation independent.
Based on TOF so avoid common amplitude technique sizing
errors
TOFD has a potential through-wall dimension accuracy of 1
mm and monitoring capability of 0.3 mm
Setup virtually independent of weld configuration
Wide coverage area

31
TOFD Limitations
Blind areas :
near surface Width of the lateral wave and timing error (can be
reduced by reducing PCS, using higher frequency, using highly
dampened broadband probes, and software tools (lateral wave
removal).
back wall Large signal from reflected energy
Off axis flaws at the back wall can be missed (can be reduced
by off center scans and wider PCS)
Flaw classification limitation (some cases)-no simple amplitude
criteria
Sensitive to grain noise (frequency and material flaws)
If not experienced user, analysis can be difficult = Training
Lack of index positioning (non-parallel scans: can be
compensated by parallel scans or pulse echo prove up)
Parent material indications can be perceived as weld indications
32
Ellipse of Equal Time

Ellipse of Equal Time- defects at either location plot

the same time-exists for anywhere on the ellipse

33
Lateral Positioning

34
Defect Position Uncertainty
S S
Transmitter Receiver

dmin dmax
t1 t2

In practice:
Maximum error on absolute depth position lies below 10 %.
Error on height estimation of internal (small) defect is negligible.
Caution for small defects situated at the back wall.
35
Missed off-axis flaws

missed or
obscured by
large bw
36 signal
The Non-Linearity of Depth
With a constant 5us change in depth, (expressed here in time), we can observe the total
time from transmit to receive does not hold constant.
This causes a distortion of depth on our display, indications appear to be much closer to the
surface then were they lie in reality. Calibrations for true depth determination are critical.

Total Time S to R S LW time 50us R Depth in Time

.99
beam 1=50.99us 1
2.85 5 us
beam 2= 53.85us 2 10 us
4.45
beam 3= 58.3us 3
5.73 15 us
beam 4= 64.03us 4
20us

37
 Main Fact-
the deeper in the
material=less error

38
Recommended Solution

TOFD: YES
BUT: do not forget the good things offered by the
standard Pulse-Echo technique
SOLUTION: do both TOFD and PE
simultaneously, without reducing the scan speed
Pulse Echo channels can focus on the cap and
root, TOFDs weak spot!

39
Recommended Solution : PV-100

PE 45 SW TOFD PE 60 SW

The system allows for simultaneous

acquisition and analysis (inTomoview
only) of TOFD and PE

40
PV100-Tomoview

41
PV-100

42
Multiple Tofd

43
Scanner/Fixture Necessities
Absolute-
1. good contact with surface
2. control of PCS
3. able to scan straight line
Good features
1. magnetic wheels for ferrous mat.
2. preamp
3. couplant feeds
4. rulers for adjustment of PCS
5. adjustable for curved surfaces
6. umbilical wiring
7. probes/wedges individually sprung and gimballed
8. laser or other guides
44
Single Tofd Pair

45
Multiple Tofd or Tofd/PE

46
Tofd and Phased Array

47
Couplant Considerations
Water usually best- uniform
Couplant feeds allow even application while
scanning-holes bore in bottom of wedge for
flow- IHC (irrigation, holes, carbides)

48
Wedge Considerations
To prevent wear, carbide pins useful on
bottom of wedge (gap scanning)
typical- .2mm
Gaps of and wavelength should be
avoided to avoid interference effects

49
Analysis
Normal characterization-
1. position in scan axis
2. length
3. depth and height
4. type- (surface/bottom breaking or
embedded)

50
Defect Shape
Dueto beam spread,
many defects often
have a curved look.

51
Flaws Parallel to the Surface
Flaws relatively
parallel to the surface
will have a minimum
time delay when the
probes are directly in
line with the flaw-
parabolic shape will be
seen as probes Flaw
approach and leave
the flaw as seen diff. signals
previously signal
52
Parabolic Cursors
To aid in measuring the defect
as if the beam is a point source,
parabolic (curved) cursors are
often used. After calibration
these are available to fit the
parabolic shape of the flaw to
eliminate/reduce the effect of
the beam spread in the scan axis.

