Rm-1 Introduction and Features of Research

CONTENT
RESEARCH Introduction of research

Definition of research
METHODOLOGY Characteristics of Research
2810006
Question asked in previous papers of GTU:
* Define research. Discuss the characteristics of
Business Research.
INTRODUCTION DEFINITION
Research is a part of any systematic knowledge. According to Robert Ross,
A systematized effort to gain new knowledge

Research is essentially an investing, a recording
and analysis of evidence for the purpose of
Research is the process of systematic and in-depth study or
search for a solution to a problem or an answer to a question gaining knowledge.
backed by collection, compilation, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of relevant details, data and information.
DEFINITION DEFINITION
The Random House Dictionary of the English language According to Clifford Woody,
defines the term Research as
Research comprises defining and redefining problems,

A diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation into a
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions;
subject in order to discover or revise facts, theories,
applications, etc. collecting, organising and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last
carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
PREPARED BY NISHANT FOFARIA 1

CHARACTERISTICS CHARACTERISTICS
Empirical Original work
Systematic Expert
Controlled Accuracy
Effort-making capacity
Hypothesis
Courage
Analytical
Facts or principles
Logical
Answers all type of questions
Statistical methods
EMPIRICAL SYSTEMATIC
It is based on observations and experimentation on theories. It follows orderly and sequential procedure.
Applications of various research methods explore all the Systematic research is better for both researcher and
important information.
respondent.
CONTROLLED HYPOTHESIS
All variables except those that are Employs hypothesis. (Assumptions)
tested/experimented upon are kept constant.
Guides the investigation process

ANALYTICAL LOGICAL
There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is no Objective-oriented
error in their interpretation.
Unbiased
Vigorous research is expected and desirable for organization
for decision making.
Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical
STATISTICAL METHODS ORIGINAL WORK

Employs quantitative or statistical methods. Research must be original work.
Data are transformed into numerical measures and are Duplication of work can not be result oriented.
treated statistically.
EXPERT ACCURACY
Patience and unhurried activities ensure the accuracy.
Done by an expert - the researcher uses valid and
carefully designed procedures, valid data gather for. Only useful information should be collected.
Unnecessary data must be avoided to remove

ambiguity.

EFFORT-MAKING CAPACITY COURAGE
Research asks potential efforts. Researcher requires courage to present the facts based on
research.
Highly caliber person can put his/ her optimum effort

Courageous surveyors bring better opportunities for
to search the useful information.
organization.
FACTS OR PRINCIPLES ANSWERS ALL TYPE OF QUESTIONS
Research is capable enough to reply of each and

every required information.
It should be based on facts and reality.

Broad based research can offer all the necessary
details about research topic.
Fake information should be avoided.
Principled based research can provide better result,
CONTENT
RESEARCH Research Process
METHODOLOGY Question asked in previous papers of GTU:
* Explain with a diagram the different sequences of a research
2810006 process.

RESEARCH PROCESS RESEARCH PROCESS
1. DEFINING RESEARCH
RESEARCH PROCESS
PROBLEM
1. Defining research problem 7. Execution of the project Research is based on the problem.
2. Extensive literature survey 8. Analysis of data A research problem is a felt need, the need may be an
3. Formulation of hypotheses 9. Testing the hypothesis answer, or a solution or an improvement in facilities /
4. Preparing the research design 10. Interpretation technology.
5. Determining sample design 11. Preparation of the
6. Collecting the data Report
2. EXTENSIVE LITERATURE 3. FORMULATION OF

SURVEY HYPOTHESES
A literature review is a text of a scholarly paper, which includes the A hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of
current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as which remains to be tested. In its most elementary stage the
theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. hypothesis may be any guess, hunch, imaginative idea,
which becomes the basis for action or investigation.
Literature reviews are secondary sources, and do not report new or (G.A.Lundberg)
original experimental work.

4. PREPARING THE RESEARCH 5. DETERMINING SAMPLE
DESIGN DESIGN
Research design is also known by different names such as research If it is a sample study, the sampling techniques, the size of
outline, plan, blue print. In the words of Fred N. Kerlinger, it is the sample, the way samples are to be drawn etc., are to be
plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain decided.
answers to research questions and control variance.
A research design is the logical and systematic planning and

directing of a piece of research.
6. COLLECTING THE DATA 7. EXECUTION OF THE PROJECT

This is an important stage in the research design. At this After deciding the sources for data collection, the researcher has to
stage, keeping in view the nature of research, the researcher determine the methods to be employed for data collection, primarily,
has to decide the sources of data from which the data are to either census method or sampling method. This decision may depend
on the nature, purpose, scope of the research and also time factor
be collected. Basically the sources are divided into primary and financial resources.
source (field sources) and secondary source.
8. ANALYSIS OF DATA 9. TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS

How are you going to process and analyze the data and It means verification of a hypothesis as true or false in the
information collected? What simple or advanced statistical light of facts.
techniques are going to be used for analysis and testing of
hypothesis, so that necessary care can be taken at the
collection stage.

11. PREPARATION OF THE
10. INTERPRETATION
REPORT
The data interpretation process is crucial for decision How are you going to present the results of the study? How
making. many chapters? What is the chapter scheme? The chapters,
Better decision making is the result of data interpretation. their purpose, their titles have to be outlined.
CONTENT
RESEARCH Importance of Research
Limitations of Research
METHODOLOGY
2810006 Question asked in previous papers of GTU:
What is research? Explain the importance of research in decision
making in business management.
IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

1. Making future forecast 5. Solving operational & planning problems
2. Understanding marketplace 6. Expanding business
7. Exploring new business

3. Understanding perceived value of goods
8. Broadening & deepening technological capabilities
4. Improving the quality of decision making

UNDERSTANDING
MAKING FUTURE FORECAST
MARKETPLACE
Descriptive and Diagnostic Keeping existing customers
Predict Market condition For better understanding of market place
Formulation of business plan

Alerting about recent trend
UNDERSTANDING PERCEIVED IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF

VALUE OF GOODS DECISION MAKING
Measurement of satisfaction level of customers Better decision making process
Identify the needs of customers Developing various marketing alternatives
To determine the value of goods for consumers
SOLVING OPERATIONAL &

EXPANDING BUSINESS
PLANNING PROBLEMS
A crucial result area Modifying product
Finding faults and gaining more profits by Improving customers acceptance

saving of cost and time
Potential competitive position

BROADENING & DEEPENING
EXPLORING NEW BUSINESS
TECHNOLOGICAL CAPABILITIES
Developing new opportunities Advanced technology
Updated technology Production on large scale
Reducing cost
Global standard and global reach
LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH

It can provide a number of facts but it doesnt provide Managers normally do not include research in the
actionable results. overall problem.
Some problem just cannot be researched.

Managers rely on intuition and judgment rather than
on research.
It cannot provide the answer to any problem but can only
provide a set of guidelines.
CONTENT
RESEARCH Nature of business research
Scope of business research
METHODOLOGY
2810006 Question asked in previous papers of GTU:
Discuss The Nature And Scope Of Business Research In The Field Of
Management.

NATURE OF THE BUSINESS FLEXIBILITY
RESEARCH
Flexibility For smooth running of research process
Promoting business
To investigate new things, its necessary to opt flexible
Judging problem method
Clearly defined problem
Select the correct method
Covers segment for business operation
Determine the method for best product
PROMOTING BUSINESS JUDGING PROBLEM

Better programme for business promotion Predicting the routine problems
Economic business promotion Prepared with solutions of daily arising problems
Consuming less time Easily judging the basic issues
CLEARLY DEFINED PROBLEM SELECT THE CORRECT METHOD

Clear defined problem brings accurate result Selecting best methods of data collection
Better efficiency Balanced data collection of primary data and

secondary data
Helpful in selecting true path of research
Using most suitable sampling method

COVERS SEGMENT FOR DETERMINE THE METHOD FOR
BUSINESS OPERATION BEST PRODUCT
Business operations in domestic and international Demand forecasting
level
Competitors analysis
Knowing the ground level conditions of establishing
business operation
Size of market
PESTEL analysis
SCOPE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH SCOPE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

SUITABLE MARKETING
SALES PROMOTION OPERATIONS
PRICING MARKETING STRATEGY
DECISION MAKING TOOLS MANAGERIAL PLANNING
PROBLEM SOLVING CONTROLLING METHODS
ECONOMIES OF SCALE
MARKET COMPLEXITY
CONSUMPTION PATTERN
DISTRIBUTION STRATEGY
SALES PROMOTION PRICING

Study of various channels of promotions Competitors price of a product
Advertising strategies Price elasticity of demand
Personal selling methods Suitable pricing policies

DECISION MAKING TOOLS PROBLEM SOLVING
Indispensable tool of decision making Formulating alternatives of solutions
Technological advancement Evaluation of alternatives

Analysis and interpretation of information
Short term and long term decisions
ECONOMIES OF SCALE CONSUMPTION PATTERN
Optimum utilization of resources Buyers behaviour
Production on large scale Identify the needs and wants of customers
Purchasing power and income level of

To meet the demand of market
customers
SUITABLE MARKETING
MARKETING STRATEGY
OPERATIONS
Maximization of profit Appropriate marketing strategies for attaining goals
Study the market conditions

Minimization of cost
Analysis of substitute goods and goods produced by
Increasing market share rivals

MANAGERIAL PLANNING CONTROLLING METHODS
Finding resources Find out the weaknesses and shortcomings
Exploring opportunities Necessary corrections in current level

situations
Short term plan and long term plan
MARKET COMPLEXITY DISTRIBUTION STRATEGY
Standard of living of customers Suitable policies for distributors
Growth of market Appointments of distributors
Offering better services for distributors

Upgrading technologies
CONTENT
RESEARCH Meaning of literature review
Purpose of literature review
METHODOLOGY Components of literature review
2810006 Importance of literature review
Process of literature review
Example of literature review

MEANING MEANING
A literature survey or a literature review in a project A literature review is an evaluative report of
report is that section which shows the various information found in the literature related to
analyses and research made in the field of your your selected area of study. The review should
interest and the results already published, taking into describe, summaries, evaluate and clarify
account the various parameters of the project and the
extent of the project.
this literature. It should give a theoretical base
for the research and help you (the author)
determine the nature of your research.
PURPOSE OF LITERATURE
FOR CREDIBILITY
REVIEW
For credibility Increase the reliability
To understand the topic Strengthen the research
To justify the research
To avoid duplication of work
To add remaining information in previous research
Based on criticism of previous research, set new standard
TO UNDERSTAND THE TOPIC TO JUSTIFY THE RESEARCH

The fundamental concept is easily understood by others. It justify the researchers work.
It covers the basic ideas and concepts of the research.

