Problems with the Rutherford Model of the atom led to the search

for a model that would better explain the observed phenomena

1.1 Discuss the structure of the Rutherford model of the atom, the existence of the
nucleus and electron orbits

In 1909 Rutherford instructed Geiger and Marsden to perform an experiment where

alpha particles were fired at a thin sheet of gold foil. Most particles passed through with
no or little deflection in a vacuum. However about 1 in 8000 was deflected at an angle
of more than 90o
As a result Rutherford proposed the reason for the scattering was that all the atoms
positive charge and almost all its mass were concentrated in a small, dense nucleus
with electrons at a distance
There were many questions left unanswered by his model including:
o What is the nucleus made of?
o What keeps the electrons from being attracted into the nucleus
o How are the electrons arranged?

1.2 Analyse the significance of the hydrogen spectrum in the development of

Bohrs model of the atom

Rutherfords model was unable to explain the hydrogen spectra

It has been known for a long time that most gases emit light when excited by heating
or passing an electric current through the gas at low pressure
Each element has a characteristic line emission spectrum
Bohr linked the wavelength of light emitted from excited hydrogen atoms as being the
energy emitted as an electron moved from a higher to lower energy shell
Reasoned that as energy emitted was of set levels that the stable shells were located
specific distances from the nucleus and that electrons could only stably exist at those
distances

1.3 Define Bohrs Postulates

Bohr developed a model of the atom based on the idea of the quantisation of energy,
Rutherfords model of the atom and observing the pattern of the hydrogen emission
spectrum. His model was based on three postulates
1st Postulate: electrons only able to occupy certain orbits which are quantised and
known as principal energy shells. When in these shells they are in a stationary state
and do not radiate energy
2nd Postulate: when an electron falls from a higher energy to lower energy shell or
moves from a lower energy to higher energy shell it emits or absorbs a quantum of
energy. The energy is related to the frequency of the EMR by E=hf
3rd Postulate: electrons angular momentum is quantised as mvr =

1.4 discuss Plancks contribution to the concept of quantised energy

Planck stated that radiation emitted from a black body is not continuous as waves, but
is instead emitted as packets of energy called quanta (photons)
This was successfully used to explain black body radiation and was then used to explain
Bohrs model of the atom
1.5 Describe how Bohrs postulates led to the development of a mathematical

model to account for the existence of the hydrogen spectrum for which
Bohrs postulates were able to provide a physical basis for the Balmer series formula
which was an empirical formula used to describe the observation of the visible
spectrum of hydrogen when excited by addition of energy
From Bohrs second postulate the energy emitted or absorbed is equal to E i Ef = hf
From this the Rydberg equation can be shown

1.6 Discuss the limitations of the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom

Bohrs model possessed several serious limitations including:

o It mixed classical and quantum physics without reason and assumed that some
laws of classical physics held whilst others did not. The classical physics aspects
included circular motion of electrons, angular momentum and Coulombs law.
Quantum physics included the quantisation of electron orbits and energy
o It could not explain the relative intensity between spectral lines. Some lines were
more intense than others and there was no answer for why this should occur
o Model did not work for multi-electron atoms. His model failed when Bohr tried to
apply them to atoms of more than one electron
o Model could not explain the existence of hyperfine spectral lines. These exist in a
cluster around a main spectral line
o Model could not explain the Zeeman Effect which is the splitting of spectral lines
when a powerful magnetic field is applied.

1.7 Perform a first-hand investigation to observe the visible components of the

hydrogen spectrum

Aim: examine the visible spectrum of hydrogen

Method: high voltage induction coil connected to hydrogen discharge tube and observed the
light given off with a hand-held spectroscope

Results: glowed with a pink colour when viewed by naked eye. Using the hand-held
spectroscope four coloured lines were visible red, green, blue and violet

Conclusion: Hydrogen has a distinct emission spectrum consisting of a series of coloured lines

1.8 process and present diagrammatic information to illustrate Bohrs explanation

of the Balmer series

When an atom of hydrogen is excited the electron can absorb enough energy to jump
to a higher energy level. The electron then falls back and releases energy as a quantum
of energy
The Balmer series is the emission of quantum with a frequency in the visible light
range. These are presented as a series of jumps from the 6 th, 5th, 4th and 3rd electron
orbital to the 2nd to produce the 4 visible emission lines in the hydrogen spectrum
1.10 Analyse secondary information to identify the difficulties with the Rutherford-
Bohr model including its inability to completely explain:

The spectra of larger atoms

The relative intensity of spectral lines
The existence of hyperfine spectral lines
The Zeeman Effect

Spectra of larger atoms:

Hydrogen is the simplest atom containing one electron. He + and Li2+ also have one
electron. Bohrs model worked for these but failed with all others. In other atoms
electrons interact with each other. In larger atoms outer electrons are shielded from the
nucleus by inner electrons. Interactions between electrons also result in different
energy levels which distort the emission spectra.