53
Parabolic Cursors
To acquire defect
length the cursors
are often placed to
fit the natural curve
of the defect to
eliminate the effects
of beam spread. From
the cursors defect start
and length can be
determined.
dist. between two
position of ref. cursors-length in
cursor in scan axis-flaw start scan axis
54
Parabolic Cursors
Using phase information, the
cursors can also be positioned
at the highest amplitude
response from each tip- for
depth and through wall height
information.

position of ref.
cursor in ut axis
(depth to top
of flaw) distance between two
cursors in ut axis- height

55
Surface Breaking Defects
Sinceonly one tip will
be present in surface
breaking defects, the
back wall or LW can
be used as second
reference point.

56
Parabolic Cursors
Indications that exactly fit the curve of the
parabolic cursors are normally regarded as
having little to no length-small gas pores,
grain responses, etc

57
Some Typical Defects-non-
parallel scans
Uppersurface breaking crack
Back Wall breaking crack
Horizontal planar defect
TOFD Typical Defects
Horizontal Planar Defect
(Lack of Inter-Run Fusion, Laminations)
Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave

Reflected signal

Back wall reflection

LW BW

Reflection echo
60
Upper Surface Breaking Crack
Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave is blocked

Back-wall reflection

BW

No Lateral wave Crack tip

61
Back Wall Surface Breaking Crack
Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave

Back wall echo blocked

LW
No back
wall echo-
Tip not always
62 the case!
Near Surface Crack

1 2
The crack blocks the Lateral Wave
And the lower tip appears on the A-scan
63
Incomplete Root Penetration

1
2

2 4 2
1 1 3
Note the two signals from the top & bottom

64
Lack of Root Penetration

1
1

2
3

2
3

Note the inverted phase between LW and defect

65
Lack of Fusion - Side Wall
1
1
2 2
3

4
3

Note the two signals from the top & bottom

66
Porosity
1
2 1

2
3

Porosity may image in many forms whether

individual or cluster

67
Transverse Crack
1
1
2 2
1
3
2

3 4
3

In the LW we can observe the wide beam effect on the crack

68
Concave Root

1
1
2

2
3
3

Distortion of back-wall echo

69
Lack of Fusion - Interpass

1
2

70
Setting up TOFD
Determine PCS
2 d Tan ( theta ) to focus at a determined point
4/3 d Tan (theta) to focus at 2/3 d
d= depth of focus or part thickness
theta = refracted angle of wedge
ex: 25 mm butt-weld-
focus at center using 70 degree wedges
2 (12.5) (Tan 70)= 69mm PCS
focus at 2/3 in the material-
4/3 (25) (Tan 70)= 92 mm PCS
2
PCS-Probe Center Separation
Distancebetween exit points of send and
receive probes

3
How is It Determined?
General rule- for linear joints focus at 2/3 total T.
D= total part T

4/3 D x Tan theta

2
3
T

4
Focus at Point of Interest
Used when expected 2D Tan
indications are at
predetermined location
(ex: root) or multiple
Tofd pairs to cover
large volumes.

D=where want to focus

5
 In general a wider PCS
Effect of PCS results in more coverage of
the material but can lead to
missed areas- improper
calculations can be
detrimental to coverage!