TO AVOID DUPLICATION OF TO ADD REMAINING INFORMATION
WORK IN PREVIOUS RESEARCH
The prime motive of literature review is to avoid repetition of work If research conducted previously, current issue were not covered at
which is already done. that time.
It provides opportunities for addition of current information.
BASED ON CRITICISM OF PREVIOUS COMPONENTS OF THE

RESEARCH, SET NEW STANDARD LITERATURE REVIEW
Opportunity to set new standard Objective of the literature review
Review the criticism of existing research Overview of the subject under consideration.
Clear categorization of sources selected into those in support of your
particular position, those opposed, and those offering completely
different arguments.
Discussion of both the distinctiveness of each source and its
similarities with the others.
OBJECTIVE OF THE LITERATURE OVERVIEW OF THE SUBJECT

REVIEW UNDER CONSIDERATION.
Prime motive of project Explain the overview of subject
Secondary motive Summarized the available information

CLEAR CATEGORIZATION OF SOURCES DISCUSSION OF BOTH THE
SELECTED INTO THOSE IN SUPPORT OF DISTINCTIVENESS OF EACH SOURCE AND ITS
YOUR PARTICULAR POSITION, THOSE SIMILARITIES WITH THE OTHERS.
OPPOSED, AND THOSE OFFERING Comparison of findings and existing available information
COMPLETELY DIFFERENT ARGUMENTS. Find similarities and dissimilarities
Analyze arguments Testing the hypothesis
Classify the information
Opposed and favoured arguments
IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE IDENTIFY THE PROBLEM OF THE

REVIEW STUDY.
Identify the problem of the study. Basic identification of problem
Creates appropriate theoretical structure
Monitors the repetition Determine the main objective
Facilitates interpretation of study
Helps avoiding mistakes
Ensures researchers credibility.
CREATES APPROPRIATE
MONITORS THE REPETITION
THEORETICAL STRUCTURE
Definite information Avoid repetition
Structured information No duplication of work
Appropriate information base Saving of time and money

FACILITATES INTERPRETATION
OF STUDY HELPS AVOIDING MISTAKES
Easy interpretation To keep the research in control
Primary infirmary information of new research Avoid errors or not to repeat them
ENSURES RESEARCHERS STEPS IN THE LITERATURE

CREDIBILITY. REVIEW PROCESS
Providing information about researcher Define your subject and the scope of the review.
His credibility and transparency regarding revealing information Search the library catalogue, subject specific databases and
other search tools to find sources that are relevant to your
topic.
Read and evaluate the sources and to determine their
suitability to the understanding of topic at hand
Analyse, interpret and discuss the findings and conclusions
of the sources you selected.
EXAMPLE
Ledesma, M. C., & Caldern, D. (2015). Critical race theory in
education: A review of past literature and a look to the future.
RESEARCH
Qualitative Inquiry, 21(3), 206-222.
METHODOLOGY
2810006

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
CONTENT PROBLEM
DEFINING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
A research problem in general refers to some
difficulty which researcher experiences in the context
of either a theoretical & practical situation and wants
Defining research problem and also briefly discuss the process of
formulating the problem a solution for the same.
DEFINITION OF RESEARCH NATURE OF PROBLEM

PROBLEM DEFINITION
A research problem involves areas of concerns to Unsatisfactory state of affairs
researchers, for condition they want to improve, Result of reasoning process
difficulties they want to eliminate, question for which Research objective and research question
they want to seek answers. Components of research
Factors affecting the problem
UNSATISFACTORY STATE OF RESULT OF REASONING

AFFAIRS PROCESS
Dissatisfaction forces to go for research Scientific method of problem definition
To eliminate the errors
Accuracy in defining problem
To improve in present position

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE AND
COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH
RESEARCH QUESTION
Meaningful research problem General problem identification
Logical derived research objective and question To know the needs and requirements of
customers
FACTORS AFFECTING THE COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH

PROBLEM PROBLEMS
Individual:- An individual to which the problem could be attributed is based on
Identify the various factors affecting the research problem certain geographical area.
Find the effects of those factors on the research process

Objective for pursuing the problem: There must be some objectives pursuing
the problem otherwise it would be repugnant to reason and common
understanding to undertake the research.
Lines of actions: There must be at least two lines of action to be taken to

attain the objective.
STEPS IN PROBLEM DEFINITION STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Statement of
the problem IN GENERAL WAY
in general
way
Redefining
Understandin
g the nature
For operational issue or scientific issue
the research
of the
problem.
problem
Part of intellectual curiosity
Rephrasing
Surveying the Its logical process
available
the research
literature
problem
Developing
the ideas
through
discussions

UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE SURVEYING THE AVAILABLE
OF THE PROBLEM LITERATURE
Understand the origin and nature of problem Define necessary literature review
Only original problem Enhancement of knowledge
Secondary data can help for defining actual problem

Arrange the order for it
DEVELOPING THE IDEAS REPHRASING THE RESEARCH

THROUGH DISCUSSIONS PROBLEM
Discussion of expert before setting actual problem For unclear problem statement
Clarity on problem identification After discussion and surveying literature review
Focus on research problem only Final statement is rephrased
Thesis Question: What are the benefits and drawbacks of online social
REDEFINING THE RESEARCH networking for children?
PROBLEM. Supporting Questions:
1. What is online social networking and why is this an important sociological
Helps to define viable hypothesis
question?
2. What is the necessary background information?
After repeating the above process many time, the research
a.What role does peer socialization play in a childs development?
problem is redefined b.In the past, what were the ways in which children socialized with their peers?
c. How has that changed in the past 10-15 years?
It must be viable and logical i. statistics
3. What research illuminates the positive effects of online social networking?
4. What research details negative effects of online social networking?
Based on my research, what can I conclude about the benefits and drawbacks of
online social networking?

Topic: Slow/Local Food Movement
Thesis: What are the positive effects of the slow food/local food movement?
What is the slow /local food movement and why is it an issue worthy of inquiry?
What background information is necessary to understand this topic?
History of the slow food movement.
goals
RESEARCH
What research demonstrates the movements positive effects? METHODOLOGY
Economic effects?
Health effects? 2810006
Social effects?
How about negative effects?
Is the movement to exclusive/expensive to be a realistic option for all?
Based on all I have read, what do I think about the slow food movement and
why?
CONTENT CONCEPT OF HYPOTHESIS

HYPOTHESIS FRAMING PROCESS AND TYPES OF IT A hypothesis is a proposition a tentative assumption which a
researcher want to test for its logical and empirical consequences.
The hypothesis are necessary in problem oriented research to
understand the cause or relationship of a certain phenomena under
Types of hypothesis investigation.
DEFINITION DEFINITION
According to Morries Hamburg, A hypothesis in According to Palmer, A hypothesis as islands in the
statistics is simply a quantitative statement about uncharted seas of thought to be used as bases for
consolidation and recuperation as we advance into the
population.
unknown.

HYPOTHESIS FRAMING PROCESS TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
1. Identifying the problem area Null hypothesis

Alternative hypothesis
2. Gathering information
3. Formulating the research question
4. Conceptualizing
5. Formulating the final hypothesis
Null and Alternative Hypothesis. A null hypothesis is a statistical hypothesis

and is the default or original hypothesis while an alternative hypothesis is any
hypothesis other than the null. If the null hypothesis is not accepted, then
the alternative hypothesis is used. H0 is a null hypothesis while H1 is an
alternative hypothesis.
NULL HYPOTHESIS
It is an important concept that is used widely in the sampling theory. It
Null hypothesis, H0: The world is flat.
forms the basis of many tests of significance. Under this type, the
hypothesis is stated negatively. It is null because it may be nullified, if the
evidence of a random sample is unfavourable to the hypothesis. It is a
hypothesis being tested (H0). If the calculated value of the test is less than
Alternate hypothesis Ha: The world is round. the permissible value, Null hypothesis is accepted, otherwise it is rejected.
The rejection of a null hypothesis implies that the difference could not have
arisen due to chance or sampling fluctuations.

NULL HYPOTHESIS ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
The statement being tested in a test of [statistical] significance is Alternative hypothesis means a difference exists between the sample
called the null hypothesis. The test of significance is designed to parameters and population static to which it is compared. It is opposite of
assess the strength of the evidence against the null hypothesis. null hypothesis.
Usually the null hypothesis is a statement of 'no effect' or 'no The statement that is hoped or expected to be true instead of the null
difference'. hypothesis is the alternative hypothesis.
It is often symbolized as H0. Symbols include H1 and Ha.
Null hypothesis: x is equal to y. Alternative hypothesis x is not equal

ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS to y.
Null hypothesis: x is at least y. Alternative hypothesis x is less than y.
Null hypothesis: x is at most y. Alternative hypothesis x is greater

than y.
CONTENT
RESEARCH RESEARCH PROPOSAL / PLAN
METHODOLOGY
2810006 Prepare research proposal along with hypothetical example.

INTRODUCTION PURPOSE
A proposal is an individuals or companys offer to produce a 1. It helps him to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for
product or render a service to a potential buyer or researcher. him to look for flaws and inadequacies, if any.
2. It provides an inventory of what must be done and which materials have

After identifying and defining the problem as also accomplishing
to be collected as a preliminary step.
the relating task, researcher must arrange his ideas in order and
3. It is a document that can be given to others for comment.
write them in the form of an experimental plan or what can be
described as Research Proposal.
TYPES STRUCTURE
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 9. QUALIFICATION OF RESEARCHERS
Internal Proposal:- A proposal done by staff specialists within the
2. PROBLEM STATEMENT 10. BUDGET
organization.
3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE 11. SCHEDULE
External proposal:- A proposal done by university grant 4. LITERATURE REVIEW 12. FACILITIES AND SPECIAL
RESOURCES
committees, government agencies, etc. is called external proposal.
5. IMPORTANCE AND LIMITATION OF 13. PROJECT MANAGEMENT
THE STUDY
6. RESEARCH DESIGN 14. BIBLIOGRAPHY
7. DATA ANALYSIS 15. APPENDICES
8. NATURE AND FORMS OF RESULT
1. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT
To understand the proposal quickly State the research problem in clear terms and to give a title to the study
Information in abstract To capture the attention of sponsor
To secure positive evaluation by executives To distinguishes the primary problem and secondary problems
It includes management dilemma, management question and objective of To know the management dilemma and significance of study
research
A brief description about researcher

3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE 4. LITERATURE REVIEW
What is the purpose of this study? Review the previous works done on this topic,
What are the objectives you want to achieve by this study? Understand what they did,
The statement of objectives should not be vague. Identify gaps and make a case for this study and justify it.
They must be specific and focused. It helps the sponsor to get answer from secondary data immediately.
Only achievable goals should be set.
5. IMPORTANCE AND LIMITATION

6. RESEARCH DESIGN
OF THE STUDY
(i) What is the study about?
For unsolicited problems (ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
Understand the troubles and advantages for sponsor
(iv) What type of data is required?
To know the requirements of additional discussion (v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analysed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
8. NATURE AND FORMS OF

7. DATA ANALYSIS
RESULT
How are you going to process and analyze the data and information
collected?
How are you going to present the results of the study?
What simple or advanced statistical techniques are going to be used for
How many chapters?
analysis and
What is the chapter scheme?
Testing of hypothesis, so that necessary care can be taken at the collection
stage. The chapters, their purpose, their titles have to be outlined.