Relative Intensity of spectral lines:

When the spectrum of hydrogen was closely examined some emission lines varied in
intensity. Some were intense, others were less intense, some were sharp and others
diffuse. Bohr could not explain these features and it was later proposed that electron
orbits were elliptical.

Existence of hyperfine spectral lines:

As spectroscope quality improved it was found some spectral lines were made up of
numerous hyperfine lines. This suggested splitting of the Bohr energy levels however
he could not explain this

Zeeman Effect:

In 1896 Zeeman found when a source of sodium light was placed between a strong
magnet the lines split into 3. Bohrs model could not explain this.

2. The limitations of classical physics gave birth to quantum physics

2.1 Discuss the impact of De Broglies proposal that any kind of particle has both
wave and particle properties
 As it was suggested that light behaves as a wave and particle, De Broglie proposed that
particles should have wavelike properties. He proposed the wavelength of a particle is
inversely proportional to its momentum.
De Broglies proposal had significant impacts including:
o Providing support and explanation of Bohrs postulates
o Changing the direction of thinking to suggest particles had wave properties
o Assisting in the development of quantum physics

2.2 Define diffraction and identify that interference occurs between waves that
have been diffracted

Diffraction is the bending of waves around obstacles or through barriers. The amount of
diffraction depends on the ratio of the wavelength to the size of the gap or obstacle.
When diffraction waves combine, they form interference patterns. If two waves arrive at
the same point where a crest meets a crest, they reinforce each other causing
constructive interference. If a crest meets a trough, this is called destructive
interference as they cancel each other out.

2.3 Describe the confirmation of De Broglies proposal by Davisson and Germer

In a series of experiments, Davisson and Germer scattered electrons from the surface
of a nickel crystal and noticed that as the electrons reflected off the surface they
produced an interference pattern. The electrons exhibited wave characteristics.
As they were familiar with x-ray diffraction undertaken by the Braggs, they concluded
that electrons were being diffracted from the surface. As diffraction and interference
are wave properties, this supported De Broglie.
They were also able to measure the wavelength of the electrons from the interference
pattern which agreed with the predicted wavelength by De Broglie

2.4 Explain the stability of the electron orbits in the Bohr atom using De Broglies
hypothesis

Bohrs first postulate stated that electrons could rotate in their orbits without emitting
energy however he was unable to explain why.
The concept of matter waves presented by De Broglie explained why this was possible.
If an integral number of electron wavelengths fitted into the circumference of the orbit,
standing waves would be possible and no energy would be lost.
De Broglies theory of matter waves and the matter wave equation was able to be used
to derive Bohrs third postulate, adding rationality to it.

2.6 Gather, process, analyse and present information and use available evidence to
assess the contributions made by Heisenberg and Pauli to the development of
atomic theory

Heisenberg

Heisenberg is well known for the uncertainty principle which stated that for a particle
such as an electron, the more precisely the position is known, the less precisely the
momentum is known. This relationship had huge implications for how we view matter.
This led to the abandonment of the planetary style orbits which were replaced with
electron clouds (orbitals) that are regions in which electron position becomes a
statistical probability.

Pauli
 In 1925, Pauli suggested the exclusion principle which states that no two electrons can
occupy the same quantum state of an atom.
This led to the explanation of the max number of electrons in each energy level and the
regularity of elements in the periodic table
The exclusion principle was found to be a consequence of the solution to Schrodingers
wave equation.
Pauli also applied Heisenbergs theory to the hydrogen spectrum and was able to
predict the Rydberg constant as well as the existence of the neutrino

3. The work of Chadwick and Fermi in producing artificial

transmutations led to practical applications of nuclear physics
3.1 define the components of the nucleus as nucleons and contrast their properties

The components of the nucleus (protons and neutrons) are defined as nucleons. Properties:

Properties Neutron Proton

Location Inside the nucleus Inside the nucleus
Mass 1.675 x10-27 kg 1.673 x10-27 kg
Charge O 1.602 x10-19 C

3.2 Discuss the importance of conservation laws to Chadwicks discovery of the

neutron

In 1930 Walther Bothe noted that when beryllium was bombarded with alpha particles (helium
nuclei), a neutral and highly penetrative radiation was obtained. He could not explain the
nature of the radiation.