6
Effect of Angle
The amplitude response
from the bottom and top tip
of a vertical crack varies as
a function of beam angle.
The amplitude has the
greatest response around
65 degrees. Between 45
and 80 degrees the
amplitude difference is less
than 6 db. Notice around 38
deg. the signal from the
Optimum
bottom crack tip drops off in Upper tip
q 64
amplitude greatly. Optimum
Lower tip
From Charlesworth & Temple
7 q 68
Calculator

TOFD probe separation can be calculated with basic mathematical

formula or Excel calculator tools
8
Choosing Probes- Give and Take-Overview
Highly dampened- to reduce
ring time and increase near
surface resolution
Frequency- lower frequency will
give more beam spread for
detection with less resolution.
Higher frequency probes
attenuate faster. Increased
frequency= more cycles occur=
better depth resolution
Diameter- smaller crystals will
create more beam spread, but
again beam intensity is less.
A number of guides are
available

9
Choosing Probes-Frequency and depth resolution
more cycles within the time
frame between LW and
BW=better depth
resolution
general rule- aim for 20 or
better cycles (30 and over
optimum)
positive-increased
frequency= increased
cycles
negative-beam spread
reduced,
attenuation/scatter
increased
10
T in LW- 1 MHz 3 MHz 5 MHz 10 20
mm BW # # # MHz MHz
focus time cycles cycles cycles # #
2/3 T us cycles cycles
10 1.25 1.3 3.8 6.3 12.5 25.1

25 3.13 3.1 9.4 15.7 31.3 62.7

50 6.265 6.3 18.8 31.3 62.7 125.3

100 12.53 12.5 37.6 62.7 125.3 250.7

11
Probe examples
PCS 84 mm
10 MHz 15mm dia

narrow bs

PCS 84 mm

3 MHz 6mm dia

big beam spread

12
Effect of Frequency on Beam Spread

13
Effect of Crystal Diameter on Beam Spread

3mm dia

12mm dia

6mm dia
14
Effect of Wedge Angle

15
Comparing Wedge Angles
In general, the higher the
wedge angle, the more 45 60 70
the time scale will be
compressed.
In general a higher
wedge angle gives
more coverage.

16
Setting Filters
General rule
High pass- Frequency
Low pass- 2x Frequency

17
Range
General Rule-
leave at least 1 us before LW
leave 1 us after mode-converted back wall

18
Digitization Frequency
Higher= better if
possible
Absolute minimum 2x
Frequency (10mhz
x2=20mhz)

Idealminimum 5x
frequency (10 MHz x 5
= 50 MHz)
100 MHz if possible

19
PRF
Look for ghost echoes
Look at trace before
lateral wave, should be
flat or near flat or prf
may be to high
On Omniscan-optimum
is usually adequate

20
Sampling interval/Encoder Resolution

1mm typical- 2 or 3mm to reduce data file

sizes if necessary for long scans

21
Averaging
32 maximum realistic
value
8 or 16 usually better
Averaging can
increase SNR

22
Pulse Width
GeneralRule- LW = 1
cycles, maximum 2

On OmniScan,
optimum is usually
adequate
23
Sensitivity/gain
General rules
LW to 20- 50% FSH
backwall to 100% FSH +10db
Sensitivity not related to size of defect-FBH and
SDH should be avoided-signal from FBH is simply
related to area and signal from SDH will give two
signals-reflection from top of hole and creeping
wave that runs around bottom of hole.-stnds
/guides differ on the proper targets to use for
calibration
24
Using Calibration Block
using series of thin slots and setting
response from bottom (BS 7706) Slot must
be upper surface breaking- signal from top
largely reflected, while bottom gives
response similar to fatigue crack. Slots often
1/3 and 2/3 T. Block should be similar
material and T.
Using slots at varying depths covering
material T. Gain set on deepest slot so
signal is 60% FSH.
25
Using grass/noise
Settinggain on calibration block, then
increasing gain until noise is 5% FSH in
between LW and BW.