9. QUALIFICATION OF
10. BUDGET
RESEARCHERS
Professional research competence
Relevant management experience
Membership with reputed research agencies The statement for internal review
Unbiased and innovative approach Identify the requirements of researcher during research process
Estimates the salary of workers/ employees, equipment costs,

communication expenses, travelling overheads etc.
12. FACILITIES AND SPECIAL

11. SCHEDULE
RESOURCES
The required resources and facilities should be mentioned in brief.
Need of computer aid
A Schedule is also a list of questions, which is used to collect the data from Telephone expenses
the field. Need of expert for discussion
This is generally filled in by the researcher or the enumerators.
Various methods of data collection are used during the research.
13. PROJECT MANAGEMENT 14. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Master plan for complex projects To identify the resources
To work efficiently with research team To check its reliability

For books and pamphlets the order may be as under:
Management procedure and control Name of author, last name first.
Title, underlined to indicate italics.
Financial and legal responsibility Place, publisher, and date of publication.
Number of volumes.
Management competence
Example
Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
Ltd., 1978.

15. APPENDICES
Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones.
RESEARCH
Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. METHODOLOGY
Index (an alphabetical listing of names, places and topics along with the numbers 2810006
of the pages in a book or report on which they are mentioned or discussed) should
invariably be given at the end of the report.
The value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the
contents in the report.
CONTENT
RESEARCH
DESIGN
MEANING DEFINITION
In the words of Fred N. Kerlinger, it is the plan, structure and strategy of

Research design is a blue print or structure with in which research is
investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions and
conducted. It constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and
control variance.
analysis of data.
Research design is also known by different names such as research outline, A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and
plan, blue print. analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure.
A master plan that specifies the methods and procedures for collecting and
analyzing needed information.

RESEARCH DESIGN SHOULD BE ABLE
DEFINITION TO CONVEY FOLLOWING :
(i) What is the study about?
Burns and Grove define a research design as a blueprint for conducting a
(ii) Why is the study being made?
study with maximum control over factors that may interfere with the (iii) Where will the study be carried out?
validity of the findings. (iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
Polit et al defines a research design as the researchers overall for answering
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
the research question or testing the research hypothesis. (vii) What will be the sample design?
According to Reger E.Kirk research designs are plans that specify how data (viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analysed?
should be collected and analyzed.
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN ACCURATE RESULT
ACCURATE RESULT Purpose of answering all questions
OFFERS BLUE PRINT Specify hypothesis
ADVANCE PLANNING Identify the exact problem
SYATEMATIC INVESTIGATION Offers evidence of result
FORECASTS POTENTIAL PROBLEMS
OFFERS BLUE PRINT ADVANCE PLANNING
The main motive of research design Advance planning in collection of data
Minimizes efforts at every level of research Setting up of budget
Easy to take decisions Time limit

FORECASTS POTENTIAL
SYATEMATIC INVESTIGATION
PROBLEMS
To select the main problem out of many issues Various approaches used to predict the various problems
Clear objective Identify the potential problem from it
Accurate result expected from systematic investigation Easily reach towards main problem
FEATURES OF GOOD RESEARCH

OBJECTIVITY
DESIGN
To judge the degree of agreement between final scores between
OBJECTIVITY RELIABILITY various individuals
The objectivity is used for analysis and findings
GENERALIZA
VALIDITY
TION
RELIABILITY VALIDITY
A retest approach Validity of data
Provides consistency for measurement Select instruments which helps to validate data
Genuine response is available Validating the present data against current or future criteria

GENERALIZATION RESEARCH DESIGN PROCESS
1. SELECTION AND DEFINITION OF A PROBLEM
Measuring instruments used in a research investigation
2. SOURCE OF DATA
Generalize the findings
3. NATURE OF STUDY
Appropriate sampling and predicting population
4. OBJECT OF STUDY
5. SOCIAL-CULTURAL CONTEXT
6. TEMPORAL CONTEXT
7. DIMENSION
1. SELECTION AND DEFINITION

2. SOURCE OF DATA
OF A PROBLEM
Clearly define the problem of study Primary sources
Support with facts and findings Secondary sources
Focus on time and money factor Study the various source of information
3. NATURE OF STUDY 4. OBJECT OF STUDY
Research design expresses the relationship with the nature of study Theoretical understanding of study
Comparative, statistical and experimental type of study Clearly define the object of study
Planning relevant to proposed problem Proper response from respondents

5. SOCIAL-CULTURAL CONTEXT 6. TEMPORAL CONTEXT
Socio-cultural factors on individuals Some geographical limit is set
Religious, economic and political connection is shown Hypothesis is applicable to study various group
If meaning is not clearly defined, this step is useful for identify the
nature of study
7. DIMENSION
For a large universe, adequate and accurate sample is taken TYPES OF

A sample of large population can be selected to facilitate a practical RESEARCH DESIGN
design
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH-
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
MEANING
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN
The information known on a particular subject matter is
CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
little. Hence, a study is conducted to know more about it
* DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
* CAUSAL RESEARCH DESIGN so as to formulate the problem and procedures of the
study. Such a study is called exploratory/formulate
study.

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH- EXPLORATORY RESEARCH-
MEANING MEANING
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulate When a researcher has a limited amount of experience with or knowledge
about a research issue, exploratory research is a useful preliminary step
research studies. The main purpose of such studies is
that helps ensure that a more rigorous, more conclusive future study will
that of formulating a problem for more precise not begin with an inadequate understanding of the nature of the
investigation or of developing the working hypotheses management problem. The findings discovered through exploratory
from an operational point of view. research would lead the researcher to emphasize learning more about the
particulars of the findings in subsequent conclusive studies. Conclusive
research answers questions of fact necessary to determine course of action.
This is never the purpose of exploratory research.
WHY CONDUCY EXPLORATORY TECHNIQUES OF EXPLORATORY

RESEARCH? RESEARCH
The purpose of exploratory research is intertwined with Literature research
the need for a clear and precise statement of the Experience survey
recognized problem. Three interrelated forms of Projective techniques
exploratory research exist: (1) diagnosing a situation, (2)
Depth Interview
screening alternatives, and (3) discovering new ideas.
Focus groups
Role play and case study
LITERATURE RESEARCH EXPERIENCE SURVEY
Developed by past researchers The survey of people who have had practical experience
with the problem to be studied
Reliability and objectivity
The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the
To develop accurate hypothesis
relationships between variables and new ideas relating to
Fertile ground for hypothesis formulation
the research problem
Mostly interview technique is used for this and

respondent is investigated

PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
DEPTH INTERVIEW
Projective technique is used based of estimation of expert Investigation by expert
Trend analysis Experience collecting interview technique is used
Based on past data and estimate the future Respondent will be given the questions in advance to
Few statistical methods are used prepare the answers in advance
Major issues are covered in it
FOCUS GROUPS ROLE PLAYING & CASE STUDY
Unstructured and free flow interview with a small group To obtain information about various situation at various
places
Flexible format of questions will be asked
Opportunity to discover new facts and various results
Major discussion part is covered
Depth analysis is possible
Brief and quick analysis with low expenses
Role play is a dynamic technique
To identify the behaviour of the individuals in group
Identifying the behaviour and the feelings of the respondents
IMPORTANCE OF EXPLORATORY NEW DISCOVERIES CAN BE

RESEARCH DESIGN MADE
New discoveries can be made Identify the new opportunities in the market
Increasing understanding Mostly scientific researches are based on exploratory
Flexibility of sources research
Better conclusions Various plans are developed for the same target
Strategic planning

INCREASING UNDERSTANDING FLEXIBILITY OF SOURCES
Developing various methods for the same goal increases Various sources can be used
the understanding of researcher Primary and secondary data gives the better result to
Expertise will be developed explore the result
Potentiality is increased
BETTER CONCLUSION STRATEGIC PLANNING
Scope to conclude the research in desirable manner Used in defense
Opportunities for better result and introducing new Solve the problem by newer ways
methods for identifying the solutions for a problem Best method to develop the plan and implementation
LIMITATION OF EXPLORATORY NOT USEFUL FOR DECISION

RESEARCH DESIGN MAKING
Not useful for decision making
Only prospective results are there
Incomplete information
Not generalizable Various alternatives may create ambiguities, but cant
costly derive the final decision
Time consuming
Can mislead the data.

INCOMPLETE INFORMATION NOT GENERALIZABLE
Difficult to find descriptive result Only exploratory details are given
Only basic idea is identified Every time its generalization is difficult
Mostly incomplete information is given Information is available in parts, so difficult to generalize
Only estimation is possible
COSTLY TIME CONSUMING
Ultimately high cost occurs Consume more time
After spending high cost, result is not reliable Less possibilities to derive the desirable result
Wastage of money and wastage of time, if result is not More number of manpower is engaged without the
derived expectation of expected result for many hours
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH-
CAN MISLEAD THE DATA.
MEANING
Some data may mislead the researcher The major purpose of descriptive research is the
Some useless information or undesirable information may description of a person, situation, institution or an event
be found out, which divert the researchers result as it exists. Generally fact finding studies are of this type.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH- DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH-
MEANING MEANING
It studies, as their name implies are Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-
designed to describe something. finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of
the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social
science and business research we quite often use
the term Ex post facto research for descriptive
research studies. The main characteristic of this
method is that the researcher has no control over
the variables; he can only report what has
happened or what is happening.
IMPORTANCE OF DESCRIPTIVE
APPLICABLE IN MANY AREAS
RESEARCH DESIGN
Applicable in many areas
As it is ex-post facto research, it is universal
Qualitative & Quantitative
Provides relevant data Maximum number of areas of research are
Hypothesis generation
covered under it.
It is one of the most convenient research design

among all
QUALITATIVE & QUANTITATIVE PROVIDES RELEVANT DATA

Both qualitative and quantitative research are covered under It is capable to provide relevant data which is already
it. given
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
Irrelevant data should be omitted from it.
quantity or amount.
Necessary information will help to have better decision
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or making
involving quality or kind.