In 1932, James Chadwick proposed that the radiation obtained were neutrons. He set out an
experiment to study this radiation. The neutral charge was easy to demonstrate as it was not
deflected by magnetic/electric fields. To measure the mass of the neutrons, Chadwick directed
the neutrons towards a block of paraffin wax. Paraffin wax is high in hydrogen atoms and
therefore protons. The neutrons would have a good chance of colliding with the protons and
knocking them out. These protons would be ejected from the paraffin wax and could be
measured by a detector, allowing the energy and velocity of the protons to be assessed.

Through the use of the laws of conservation of momentum and energy, Chadwick could
calculate in reverse order to determine the mass of the neutron (which was roughly equal to
that of a proton). This experimentally proved the existence of the neutron through its
properties not observation. Equation of this reaction is: 94Be + 42He -> 126C + 10n

3.3 Define the term transmutation

Transmutation is the phenomenon where an element changes its identity to become another

3.4 Describe nuclear transmutations due to natural radioactivity

Radioactivity is the spontaneous release of energy or energetic particles from unstable nuclei.
There are three natural types of radioactivity: alpha and beta which are particles and gamma
which is electromagnetic radiation.

Alpha - decay where an unstable nucleus emits an alpha particle. Alpha radiation particles
are energetic helium nuclei 42He (helium atoms sans electrons). Alpha decay causes the loss
of 2 protons and 2 neutrons from the element, reducing the mass number by 4 and 2,
resulting in transmutation. Alpha decay occurs so unstable elements can become more stable.
Decreasing the size of the nucleus causes it to become more stable.

Beta Two types of beta decay (+ and -). - occurs when an unstable nucleus breaks down to
emit - radiation particles. - particles are fast moving electrons with the symbol 0-1e. Beta
particles result from the conversion of a neutron to proton and electron inside the nucleus. -
causes a neutron to be converted to a proton making the element more stable. It occurs when
the ratio of neutrons: protons is too high.

Gamma highest frequency EMR in the EMR spectrum. Gamma decay occurs when atoms
attempt to release excessive amounts of energy from the nucleus. This excessive energy
results from a prior disturbance e.g. bombardment with neutrons or undergoing beta/alpha
decay. Gamma radiation is pure energy and does not cause transmutation, however it does
make the element more stable.

3.5 Describe Fermis initial experimental observation of nuclear fission

Nuclear fission refers to the process where a large atom e.g. uranium is hit by a slow
neutron. It breaks down to give two smaller nuclei roughly the same size and at the
same time, emits a few neutrons and releases energy
During Fermis neutron bombarding experiments he produced transuranic elements. He
also found that whilst bombarding the nucleus, some other isotopes ( emitters with
different half-lives) were also produced. This indicated another process was taking place
however they could not understand its nature
It was not until Austrian physicists Meitner and Frisch stated that the neutron led to the
breakdown of the uranium nucleus into two nuclei that the term nuclear fission was
coined

3.6 Discuss Paulis suggestion of the existence of neutrino and relate it to the need
to account for the energy distribution of electrons emitted in decay

When decay occurs, the energy of the ejected electron varies over a wide range
When the masses before and after were measured and the difference in mass (mass
defect) was converted to energy, a discrepancy arose except for the highest energy
electrons with less energy found than
expected. Nothing could be found to make
up this deficit.
Pauli suggested that the energy lost was
carried away by the neutrino, with the total
energy from the mass defect being shared
by the electron and neutrino
Paulis suggestion was necessary to
preserve the laws of conservation of energy,
mass and angular momentum which would
have to be abandoned without the neutrino.
Anti-neutrinos are released with electrons, neutrinos
released with positrons
As neutrinos are chargeless, massless, have no magnetic properties and virtually dont
interact with matter they are very hard to detect. The discovery did not occur until
some years later than Paulis initial suggestion
3.7 Evaluate the relative contributions of electrostatic and gravitational forces
between nucleons

The gravitational attraction between protons is nowhere near as strong as the repulsive
electrostatic force
This makes it impossible for the nucleus to hold together without the existence of
another attractive force