26
Velocity and Wedge Delay Calibration
Unlike most UT inspections, the calibration
of velocity and wedge delay are performed
after acquisition.
Normally carried out by telling the inspection
system three things-

27
Reference Good A-scan
Cursor positioned in
area free of flaws for
reference LW and BW.

28
Input Test Parameters

1.PCS
2.Thickness
3.Geometry

29
 Input and Train Top and Bottom
Many conventions- key is consistency!
One popular method is to use first + peak of lateral wave and
- peak of long. BW

ref. cursor positioned on first

+ peak of LW

software told this is 0 or Top

30
Input and Train Top and Bottom

measure cursor positioned at

peak of BW
software told this is this thickness

31
Calibration performed

32
No Signal?
Check gain
Check couplant in and under shoes
Check Cables-undamaged, connected
correctly
Check orientation- wedges facing each
other
Check flaw detector circuits
Check preamp (if used)- make sure on and
connected correctly-check battery
33
Tofd Demo on Sonaspection
Plate 2.0 SW OmniScan
By: Nick Bublitz
Required Equipment
OmniScan (16:16,16:64,16:128, 2/4/8 channel) w/ Tofd
option and 2.0R2 SW
Tofd scanner (HST-X04)
(2) 60 degree wedges (ST1-60L-IHC)
(2) 5MHz probes- (C543-SM)
Weld (Sonaspection .5)
Cables- (2) Lemo-MD, (1) Lemo-Lemo as demonstrated)
Preamp- (5682), 9 volt battery
BNC-Lemo adapters (2) as demonstrated
Couplant- water for plate, grease for wedge as
demonstrated
Encoder- Old mini-encoder used
2
 encoder send probe
receive probe
3
Setting up Equipment

turn on
flaw detector preamplifier
Boot up and Select UT
Turn the OmniScan
on, start the SW and if
necessary switch from
PA to UT from the
menu
1

4
Access the Wizard 2

5
Start the Group Wizard

choose modify
and Next

3
6
Set Part Parameters

Material

part T
Flat

7
Connection Type

Tofd inspection

2 1
8
Choose Probe

2
3
angle beam type

then probe 1
9
Choose Wedge

2 3

Tofd type

then wedge

10
1
Position

choose non-parallel

leave 0 for demo set PCS- distance

or input distance from pin to pin of wedges-
side of plate start general demo on .5
and scan start 29-35 mm
as cap allows

11
Finish!

12
Set range tip- if you cant see signals, set
start at 0 and range to 30us, then
couple wedges start adjusting start/range back
flat on base metal- and forth until dialed in
can remove encoder
to aid
1
2

adjust start and range until

LW,BW, and mode converted
BW are
13 on screen with at least 1 us
before LW and after Mode BW
Overlays

2
if necessary turn off
gates and cursors
3

14
Adjust Gain

adjust gain so LW is
20-50% FSH

15
Adjust Pulser

2
if necessary adjust voltage
and PRF/PW- signal before LW
should be relatively flat 3

16
Adjust Receiver

choose filtering if
needed- auto or 5MHz
probably sufficient

2 17
 Setup Encoder

2
4
3 5

one line/encoder 1 scan length and resolution

18
Set Polarity 2

move direction want to

scan and make sure
1 getting larger

change here if needed

19
Calibrate Encoder

3
20
Set Origin

position at 0
1
point and
hit next

3 2

21
Set Distance

set distance going to

move, move that distance
then hit calibrate

3 1

22
Accept or Restart 1

to verify: move back to

zero point and look at
axis position

2 23
Scan the Plate
Apply couplant over 3
the plate 1
Apply the scanner in
proper orientation
hit start acquisition
scan the plate and
freeze data

4
2

24
Turn Analyze Aids on
Turn Cursors back on 1

Turn readings on 2

4
7
5

25 6
Calibrate

4
26
Select Reference A-scan

Show the
OmniScan
a good area
with no flaws,
LW/BW only
2 1 27
Input Parameters-As needed

2 28
Set Cursor Position and Depth

move ref. cursor to

1 move meas. cursor to
first + cycle of LW 3 first - cycle of BW

2-input 0 for
top surface

4-input T for
5 29 back
surface
Accept or Restart

2 Accept or restart

view vel /delay

30