HYPOTHESIS GENERATION LIMITATION OF DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN
Confidentiality
Easy to generate hypothesis
Carries observers paradox
All information about the problem is available to set the Errors
hypothesis Requires more skills
Unreliable & Unscientific
The objective of the study can be justified to set relevant
hypothesis
CONFIDENTIALITY CARRIES OBSERVERS PARADOX
Confidential information can never be disclosed Descriptive research is depending upon the approach of
Only general information can be revealed the researcher
For confidential information, exploratory research should Biased researcher can not derive the facts about the
be used problem
ERRORS REQUIRES MORE SKILLS
The is a huge scope of errors Only qualified researcher works
Intentional and unintentional Unskilled researcher fails to bring facts about the
Few errors can never be revoked problem
Ultimate result may not be favourable

CAUSAL/ EXPERIMENTAL
UNRELIABLE & UNSCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH- MEANING
The method is unscientific it seeks to find out the cause and effect relationship of
Reliability level is low the phenomenon under study.
Unreliable data does not works for result The goal of causal-comparative research is to establish
cause-and-effect relationships just like an experimental
research.
CAUSAL/ EXPERIMENTAL CAUSAL/ EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCH- MEANING RESEARCH- MEANING
Continuing the example of marriage and Causal research studies typically take the form of
counselling, there are sets of factors that can experiments, because experiments are best suited to
determine cause-effect relationships.
affect the relationship between counselling and
The experiment should be repeated more than once. By
marriage problems
doing so the statistical accuracy will be increased.
IMPORTANCE CAUSE AND EFFECT

Cause and effect Primary advantage can easily be determined
Reliable result Behaviour difference can be identified by cause and effect
Provides helpful insight relationship
Control over variables

RELIABLE RESULT PROVIDES HELPFUL INSIGHT
Qualitative and quantitative measurement are possible It helps to offer insight about the data for research
The results are trusted for decision making Various tools and techniques are used for better and
Experiment results can be useful in other populations desirable result
also
LIMITATIONS OF EXPERIMENTAL
CONTROL OVER VARIABLES RESEARCH DESIGN
Interaction between two variables is more possible Artificiality
A few control over variables are possible Biased
Manipulation possible
Not possible to completely control the variable
Uncertainty of reaction.
ARTIFICIALITY BIASED
Experiments are not typical real life situation Human input is a disadvantage
The scope of succeed based on laboratory is very less Personal thoughts are laid down on others
Generalization of data is difficult Biased data can never provide necessary inputs

NOT POSSIBLE TO COMPLETELY
MANIPULATION POSSIBLE
CONTROL THE VARIABLE
Data may be manipulated for personal benefitted Variable changes its attributes at every experiment
The main motive of research is spoiled Variables are not controlled by researcher
People may be influenced by wrong research
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH-
UNCERTAINTY OF REACTION.
MEANING
Reaction is uncertain
It is the standard experimental method of most scientific
Reaction differs at every experiment
disciplines. These experiments are sometimes referred to
as true science and use traditional mathematical &
statistical means measure results conclusively.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH- QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH-

MEANING MEANING
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of It is the standard experimental method of most scientific
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that disciplines. These experiments are sometimes referred to
can be expressed in terms of quantity. as true science and use traditional mathematical &

CHARACTERISTICS OF BASED UPON NUMERICAL
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH MEASUREMENTS
Based upon numerical measurements
Data is given in numerical forms
Relates with analysis
Large scale of studies Easy to analysis
It is controllable
It is logical & Pre-determined
Use statistical tests
Focus on proof rather than discovery
RELATES WITH ANALYSIS LARGE SCALE OF STUDIES
Analytical part is easy Even large studies are possible with numerical
Decision making process can be done easily Qualitative data can not work with large population
Correlation between various factors are possible with

numerical data
IT IS LOGICAL & PRE-

IT IS CONTROLLABLE
DETERMINED
Controlled data Some logic is there in given data
Easily control over the variability in data All the available data is pre-determined

FOCUS ON PROOF RATHER THAN
USE STATISTICAL TESTS
DISCOVERY
Various statistical tests like ANOVA, CHI-SQUARE TEST, The evidence should be presented to support the data
Z-TEST, T-TEST apply for data analysis collected
The discovery part is associated with exploratory, but

proofs are associated with quantitative data
Necessary supportive documents should be presented

with data
ADVANTAGES OF QUANTITATIVE
IT IS A STANDARD TOOL.
RESEARCH
It is a standard tool. The most standard tool for data analysis
Results can be legitimately Easy decision making
Results is real & unbiased Major organization use the quantitative research design
Accurate result for their research
RESULTS CAN BE LEGITIMATELY RESULTS IS REAL & UNBIASED
Easily justify the result The result is presented in unbiased manner
Its true and fair Only real result is presented
Legality of object can be explained with this Fake information is avoided from the research part
Focus on reality than fantasy

DISADVANTAGE OF
ACCURATE RESULT
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
It is very expensive & time consuming
Accuracy is highlighted
It requires lots of statistical analysis
Result is accurate to take accurate decision It gives only proved or unproved results with uncertainty
The research plan is implemented in proper manner
IT IS VERY EXPENSIVE & TIME IT REQUIRES LOTS OF

CONSUMING STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The collection of data is time consuming process The complex statistical techniques are used
It takes a huge cost to hire researchers, analyst and other The expert is needed to do that
employees to conduct the research The interpretation of statistical analysis is difficult tot
take a decision
IT GIVES ONLY PROVED OR UNPROVED TECHNIQUES OF QUANTITATIVE

RESULTS WITH UNCERTAINTY RESEARCH
Survey
The reliability on available data is vague
Observation
The result is uncertain and some unproved data is used Experiments
to take better decision

SURVEY OBSERVATION
It means a planned effort to collect the desired Observe the facts to identify the variation in results
information from a representative sample of the relevant Provide the necessary result by making perfect
population generally known as respondents. observation about the object
EXPERIMENTS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

It is a used extensively by scientists and researchers
A research investigation in which conditions are
studying human behavior & habits.
controlled so that an independent variable can be
manipulated to test a hypothesis about a dependent
variable. It allows evaluation of causal relationship
among variable while all other variables are eliminated.
CHARACTERISTICS UNDERSTAND THE SITUATION
Understand the situation It is depending up on various attribution to understand
It is primary data collection instrument the situation.
It is an inductive research strategy. Taste, preferences are covered
It is a field work.

IT IS PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION IT IS AN INDUCTIVE RESEARCH
INSTRUMENT STRATEGY.
Numerical data is available through secondary data, but Induction is the process of reasoning whereby we arrive
qualitative data is collected by primary data collection at generalizations from particular facts. It is a movement
instruments of knowledge from particular observations / instances to
a general rule or principle. Induction involves a passage
from observed to unobserved. It involves two processes
observation and generalization.
IT IS A FIELD WORK. ADVANTAGES
As primary research associated with it, field work is

USE WHEN SUBJECT IS COMPLEX
necessary for this
IT IS THE EASIER METHOD
BROADER SCOPE
IT IS AN INDEPENDENT FROM THE SAMPLE SIZE.
USE WHEN SUBJECT IS

COMPLEX
The complexity is covered through primary data The method is easy to make decisions as primary data is
Qualitative data helps to identify such facts, which is not collected through it
revealed by secondary data collection methods

IT IS AN INDEPENDENT FROM
BROADER SCOPE
THE SAMPLE SIZE.
It covers maximum scope for the available data The sample does not have any negative impacts on the
Its scope is broader than the other methods full research process
It is free from any influence over any variables
DISADVANTAGES WHEN THERE IS AN EMERGENCY
When there is an emergency In emergency, this method fails to give proper idea about
It is give a guide to general trends problem
It cant give the results Time requirement is more
IT IS GIVE A GUIDE TO GENERAL

IT CANT GIVE THE RESULTS
TRENDS
It offers only guidelines, not the result
It generalize the data only
Unable to guide for accurate decision making process

Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods
Methods include focus groups, in-depth interviews, and Surveys, structured interviews & observations, and reviews
reviews of documents for types of themes of records or documents for numeric information
Primarily inductive process used to formulate theory or Primarily deductive process used to test pre-specified
hypotheses concepts, constructs, and hypotheses that make up a
theory
More subjective: describes a problem or condition from the More objective: provides observed effects (interpreted by
point of view of those experiencing it researchers) of a program on a problem or condition
METHODS OF DATA
Text-based Number-based
COLLECTION
More in-depth information on a few cases Less in-depth but more breadth of information across a
large number of cases
Unstructured or semi-structured response options Fixed response options
No statistical tests Statistical tests are used for analysis
Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on skill and rigor Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on the
of the researcher measurement device or instrument used
Time expenditure lighter on the planning end and heavier Time expenditure heavier on the planning phase and lighter
during the analysis phase on the analysis phase
Less generalizable More generalizable
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN PRIMARY RESEARCH
PRIMARY RESEARCH A primary source is the original repository of a historical
SECONDARY RESEARCH data, like an original record kept of an important

occasion, an eye witness description of an event, the
inscriptions on copper plates or stones, the monuments
and relics, photographs, minutes of organization
meetings, documents.
PRIMARY RESEARCH PRIMARY RESEARCH
We collect primary data during the course of doing The Primary data are original data which are collected for the
experiments in an experimental research but in case we first time for a specific purpose. Such data are published by
do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, authorities who themselves are responsible for their collection.
whether sample surveys or census surveys, then we can
obtain primary data either through observation or
through direct communication with respondents in one
form or another or through personal interviews

METHODS OF PRIMARY
RESEARCH SURVEY
Survey method:
It means a planned effort to collect the desired
i. Interview method ii. Questionnaire method iii. Schedules
information from a representative sample of the relevant
Observation method
population generally known as respondents.
Experiments method
Other method:
i) Warranty cards ii) Distributor audits iii) Pantry audits iv) Consumer
Panels v) Content analysis
SURVEY SURVEY
IMPORTANCE OF SURVEY: Techniques of Surveys:
Cost 1. Interview
Data collection
2. Questionnaire
Honest respondent
3. Schedule
Flexibility
Versatility
Sample size
INTERVIEW TYPES OF INTERVIEW
It is a interaction between interviewer & interviewee. Personal interview
A method of collecting primary data by meeting the Telephone interview

informants and asking the questions. Mail interview
Panel Interview.