3.8 Account for the need for the strong nuclear force and describe its properties

As the repulsive electrostatic force is so much stronger than the attractive

gravitational force, there needs to be another force. This is the strong
nuclear force
The strong nuclear force acts equally between all nucleons (proton-proton,
proton-neutron, neutron-neutron) and is extremely powerful but short range
If the nucleons come closer than .5 x 10- 15
m, the strong nuclear force
becomes repulsive
Between .5 x 10-15 and 2.2 x 10-15m the
force is attractive

3.9 Explain the concept of a mass defect using Einsteins

equivalence between mass and energy

The total mass of the neutrons, protons and electrons which make up an atom is
greater than the mass of the atom as a whole. This is termed mass defect.
As a result of the mass loss, energy must be liberated according to Einsteins equation
E=mc2. To separate the atom into its individual components, the same amount of
energy must be put back in to result in the total mass of the components.
Binding energy is the energy needed to separate an atom into its individual
components. It is equivalent to the mass defect.
Binding energy per nucleon is the total binding energy divided by the number of
nucleons. This gives an indication of the level
of energy required to split the atom
and its stability.
As the atom gets bigger so does
its binding energy, however
binding energy does not reflect
how strongly the atom is held
together but merely the size of the
atom.
For this reason, binding energy per
nucleon is used to determine how
tightly bound each nucleon is.
Iron is the most stable element,
having the highest binding energy
per nucleon.

3.10 Describe Fermis demonstration of a controlled nuclear chain reaction in 1942

In 1942, Fermi and a group of scientists were able to sustain the first fission chain
reaction.
A nuclear pile consisting of graphite blocks surrounding a core of uranium
(approximately 60 tonnes) was used. To prevent an uncontrolled reaction which would
 cause an explosion, cadmium rods which absorb neutrons were inserted between
blocks of uranium fuel.
Fermi showed that the nuclear pile started to heat up as the cadmium rods were
removed, allowing for more collisions between neutrons and the uranium

3.11 Compare requirements for controlled and uncontrolled nuclear chain reactions

Uncontrolled fission reactions are reactions where all the neutrons produced during
reaction are allowed to strike more fissionable material to cause further fission,
exponentially continuing. These reactions are used in nuclear warfare.
Controlled fission reactions are reactions which allow the extra neutrons produced
during fission to be absorbed so that roughly the same amount of neutrons are present
for further fission reactions. This type of reaction is steady and is used in power plants
to produce heat energy at a constant rate
Both uncontrolled and controlled nuclear chain reactions require fuel and a moderator
Fuel fissionable Uranium 235 or Plutonium 239 is required for fuel. Natural uranium
ore contains less than 1% Uranium 235. In controlled reactions this uranium must be
enriched to at least 5% concentration. For nuclear bombs it can be as high as 95%.
Fissionable fuels must also have their masses above the critical mass. Critical mass is
the smallest amount of fissionable material to sustain a reaction. In controlled fission
reactions, enriched uranium is made into rods which together exceed the critical mass
called fuel rods. These are inserted into the reactor core to undergo fission.
Uncontrolled fission reactions have fragments of material brought together at high
speeds so that their total mass exceeds the critical mass before the bomb explodes.
Moderator Moderators are used to slow down neutrons. Slow neutrons are more
efficient at causing nuclear reactions than fast neutrons as fast neutrons tend to go
through the nuclei without being captured, not causing a nuclear reaction
Controlled nuclear chain reactions also require control rods, coolant and a radiation
shield
Control rods In controlled fission reactions, extra neutrons produced are absorbed
by control rods so that the number of neutrons is kept constant. Materials used for this
include cadmium and boron. These control rods can be moved in and out of the reactor
to control the amount of neutrons absorbed.
Coolant Coolant is pumped to circulate through the reactor core to carry away the
heat from the reactor so it does not overheat. It also moves the energy to a place
where it can be utilised to do work e.g. to heat up water to produce steam, used to
power a turbine which is attached to a generator. Coolants include, water, heavy water,
molten sodium and molten chloride
Radiation shield Radiation shields of nuclear reactors consist of an inner layer made
of lead and an outer layer made of concrete. The inner layer is designed to reflect
neutrons back into the reaction core, resulting in less neutrons leaving the core and
causing damage as well as allowing more neutrons to facilitate the reaction. The outer
layer acts as a biological shield to block radiation from coming out of the core. The
main role of the radiation shield is to ensure that radiation is contained and does not
cause damage to the outside environment.