PERSONAL INTERVIEW TELEPHONE INTERVIEW
In the words of C. William Emory, personal interviewing Telephone or cellphone interviews are widely used to
is a two-way purposeful conversation initiated by an obtain the desired information for small surveys. For
interviewer to obtain information that is relevant to some instance, interviewing credit card holders by banks about
research purpose. Thus an interview is basically, a the level of services they are receiving. This technique is
meeting between two persons to obtain the information used in industrial surveys specially in developed regions.
related to the proposed study.
MAIL INTERVIEW PANEL INTERVIEW

Questions are mailed to the respondent and respondent The panel of the judges is set up to conduct an interview.
will give his opinion towards it. When the distance is The qualification of judges are different from each other
there, this method is used. that they can evaluate the individuals based on their key
knowledge.
IMPORTANCE OF INTERVIEW LIMITATION OF INTERVIEW
Securing detail information Expensive
Encourages inputs by interviewer Bias
Assists in availing supplementary information Ineffective in some areas
Incorporates the use of devices Recording complexities
Cross checking of accuracy Subjective
Flexible exercise Difficulty in analysis

QUESTIONNAIRE QUESTIONNAIRE
It is a list of questions to be asked from the respondents. A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed
or typed in a definite order on a form or set of forms. The
Under this method, questionnaires are sent personally or
questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected
by post to various informants with a request to answer
to read and understand the questions and write down the
the questions and return the questionnaire. If the
reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire is posted to informants, it is called a Mail
questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the
Questionnaire.
questions on their own.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRE IMPORTANCE
Structured, non-disguised Economical
Greater privacy
Non-structured, disguised
Time saving
Non- structured, non-disguised Convenience respondent
Structured, disguised Accessibility

Standardized wordings
Free from bias

No variation
LIMITATIONS SCHEDULES
Unwillingness of respondent to provide information
Inability or respondent to provide information It is an instrument in research, which is most frequently

Influence of questioning process. used in collecting field data especially where survey
Respondents may not return filled in questionnaires, or they can delay in replying method is used.
to the questionnaires.
This method is useful only when the respondents are educated and co-operative.
Once the questionnaire has been dispatched, the investigator cannot modify the
questionnaire.
It cannot be ensured whether the respondents are truly representative.

SCHEDULES SCHEDULES
A Schedule is also a list of questions, which is used to This method of data collection is very much like the
collect the data from the field. This is generally filled in by collection of data through questionnaire, with little
the researcher or the enumerators. If the scope of the difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma
study is wide, then the researcher appoints people who containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the
are called enumerators for the purpose of collecting the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose.
data.
SCHEDULES TYPES OF SCHEDULE
For example, the population census all over the world is Rating schedule
conducted through this method. The difference between Evaluation Schedule
questionnaire and schedule is that the former is filled in by
Documents schedule
the informants, the latter is filled in by the researcher or
Observation Schedule
enumerator.
Interview Schedule
PREPARATION OF SCHEDULE IMPORTANCE OF SCHEDULE

Higher response
1. Define the problem
Defects are detected
2. Framing the questionnaire
Time saving
3. Sequential order
Removal of doubts
4. Pilot survey
Human touch
Reliable & dependable
Deeper probe

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
LIMITATIONS OF SCHEDULE
QUESTIONNAIRE AND SCHEDULE
Costly & time consuming The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to
Adverse effect of personal presence informants to be answered as specified in a covering

letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the
Need of trained field workers
sender. The schedule is generally filled out by the
Organizational difficulties
research worker or the enumerator, who can interpret
questions when necessary.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIFFERENCE BETWEEN

QUESTIONNAIRE AND SCHEDULE QUESTIONNAIRE AND SCHEDULE
To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as
economical since we have to spend money only in preparing the many people do not respond and many return the
questionnaire without answering all questions. Bias due to
questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents. Here no
non-response often remains indeterminate. As against this,
field staff required. To collect data through schedules is
non-response is generally very low in case of schedules
relatively more expensive since considerable amount of money because these are filled by enumerators who are able to get
has to be spent in appointing enumerators and in importing answers to all questions. But there remains the danger of
training to them. Money is also spent in preparing schedules. interviewer bias and cheating.

In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since
replies, but in case of schedule the identity of respondent many respondents do not return the questionnaire in
is known. time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules
the information is collected well in time as they are filled
in by enumerators.

Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the Questionnaire method can be used only when
questionnaire method as questionnaires are sent to respondents are literate and cooperative, but in case of
respondents by post who also in turn return the same by schedules the information can be gathered even when the
post. But in case of schedules direct personal contact is respondents happen to be illiterate.
established with respondents.

Wider and more representative distribution of sample is Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively
possible under the questionnaire method, but in respect more under the questionnaire method, particularly when people
of schedules there usually remains the difficulty in are unable to understand questions properly. But in case of
sending enumerators over a relatively wider area. schedules, the information collected is generally complete and
accurate as enumerators can remove the difficulties, if any, faced
by respondents in correctly understanding the questions. As a
result, the information collected through schedules is relatively
more accurate than that obtained through questionnaires.

The success of questionnaire method lies more on the In order to attract the attention of respondents, the
quality of the questionnaire itself, but in the case of physical appearance of questionnaire must be quite
schedules much depends upon the honesty and attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as
competence of enumerators. they are to be filled in by enumerators and not by
respondents.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
OBSERVATION METHOD
QUESTIONNAIRE AND SCHEDULE
Along with schedules, observation method can also be The observation method is the most commonly used method specially
used but such a thing is not possible while collecting data in studies relating to behavioural sciences. In a way we all observe
through questionnaires. things around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific
observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of
data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated
research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability.
OBSERVATION METHOD OBSERVATION METHOD

The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines observation as,
Under this method, the researcher collects information
accurate watching and noting of phenomena as they directly through observation rather than through the
occur in nature with regard to cause and effect or reports of others. It is a process of recording relevant
mutual relations. Thus observation is not only a information without asking anyone specific questions and
systematic watching but it also involves listening and in some cases, even without the knowledge of the
respondents.
reading, coupled with consideration of the seen
phenomena. It involves three processes. They are:
sensation, attention or concentration and perception.
USES OF OBSERVATION METHOD METHODS OF OBSERVATION
When researcher tries to understand an ongoing process Structured & unstructured observation
When researcher gathers data on individual behavior Direct & indirect observation
When researcher needs to know about a physical setting Disguised observation
When data collection from individual is not a realistic Human-mechanical observation

option. Observation under natural setting & laboratory setting

IMPORTANCE OF OBSERVATION LIMITATION OF OBSERVATION:
Superior in data collection on non-verbal behavior Lack of control

Natural environment Gaining entry
This method provides deeper insights into the problem and Difficulties of quantification
generally the data is accurate and quicker to process. Therefore,
Studying sensitive issues
this is useful for intensive study rather than extensive study.
Small sample size
This is the most suitable method when the informants are
unable or reluctant to provide information. Limited study.
EXPERIMENTATION EXPERIMENTATION
Experimentation is the basic tool of the physical sciences A research investigation in which conditions are
like Physics, Chemistry for establishing cause and effect controlled so that an independent variable can be
relationship and for verifying inferences. However, it is manipulated to test a hypothesis about a dependent
now also used in social sciences like Psychology, variable. It allows evaluation of causal relationship
Sociology. among variable while all other variables are eliminated.
CHARACTERISTICS OF STEPS INVOLVED IN THIS

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD METHOD
1. Selecting relevant variables
Control
2. Specifying treatment levels
Observation
3. Controlling the experimental environment
Manipulation
4. Choosing the experimental design
Replication
5. Selecting & assigning participants
6. Pilot testing, revising & testing
7. Analyzing the data

APPROACHES OF IMPORTANCE OF EXPERIMENTAL
EXPERIMENTATION METHOD
Laboratory experiments Best way of gathering scientific information
Field experiments Economical
The contrast between the field experiment and laboratory Help to manipulate
experiment is not sharp, the difference is a matter of degree.
Replication
The laboratory experiment has a maximum of control, where as
the field experiment must operate with less control. Controlled
Help reduce subjective perception of researcher
SOME OTHER METHODS OF DATA

1. WARRANTY CARDS
COLLECTION
1. Warranty cards Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are
2. Distributor or store audits
used by dealers of consumer durables to collect
3. Pantry audits
information regarding their products. The information
4. Consumer panels
5. Use of mechanical devices sought is printed in the form of questions on the
6. Projective techniques warranty cards which is placed inside the package along
with the product with a request to the consumer to fill in
the card and post it back to the dealer.
2. DISTRIBUTOR OR STORE
3. PANTRY AUDITS
AUDITS
Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors Pantry audit technique is used to estimate consumption of the basket
as well as manufactures through their salesmen at of goods at the consumer level. In this type of audit, the investigator
regular intervals. Distributors get the retail stores audited collects an inventory of types, quantities and prices of commodities
consumed. Thus in pantry audit data are recorded from the
through salesmen and use such information to estimate
examination of consumers pantry. The usual objective in a pantry
market size, market share, seasonal purchasing pattern
audit is to find out what types of consumers buy certain products and
and so on. The data are obtained in such audits not by
certain brands, the assumption being that the contents of the pantry
questioning but by observation.
accurately portray consumers preferences.

5. USE OF MECHANICAL
4. CONSUMER PANELS
DEVICES
An extension of the pantry audit approach on a regular basis The use of mechanical devices has been widely made to
is known as consumer panel, where a set of consumers are collect information by way of indirect means. Eye camera,
arranged to come to an understanding to maintain detailed Pupilometric camera, Psychogalvanometer, Motion
daily records of their consumption and the same is made picture camera and Audiometer are the principal devices
available to investigator on demands. In other words, a so far developed and commonly used by modern big
consumer panel is essentially a sample of consumers who are business houses, mostly in the developed world for the
interviewed repeatedly over a period of time. purpose of collecting the required information.
6. PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES IMPORTANCE OF PRIMARY DATA
Projective techniques (or what are sometimes called as Reliability

indirect interviewing techniques) for the collection of data
Greater control
have been developed by psychologists to use projections
Availability of wide range of techniques
of respondents for inferring about underlying motives,
urges, or intentions which are such that the respondent Efficient for spending information
either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out Addresses specific research issues
himself.
Proprietary information.
LIMITATIONS OF PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY SOURCE
Cost The Secondary data on the other hand, are those which
have already been collected by some other agency and
Time consuming
which have already been processed. Secondary data may
Not always feasible
be available in the form of published or unpublished
Large volume of data sources. For instance, population census data collected
Reluctance of respondents by the Government in a country is primary data for that

Government.

SECONDARY SOURCE SECONDARY SOURCE
FACTORS FOR SECONDARY DATA SOURCE
A secondary source is a publication, reporting the
1. Reliability
data which have been gathered by other
2. Suitability
authorities and for which others are responsible.
3. Adequacy
INTERNAL SOURCES EXTERNAL SOURCES
Sales analysis Libraries
Invoice analysis Literatures
Accounting records Periodicals/ magazines
Census
Government departments
Trade association
EXTERNAL SOURCES EXAMPLES EXTERNAL SOURCES
Commercial data 1) Government Publications: Central and State Governments publish

current information along with statistical data on various subjects, quarterly
International organization and annually.
Advertising agencies
For example, Monthly Statistical Abstract, National Income Statistics,
Statistical volumes
Economic Survey, Reports of National Council of Applied Economic Research
(NCEAR),Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI),
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Central Statistical
Organisation (CSO), etc.

EXAMPLES EXTERNAL SOURCES EXAMPLES EXTERNAL SOURCES
2) International Publications: 3) Semi-official Publications:
The United Nations Organisation (UNO),International Semi-official organizations like Corporations, District
Labour Organisation (ILO), International Monetary Fund Boards, Panchayat etc. publish reports.
(IMF),World Bank, Asian Development Bank (ADB) etc.,
also publish relevant data and reports.
EXAMPLES EXTERNAL SOURCES EXAMPLES EXTERNAL SOURCES
4) Committees and Commissions: 5) Private Publications:

Newspapers and journals publish the data on different fields of
Economics, Commerce and Trade. For example, Economic Times,
Several committees and commissions appointed by State Financial Express etc. and Journals like Economist, Economic and
and Central Governments provide useful secondary data. Political Weekly, Indian Journal of Commerce, Journal of Industry and
Trade, Business Today etc. Some of the research and financial
For example, the report of the 10th Financial Commission
institutions also publish their reports annually like Indian Institute of
or Seventh Pay Commissions, etc.
Finance. In addition to this, reports prepared by research scholars,
universities etc. also provide secondary source of information.
EXAMPLES EXTERNAL SOURCES IMPORTANCE OF SECONDARY DATA
Electronic Sources Economy
No need of measuring instrument

The secondary data is also available through electronic media (through Quickness
Internet). Bases for comparison
You can download data from such sources by entering related web sites. Quality
Ministry of Commerce and Industry http://www.commin.nic.in Useful in exploratory research
Indian Institute of Foreign Trade http://www.iift.edu Availability
Department of Industrial Policy and http://www.dipp.nic.in Generates feasible alternatives

PRIMARY DATA SECONDARY DATA
It is the one, which is collected by the A secondary source is a publication, reporting
LIMITATION OF SECONDARY DATA investigator himself for the purpose of a specific the data which have been gathered by other
study. authorities and for which others are
responsible.
Relevance More cost Less costly
It is a publication in which the data are It is a publication, reporting the data which
Non-disclosure of research findings published by the same authority which have been gathered by other authorities.
gathered and analyzed them.
Accuracy Collected through experiments, surveys, groups It includes books, journals, census, database
etc. etc.
Existence of obsolete information More reliable Less reliable
No extra precautions are required. It need more care & attention.

Other information
Shapes like of raw material Shapes like readymade products.
More accurate Less accurate
Ones own questionnaire Data from magazine, journal etc.
QUESTIONS ASKED IN GTU QUESTIONS ASKED IN GTU

When Is Observation As A Method Of Data Collection Used In The Proprietor Of A University Cafeteria Wants A Survey Done On The
Number Of University Employees Eating Their Lunch In The Cafeteria In A
Research? Month. What Method Of Data Collection Would You Recommend For This
Survey And Why? Justify.
What Are Its Strength And Limitation As A Method Of Data
What Are The Different Kinds Of Data Collection Instruments? State Their
Collection? Suitability According To Their Applications.
Describe The Secondary Source Of Data Collection. Describe The Three General Classes Of Measurement Questions Found In A
Questionnaire. Enlist The Three Critical Decision Areas For Question
Construction.
In Which Situation Observation Method Of Data Collection Is
Applicable? Explain Using Example And Also Write Its A Two-wheeler Manufacturing Company Wants To Study The Satisfaction
Level Of Its Customers. The Company Appoints You As Researcher For This
Advantages And Disadvantages. Project. Prepare A Questionnaire For Conducting This Survey.

Tata Nano Division Of Tata Motors Wants To Perform Customer Satisfaction Explain The Questionnaire Design Process With Different
Survey In Gujarat. Develop The Questionnaire For Performing This Steps Involved In It?
Research.
Define Primary And Secondary Data? What Are The
Briefly Explain The Steps Involved In The Questionnaire Design Process. Advantages And Disadvantages Of Primary Data And
Secondary Data?
You Are Appointed As A Research Analysis By Pepsi Co. You Are Informed
To Compare The Market Of Pepsi Beverages With Coca-cola Beverages. What Is Primary And Secondary Data? Write Its Advantages
Develop The Questionnaire To Measure The Marketer Performance Of Both. And Disadvantages?

A Market Research Firm Wanted To Discover The Prime Motivations Behind
Inclination Towards Smoking In Females. Devise An Appropriate Research Explain The Internal And External Sources Of Secondary
Instrument In Form Of A Questionnaire To Obtain Relevant Insights In This Data.
Area.

What Are The Evaluating Factors Used For Secondary Data Compare Advantages Of Experiment Method Along With Survey
Sources? Also Explain How Each Of The Five Factors Influences On And Observation Method.
Evaluation Of The Secondary Sources.
Enlist The Different Positive Advantages Of Conducting A Survey.
Discuss Different Criteria For Evaluating Survey Methods Compare The Communication Approaches Used In A Survey.

What Is Observation? Being A Good Researcher, How You Will What Are The Decision Parameters A Researcher Should Consider
Observe To Measure Buying Behavior Of Consumers In The Biscuit When Sequencing The Questions?
Segment Of Mall System. Narrate Your Answer With Good Qualities
Of Observer And Type Of Observation Technique
The Campus Food Service Would Like To Determine How Many
People Eat In The Student Cafeteria. List The Survey Method That
Compare Advantages Of Experiment Method Along With Survey Could Be Used To Obtain This Information. Which Method Is Best?
And Observation Method Why?
MEASUREMENT
RESEARCH Measurement is the process of observing and recording
METHODOLOGY the observations that are collected as part of research.

The recording of the observations may be in terms of
MODULE-3
numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects
according to certain prescribed rules. The respondents,
characteristics are feelings, attitudes, opinions etc.
MEASUREMENT LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT SCALES
For example, you may assign 1 for Male and 2 for Female The level of measurement refers to the relationship among the values
respondents. In response to a question on whether he/she is that are assigned to the attributes, feelings or opinions for a variable.
using the ATM provided by a particular bank branch, the
For example, the variable whether the taste of fast food is good has a
respondent may say yes or no. You may wish to assign the
number 1 for the response yes and 2 for the response no. number of attributes, namely, very good, good, neither good nor bad,
We assign numbers to these characteristics for two reasons. bad and very bad. For the purpose of analyzing the results of this
First, the numbers facilitate further statistical analysis of data variable, we may assign the values 1, 2,3, 4 and 5 to the five attributes
obtained. respectively.

LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT SCALES LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT SCALES
VARIABLE COUNT
VERY GOOD 1 RATIO

GOOD 2
INTERVA
L
NOITHER GOOD NOR BAD 3 ORDINA
L
BAD 4 NOMINA
VERY BAD 5
L
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT SCALES NOMINAL SCALE
Typically, there are four levels of measurement scales or Nominal Scale is the basic among all measurement
methods of assigning numbers: scales but it is also the simplest scale. In this scale the
(a) Nominal scale, different scores on a measurement simply indicate
(b) Ordinal scale, different categories. The nominal scale does not express
any values or relationships between variables.
(c) Interval scale,
(d) Ratio scale.
NOMINAL SCALE NOMINAL SCALE
Nominal scale is the least powerful level of measurement. For example, labeling men as 1 and women as 2 which
It indicates no order or distance relationship and has no is the most common way of labeling gender for data
arithmetic origin. A nominal scale simply describes recording purpose does not mean women are twice
differences between things by assigning them to something or other than men. Nor it suggests that men
categories. Nominal data are, thus, counted data. are somehow better than women.

NOMINAL SCALE NOMINAL SCALE
Another example of nominal scale is to classify the In designing and developing a questionnaire, it is important
respondents income into three groups: the highest that the response categories must include all possible
income as group 1. The middle income as group 2, and responses. In order to have an exhaustive number of
responses, you might have to include a category such as
the low-income as group 3. The nominal scale is often
others, uncertain, dont know, or cant remember so that
referred to as a categorical scale. The assigned numbers
the respondents will not distort their information by forcing
have no arithmetic properties and act only as labels.
their responses in one of the categories provided.
ORDINAL SCALE ORDINAL SCALE
Ordinal Scale involves the ranking of items along the The ordinal scale places events in order, but there is no
continuum of the characteristic being scaled. In this attempt to make the intervals of the scale equal in terms
scale, the items are classified according to whether they of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scales and
have more or less of a characteristic. are frequently used in research relating to qualitative
phenomena.
ORDINAL SCALE ORDINAL SCALE

For example, you may wish to ask the TV viewers to rank the TV channels Another example is that a fast food home delivery shop may wish
to ask its customers:
according to their preference and the responses may look like this as given
below:
Suppose respondent X gave the response Excellent and

respondent Y gave the response Good, we may say that
respondent X thought that the service provided better than
respondent Y to be thought. But we dont know how much better
and even we cant say that both respondents have the same
understanding of what constitutes good service.

ORDINAL SCALE INTERVAL SCALE
Since the numbers of this scale have only a rank Interval Scale is a scale in which the numbers are used
meaning, the appropriate measure of central tendency is to rank attributes such that numerically equal distances
the median. A percentile or quartile measure is used for on the scale represent equal distance in the characteristic
measuring dispersion. Correlations are restricted to being measured. An interval scale contains all the
various rank order methods. Measures of statistical
information of an ordinal scale, but it also one allows to
significance are restricted to the non-parametric
compare the difference/distance between attributes.
methods.
INTERVAL SCALE INTERVAL SCALE

Interval scales provide more powerful measurement than ordinal For example, the difference between 1 and 2 is equal to
scales for interval scale also incorporates the concept of equality of the difference between 3 and 4. Further, the difference
interval. As such more powerful statistical measures can be used with
between 2 and 4 is twice the difference between 1 and
interval scales. Mean is the appropriate measure of central tendency,
2.
while standard deviation is the most widely used measure of
dispersion. Product moment correlation techniques are appropriate
and the generally used tests for statistical significance are the t test
and F test.

Example of Interval Scale in Numeric Format
Measuring temperature is an example of interval scale. We
cannot say 400C is twice as hot as 200C. The reason for this is
that 00C does not mean that there is no temperature, but a
relative point on the Centigrade Scale. Due to lack of an absolute
zero point, the interval scale does not allow the conclusion that
400C is twice as hot as 200C.Interval scales may be either in
numeric or semantic formats.