4. An understanding of the nucleus has led to large science projects

and many applications
4.1 Explain the basic principles of a fission reactor

The purpose of a nuclear reactor is to release nuclear energy at a controlled rate. There
are three main components of a fission reactor
Reactor Core

Where the fission reaction takes place

Fuel rods consisting of enriched uranium which contains a higher percentage of
fissionable Uranium 235 are embedded in a moderator
Moderator is used to slow down neutrons. Consists of either:
o Ordinary water
o Heavy water (deuterium oxide)
o Graphite (used by Fermi)
o Beryllium
Control rods are also embedded in the moderator. The control rods absorb neutrons in
the reactor core and can be moved freely to control the rate of reaction. Rods are
usually made of cadmium or boron which readily capture neutrons
The reactor is surrounded by multiple layers of shielding to protect the walls of the
reactor from damage, reflect neutrons back into the reactor core and prevent radiation
from escaping the core.
o Graphite shield reflects neutrons back into the core
o Thermal shield prevents unwanted heat loss
o Biological shield several metres of concrete mixed with lead pellets
absorb gamma rays and neutrons and protect the external environment
from radiation

Heat Exchanger/Primary Coolant

Heated coolant circulates out of the reactor core and heats water to make steam that is
used to operate the generator and produce electricity
The primary coolant is circulated back into the reactor core to carry more energy,
repeating the cycle
The primary coolant does not mix with the steam, forming a closed loop and preventing
the transfer of nuclear waste out of the reactor core into the environment.

Generator/Secondary Coolant

Steam is used to turn the turbine of the generator

After the steam is used it is condensed to warm water using a secondary coolant before
being recirculated to the heat exchanger to produce more steam.
Secondary coolant generally consists of cool water taken from a natural source. After it
is used it is discharged back into the environment
To prevent thermal pollution (caused by discharging warm or hot water into a local
waterway causing a rise in temperature in water and a reduction in amount of dissolved
oxygen impairing the reproductive cycle of aquatic organisms) a cooling pond may be
used to lower the waters temperature
 4.2 Describe some medical and industrial applications of radioisotopes
Radioisotopes are radioactive isotopes which undergo alpha, beta or gamma decay

Industrial Applications

Industrial applications of radioisotopes rely on the penetrative or ionising power of the

radioisotope to trace the movement or thickness of a desired material
Radioactive tracers are used to trace the movement and storage of materials in
chemical, biological or physical systems.
In industrial circumstances radioactive tracing can be used to investigate the amount of
wear in machine parts. This can be done by making part of the machine radioactive e.g.
pistons. After operating the machine the amount of wear can be determined by the
radioactivity in the lubricating oil.
Radioactive tracing can also be used to look for leaks/blockages in pipes so that repairs
are more efficient

Medical Applications
 Including isotopic tracing/scanning by placing a radioisotope in a biological system it
can be traced through the system or its distribution can be measured. This assists in
diagnosing disease
Radiation therapy radiation emitted by radioisotopes is used to kill cancer cells

4.7 Identify data sources and gather, process and analyse information to describe
the use of:

- A named isotope in medicine

- A named isotope in agriculture

- A named isotope in engineering

Medicine Technetium 99m

Technetium 99m is a pure gamma emitter with a short half-life of 6 hours

Fission of uranium produces Molybdenum 99 which is extracted and packed into glass
tubes. Molybdenum undergoes beta decay to form Technetium 99m. Technetium
99m is then extracted when needed by passing saline through a glass tube. The reason
for this is that Technetiums half-life is much shorter (6 hours) than Molybdenum (67
hours)

Use:

One of the most commonly used radioisotopes in medicine. Used as a diagnostic tracer
to detect abnormal blood circulations, lung function, bone pathologies etc. It is injected
and then allowed to circulate. It is then detected by a gamma camera

Properties:

Very short half-life of 6 hours

Gamma emitter. Only gamma radiation is penetrative enough to be detected outside
the body. As it causes the least amount of ionisation it is safer to use in comparison
Cheap to produce

Agriculture Phosphorous 32

Phosphorous 32 is a beta emitter with a half-life of 14 days. Produced by neutron

bombardment of naturally occurring Phosphorous 31

Use:

Used as a biological tracer to study natural processes e.g. nutritional uptake by plants.
Phosphorous 32 can be introduced into plants or crops as radioactive phosphate ions.
The plants process it the same as normal phosphate with the only difference being the
emission of beta radiation. Through tracing the radiation, biochemical processes e.g.
nutritional uptake, transportation and storage can be studied.