Please indicate your views on the food supplied by XXX Fast Food
The interval scales allow the calculation of averages like
Shop by scoring them on a five points scale from 1 to 5 (that is,
1=Excellent, 2=Very Good, 3=Good, 4=Poor, 5=Worst). Indicate Mean, Median and Mode and dispersion like Range and
your views by ticking the appropriate responses below:
Standard Deviation.
RATIO SCALE RATIO SCALE
Ratio Scale is the highest level of measurement scales. Ruler: Inches or Centimeter
This has the properties of an interval scale together with Income: Money earned last year
a fixed (absolute) zero point. The absolute zero point Years: Work experience
allows us to construct a meaningful ratio. Ratio scale represents the actual amounts of variables. Measures of
physical dimensions such as weight, height, distance, etc. are
However, for most behavioural research, interval scales
examples. Generally, all statistical techniques are usable with ratio
are typically the highest form of measurement. scales and all manipulations that one can carry out with real numbers
can also be carried out with ratio scale values.
RATIO SCALE RATIO SCALE
Geometric and harmonic means can be used as measures In the marketing research, most counts are ratio scales.
of central tendency and coefficients of variation may also For example, the number of customers of a banks ATM
be calculated. in the last three months is a ratio scale. This is because
you can compare this with previous three months. Ratio
scales permit the researcher to compare both differences
in scores and relative magnitude of scores.

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
MODULE: 2
TYPES OF SCALING TECHNIQUES
COMPARATIVE TECHNIQUE
NON-COMPARATIVE TECHNIQUE
COMPARATIVE TECHNIQUE COMPARATIVE TECHNIQUE
In comparative scaling, the respondent is asked to The comparative scales can further be divided into the
compare one object with another. following four types of scaling techniques:
For example, the researcher can ask the respondents (a) Paired Comparison Scale,
whether they prefer brand A or brand B of a mobile (b) Rank Order Scale,
phone. (c) Constant Sum Scale, and
(d) Q-sort Scale.

PAIRED COMPARISON SCALE PAIRED COMPARISON SCALE
This is a comparative scaling technique in which a respondent is The respondents can prefer Pepsi to Coke or Coke to Sprite, etc.
In all we can have the following six comparisons.

presented with two objects at a time and asked to select one
CokePepsi
object (rate between two objects at a time) according to some
CokeSprite
criterion. The data obtained are ordinal in nature.
CokeLimca
For example, there are four types of cold drinks - Coke, Pepsi, PepsiSprite
Sprite, and Limca. PepsiLimca
SpriteLimca
In general, with n brands we have paired comparisons. The A in a particular box means that the brand in that column was
following is the data recording format using the paired preferred over the brand in the corresponding row. In the above
comparisons. recording, Coke was preferred over Sprite, Coke over Limca, in this
case the number of times coke preferred was 2 times. Similarly, Pepsi
over Coke, Pepsi over Sprite, Pepsi over Limca, in this case Pepsi was
3 time preferred. Thus, the number of times a brand was preferred is
obtained by summing the s in each column.
The following table gives paired comparison of data The entries in the boxes represent the proportion of
(assumed) for four brands of cold drinks. respondents preferring column brand and to row brand.
For example, 90% prefer Pepsi to Coke and only 10%
prefer Coke to Pepsi, etc.

PAIRED COMPARISON SCALE RANK ORDER SCALE
Paired comparison is useful when the number of brands This is another type of comparative scaling technique in which
are limited, since it requires direct comparison and over respondents are presented with several items simultaneously and
asked to rank them in the order of priority. This is an ordinal scale
the choice. One of the disadvantages of paired
that describes the favoured and unfavoured objects, but does not
comparison scale is violation of the pre-determined
reveal the distance between the objects.
assumptions.
For example, if you are interested in ranking the preference of some
selected brands of cold drinks, you may use the following format for
recording the responses.
RANK ORDER SCALE RANK ORDER SCALE

Preference of cold drink brands using rank order Like paired comparison, the rank order scale, is also comparative in
scaling
nature.
The resultant data in rank order is ordinal data.
This method is more realistic in obtaining the responses and it yields
better results when direct comparison are required between the given
objects.
The major disadvantage of this technique is that only ordinal data can
be generated.
CONSTANT SUM SCALE CONSTANT SUM SCALE
In this scale, the respondents are asked to allocate a For example, you may wish to determine how important
constant sum of units such as points, rupees, or chips the attributes of price, fragrance, packaging, cleaning
among a set of stimulus objects with respect to some power, and lather of a detergent are to consumers.
criterion. Respondents might be asked to divide a constant sum to
indicate the relative importance of the attributes using
the following:

CONSTANT SUM SCALE CONSTANT SUM SCALE
IMPORTANCE OF DETERGENT ATTRIBUTES USING A CONSTANT The advantage of this technique is saving time.
SUM SCALE
However, there are two main disadvantages.
If an attribute is assigned a higher number of points, it would
indicate that the attribute is more important.
The respondents may allocate more or fewer points than those
specified.
If the price of the detergent is the most important attribute for the
consumers followed by cleaning power, packaging. The second problem is rounding off error if too few attributes are
Fragrance and lather are the two attributes that the consumers cared used and the use of a large number of attributes may be too
about the least but preferred equally. taxing on the respondent and cause confusion and ambiguity.
Q-SORT SCALE Q-SORT SCALE
This is a comparative scale that uses a rank order The important characteristic of this methodology is that it is more
procedure to sort objects based on similarity with respect important to make comparisons among different responses of a
respondent than the responses between different respondents.
to some criterion.
Therefore, it is a comparative method of scaling rather than an
absolute rating scale.
In this method the respondent is given statements in a large number

for describing the characteristics of a product or a large number of
brands of a product.
Q-SORT SCALE
For example, you may wish to determine the preference

from among a large number of magazines.
Preference of Magazines Using Q-Sort Scale Procedure

Q-SORT SCALE NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES
The non-comparative scaling techniques can be further
The utility of Q-sort in marketing research is to derive
divided into:
clusters of individuals who display similar preferences,
thus representing unique market segments. (a) Continuous Rating Scale, and
(b) Itemized Rating Scale.
Examples of continuous rating scale are given below:

A) CONTINUOUS RATING SCALES Question: How would you rate the TV advertisement as a guide for
buying?
It is very simple and highly useful. In continuous rating

scale, the respondents rate the objects by placing a mark
at the appropriate position on a continuous line that runs
from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other.
A) CONTINUOUS RATING SCALES B) ITEMIZED RATING SCALES
When scale type A and B are used, the respondents score is Itemized rating scale is a scale having numbers or brief
determined either by dividing the line into as many categories descriptions associated with each category. The categories
as desired and assigning the respondent a score based on the are ordered in terms of scale position and the respondents
category into which his/her mark falls, or by measuring are required to select one of the limited number of
distance, in millimeters, centimeters, or inches from either categories that best describes the product, brand,
end of the scale. Whichever of the above continuous scale is company, or product attribute being rated. Itemized rating
used, the results are normally analyzed as interval scaled. scales are widely used in marketing research.

The itemized rating scales can be in the form
of : (a) graphic, (b) verbal, or (c) numeric as B) ITEMIZED RATING SCALES
shown below:
Some rating scales may have only two response
categories such as : agree and disagree.
Inclusion of more response categories provides the

respondent more flexibility in the rating task.
B) ITEMIZED RATING SCALES

Consider the following questions:
1. How often do you visit the supermarket located in your area of residence?
Never, Rarely, Sometimes, Often, Very often
2. In your case how important is the price of brand X shoes when you buy
them?
Very important, Fairly important, Neutral, Not so important
Each of the above category scales is a more sensitive measure than a scale
with only two responses since they provide more information.
Wording is an extremely important factor in the usefulness of itemized scales.
B) ITEMIZED RATING SCALES LIKERT SCALE:
Three itemized rating scales, namely In business research, the Likert scale, developed by Rensis Likert, is
extremely popular for measuring attitudes, because, the method is
(a) Likert scale,
simple to administer.
(b) Semantic Differential Scale, and With the Likert scale, the respondents indicate their own attitudes by
checking how strongly they agree or disagree with carefully worded
(c) Staple Scale.
statements that range from very positive to very negative towards the
attitudinal object. Respondents generally choose from five alternatives
(say strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree,
strongly disagree).

LIKERT SCALE: LIKERT SCALE:
Consider the following example of a study or measuring To measure the attitude, the researchers assign weights or scores to
attitudes towards cricket.
the alternative responses.
In the above example the scores 5 to 1 are assigned to the responses.
Strong agreement of the respondent indicates the most favourable
attitudes on the statement, and the score 5 is assigned to it.
On the other hand, strong disagreement of the respondent indicates
the most unfavourable attitude on the statement, and the score 1 is
assigned to it.
LIKERT SCALE:
A Likert scale may include a number of items or

statements. Each statement is assumed to represent an
aspect of an attitudinal domain.
For example, the items in a Likert Scale to measure

opinions on food products.
LIKERT SCALE: LIKERT SCALE:
Each respondent is asked to circle his opinion on a score A disadvantage of the Likert Scale is that it is difficult to know what a single
summated score means.
against each statement. The final score for the
Many patterns of response to the various statements can produce the same
respondent on the scale is the sum of their ratings for all total score.
the items. The very purpose of Likerts Scale is to ensure The other disadvantage of Likert Scale is that it takes longer time to
the final items evoke a wide response and discriminate complete than other itemized rating scales because respondents have to read
each statement.
among those with positive and negative attitudes.
Despite the above disadvantages, this scale has several advantages. It is easy
to construct, administer and use.

Look at the following Table, for examples of
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE Semantic Differential Scale.
This is a seven point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar
labels (such as good and bad, complex and simple) that have semantic
meaning.
The Semantic Differential scale is used for a variety of purposes.
It can be used to find whether a respondent has a positive or negative
attitude towards an object.
It has been widely used in comparing brands, products and company
images. It has also been used to develop advertising and promotion
strategies and in a new product development study.
The following is an example of Semantic Differential Scale to

study the experience of using a particular brand of body
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE lotion.
In the Semantic Differential scale only extremes have names.
The extreme points represent the bipolar adjectives with the

central category representing the neutral position.
The in between categories have blank spaces.
A weight is assigned to each position on the scale. The weights

can be such as +3, +2, +1, 0, 1, 2, 3 or 7,6,5,4,3,2,1.
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE STAPLE SCALE
In the semantic Differential scale, the phrases used to describe the The Staple scale was originally developed to measure the direction and
object form a basis for attitude formation in the form of positive and intensity of an attitude simultaneously. Modern versions of the Staple
negative phrases. The negative phrase is sometimes put on the left scale place a single adjective as a substitute for the Semantic
side of the scale and sometimes on the right side. This is done to differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives. The
prevent a respondent with a positive attitude from simply checking the modified Stapel scale places a single adjective in the centre of an even
left side and a respondent with a negative attitude checking on the number of numerical values (say, +3, +2, +1, 0, 1, 2, 3). This scale
right side without reading the description of the words. measures how close to or how distant from the adjective a given
stimulus is perceived to be.