Properties:
 As it is easily introduced into biological systems and traced it is ideal for this use

Engineering Cobalt 60

Used to detect stress fractures in metal, particularly aircrafts. Stress fractures occur
due to repeated exposure of metals to strong forces such as in the wings of the plane
By placing Cobalt 60 on one side of the metal and a gamma detector on the other side,
cracks can easily be identified in a non-destructive way as gamma radiation only
penetrates in areas where stress fractures have formed

4.3 Describe how neutron scattering is used as a probe by referring to the

properties of neutrons

Neutron scattering or probing is a method which utilises the wave characteristics of

neutrons to study the internal structure and properties of matter

Properties

The De Broglie wavelength of neutrons is comparable to the spacing between atoms in

molecules
Neutrons which are scattered from the sample will produce an interference pattern
As neutrons possess a neutral charge they can penetrate further into matter and probe
the nucleus without being effected by electrons

Process

High flux neutrons are passed through a crystal such as sodium chloride so that they all
possess the same kinetic energy
The neutrons are then made to bombard the material to be analysed. The neutrons
collide with the nuclei of the material and lose a specific amount of energy according to
the nature of the collision. Side-on collisions result in less energy loss than head-on.
Collisions with large elements result in less energy loss as well.
When the neutrons are scattered they return with various energies and therefore
momentum. As the momentum is different so is wavelength which generates a specific
interference pattern.
By analysing the neutron waves the nature of the initial interaction with the material
can be determined. From this, the internal structure and composition of the material
can also be deduced

Advantages

Neutrons are not charged and do not interact with the electrons around the nucleus,
producing a clearer and more accurate interference pattern
As they can penetrate through the electron cloud to the nucleus, neutrons are good for
probing the nucleus. As neutrons and nuclei have a comparable size this makes the
interaction more efficient
Neutrons are useful for probing small elements or proton rich material. These materials
have few electrons which make x-ray scattering and electron microscopes inefficient as
they work on electrons. Neutron scattering works on nuclei which avoids this problem.

4.4 Identify ways by which physicists continue to develop their understanding of

matter, using accelerators as a probe to investigate the structure of matter
 Particle accelerators use
electric/magnetic fields to
accelerate charged particles to
high speeds before smashing
them against a target. This can
cause transmutations or breaking
up of the particles.
Particle accelerators include:
circular ones (cyclotrons,
synchrocyclotrons, synchrotrons
and betatrons) and linear
accelerators

Cyclotron

Consists of two D shaped hollow

metal cases called Dees which are mounted between the poles of two electromagnets.
The size can range between a hundred to hundreds of metres. The charged particle is
placed between the two Dees. When an electric field is produced due to the alternating
current the particle will be accelerated and enter a Dee. As the particle travels inside
the Dee it experiences no electric force (electric field inside a hollow conductor is 0)
and is acted upon by the uniform magnetic field. The particle is made to bend in the arc
of a circle and exit the Dee. At this point the polarity of the Dees is reversed by the AC
voltage so the particle is accelerated to the other Dee. As it enters the Dee with
increased linear velocity it will continue to grow in velocity with each subsequent turn.
Once the particle has reached the desired velocity it exits the particle accelerator and
collides with a target.

Other Circular Particle Accelerators

 Synchrocyclotron operates similarly to a cyclotron except it takes into consideration
mass dilation as the particle speeds up. By taking this into consideration it allows the
particle to be accelerated to a higher velocity
Synchrotron uses a variable magnetic field so that the increase in velocity is coupled
with an increase in the magnetic field so that the radius is kept constant. This keeps the
size of the device small

Linear Accelerator

Consists of many hollow tubes called drifting tubes that are aligned. They are made
progressively longer so that the particle will always arrive between the tubes at a
constant time interval due to a higher velocity. This must be in synchrony with the
timing of polarity change
Each second tube is collected to a terminal of a high frequency AC power supply so that
the tubes polarities alternate
E.g. to accelerate a positive particle the first tube is made negative to attract the
particle and accelerate it. When
entering the second tube polarities are
changed so that the second tube is
negative and the positively charged
particle is repelled by the tube behind
it. As this repeats the particle
increases in velocity and travels through
all the tubes. When leaving the last
tube it strikes the target

4.5 Discuss the key features and components of the standard model of matter,
including quarks and leptons