STAPLE SCALE FOR PERSONAL BANKING
THE FOLLOWING FIGURE SHOWS THE

OPINIONS OF 100 RESPONDENTS ON TWO STAPLE SCALE
BANKS.
The advantages and disadvantages of the Staple scale are very similar
to those for the Semantic differential scale. However, the Staple scale
tends to be easier to construct and administer, especially over
telephone, since the Staple scale does not call for the bipolar adjectives
as does the Semantic differential scale.
However, research on comparing the Staple scale with Semantic

differential scale suggests that the results of both the scales are largely
the same.
CONTENT
RESEARCH Introduction of sampling
Features of good sample
METHODOLOGY Sample design
2810006
What is sampling? What precautions are required to take
decisions for the best sample size out of the universe?
Discuss in detail steps in sampling designing process

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
Sampling may be defined as the selection of some part of In other words, it is the process of obtaining information
an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgement about an entire population by examining only a part of it.
or inference about the aggregate or totality is made. In most of the research work and surveys, the usual
approach happens to be to make generalisations or to
draw inferences based on samples about the parameters
of population from which the samples are taken.
POINTS TO BE CONSIDER AT THE

INTRODUCTION TIME OF SELECTING SAMPLE SIZE
Sample should be truly representative of population characteristics The most important considerations for this are: cost, size
without any bias so that it may result in valid and reliable
of the population, accuracy of data, accessibility of
conclusions.
population, timeliness, and destructive observations.
E.g.
Blood test
Test drive of vehicle
Use of demonstration piece
COST SIZE OF THE POPULATION
The cost of conducting surveys through census method If the size of the population is very large it is difficult to
would be prohibitive and sampling helps in substantial conduct a census if not impossible. In such situations
cost reduction of surveys. Since most often the financial sample survey is the only way to analyze the
resources available to conduct a survey are scarce, it is characteristics of a population.
imperative to go for a sample survey than census.

ACCURACY OF DATA ACCESSIBILITY OF POPULATION
Although reliable information can be obtained through There are some populations that are so difficult to get
census, sometime the accuracy of information may be access to that only a sample can be used, e.g., people in
lost because of a large population. Sampling involves a prison, birds migrating from one place to another place
small part of the population and a few trained people can etc. The inaccessibility may be economic or time related.
be involved to collect accurate data.
TIMELINESS DESTRUCTIVE OBSERVATIONS
Since we are covering a small portion of a large Sometimes the very act of observing the desired
population through sampling, it is possible to collect the characteristics of a unit of the population destroys it for
data in far less time than covering the entire population. the intended use. Good examples of this occur in quality
Not only does it take less time to collect the data through control.
sampling but the data processing and analysis also takes
less time because fewer observations need to be covered.
RISK LACK OF REPRESENTATIVENESS
Using a sample from a population and drawing inferences Determining the representativeness of the sample is the
about the entire population involves risk. In other words researchers greatest problem. By definition, sample
the risk results from dealing with a part of a population. means a representative part of an entire population.

INSUFFICIENT SAMPLE SIZE NATURE OF UNIVERSE
The other significant problem in sampling is to determine Universe may be either homogenous or heterogeneous in
the size of the sample. The size of the sample for a valid nature. If the items of the universe are homogenous, a
sample depends on several factors such as extent of risk small sample can serve the purpose. But if the items are
that the researcher is willing to accept and the heterogeneous, a large sample would be required.
characteristics of the population itself. Technically, this can be termed as the dispersion factor.
NUMBER OF CLASSES PROPOSED NATURE OF STUDY
If many class-groups (groups and sub-groups) are to be If items are to be intensively and continuously studied,
formed, a large sample would be required because a small the sample should be small. For a general survey the size
sample might not be able to give a reasonable number of of the sample should be large, but a small sample is
items in each class-group. considered appropriate in technical surveys.
STANDARD OF ACCURACY AND

TYPE OF SAMPLING ACCEPTABLE CONFIDENCE LEVEL
Sampling technique plays an important part in If the standard of accuracy or the level of precision is to
determining the size of the sample. A small random be kept high, we shall require relatively larger sample.
sample is apt to be much superior to a larger but badly For doubling the accuracy for a fixed significance level,
selected sample. the sample size has to be increased fourfold.

AVAILABILITY OF FINANCE OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
In practice, size of the sample depends upon the amount Nature of units, size of the population, size of
of money available for the study purposes. This factor questionnaire, availability of trained investigators, the
should be kept in view while determining the size of conditions under which the sample is being conducted,
sample for large samples result in increasing the cost of the time available for completion of the study are a few
sampling estimates. other considerations to which a researcher must pay
attention while selecting the size of the sample.
ESSENTIALS OF GOOD SAMPLE TRUE REPRESENTATIVE
There are few essentials for sample which helps to define A sample must represent a true picture of the population
a good sample for our selection from the population. from which it is drawn.
UNBIASED EQUAL CHANCE OF SELECTION

A sample must be unbiased by the sampling procedure.
A sample must be taken at random so that every member
of the population of data has an equal chance of
selection.

ECONOMICAL ACCURATE
A sample must be sufficiently large but as economical as
A sample must be accurate and complete. It should not
possible.
leave any information incomplete and should include all
the respondents, units or items included in the sample.
ADEQUATE SAMPLING AND NON-SAMPLING ERRORS
Adequate sample size must be taken considering the The quality of a research project depends on the accuracy
degree of precision required in the results of inquiry. of the data collected and its representation to the
population. There are two broad sources of errors. These
are sampling errors and non-sampling errors.
SAMPLING ERRORS SAMPLING ERRORS
The principal sources of sampling errors are the sampling The following Figure gives an approximate relationship
method applied, and the sample size. This is due to the between sample size and sampling error.
fact that only a part of the population is covered in the Study the following figure carefully.
sample. The magnitude of the sampling error varies from
one sampling method to the other, even for the same
sample size.

NON-SAMPLING ERRORS NON-SAMPLING ERRORS
The non-sampling errors arise from faulty research a) Respondent Errors:

design and mistakes in executing research. There are
If the respondents co-operate and give the correct
many sources of non-sampling errors which may be
information the objectives of the researcher can be easily
broadly classified as:
accomplished. However, in practice, this may not happen.
(a) respondent errors, and
The respondents may either refuse to provide information
(b) administrative errors.
or even if he/she provides information it may be biased.
Respondent Errors: Response bias occurs when the respondent may not give
If the respondent fails to provide information, we call it as non- the correct information and try to mislead the investigator
response error. in a certain direction. The respondents may consciously
If the researcher finds that the non-response rate is more in a or unconsciously misrepresent the truth.
particular group of respondents (for example, higher income
groups) additional efforts should be made to obtain data from
these under-represented groups of the population.

b) Administrative Errors: The errors that have arisen due to i) Sample Selection Error: It is difficult to execute a
improper administration of the research process are called
sampling plan. For example, we may plan to use
administrative errors. There are four types of administrative errors.
systematic sampling plan in a market research study of a
These are as follows:
new product and decide to interview every 5th customer
i) sample selection error,
coming out of a consumer store.
ii) investigator error,
iii) investigator cheating, and
iv. data processing error.

Investigator Error: When the investigator interviews the Investigator Cheating: Sometimes the investigator may
respondent, he/she may fail to record the information try to fake the data even without meeting the concerned
correctly or may fail to cross check the information respondents. There should be some mechanism to
provided by the respondent. Therefore, the error may crosscheck this type of faking by the investigator.
arise due to the way the investigator records the
information.
NON-SAMPLING ERRORS HOW TO CONTROL ERRORS???
Data Processing Error: Once the data is collected the It is not possible to eliminate completely the sources of
next job the researcher does is edit, code and enter the errors.
data into a computer for further processing and analysis.
The errors can be minimized by careful editing, coding
However, the researchers objective and effort should be
and entering the data into a computer.
to minimize these sources of errors as much as possible.
There are ways of reducing the errors.
HOW TO CONTROL ERRORS???
Some of these are: RESEARCH

(a) designing and executing a good questionnaire;
METHODOLOGY
(b) selection of appropriate sampling method; 2810006
(c) adequate sample size;
(d) employing trained investigators to collect the data; and
(e) care in editing, coding and entering the data into the computer.

TOPIC INTRODUCTION
Sampling Design If it is a sample study, the sampling techniques, the size of
sample, the way samples are to be drawn etc., are to be
decided.
Question asked in GTU.
In case studies. A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from
a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure
the researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample.
INTRODUCTION STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
Sample design may as well lay down the number of items TYPE OF UNIVERSE
to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the sample. SAMPLING UNIT
Sample design is determined before data are collected. SOURCE LIST
SIZE OF SAMPLE
PARAMETERS OF INTEREST
BUDGETARY CONSTRAINT
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
1. TYPE OF UNIVERSE 2. SAMPLING UNIT

The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of
objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before
The universe can be finite or infinite. selecting sample.
In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district,
universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about
village, etc., or a construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it
the total number of items.
may be a social unit such as family, club, school, etc., or it may
The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are
be an individual.
examples of finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky,
listeners of a specific radio programme, throwing of a dice etc. are examples The researcher will have to decide one or more of such units that
of infinite universes. he has to select for his study.

3. SOURCE LIST 4. SIZE OF SAMPLE
It is also known as sampling frame from which sample is to be drawn. This refers to the number of items to be selected from the
It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe universe to constitute a sample.
only). If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare it.
This a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample
Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate.
should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be
It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of the
population as possible.
optimum.
An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of

efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
5. PARAMETERS OF INTEREST 6. BUDGETARY CONSTRAINT
In determining the sample design, one must consider the Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major
question of the specific population parameters which are of impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample
interest. but also to the type of sample.
For instance, we may be interested in estimating the proportion This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
of persons with some characteristic in the population, or we may
be interested in knowing some average or the other measure
concerning the population.
7. SAMPLING PROCEDURE ERRORS OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE
Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he 1. Inappropriate sampling frame
will use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be 2. Defective measuring device
used in selecting the items for the sample.
3. Non-respondents
In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample
4. Indeterminacy principle
design itself.
5. Natural bias in the reporting of data

1. INAPPROPRIATE SAMPLING FRAME 2. DEFECTIVE MEASURING DEVICE
If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will result in
representation of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.
systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or
the interviewer is biased.
Similarly, if the physical measuring device is defective there will

be systematic bias in the data collected through such a
measuring device.
3. NON-RESPONDENTS 4. INDETERMINACY PRINCIPLE
If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when
the sample, there may arise a systematic bias. kept under observation than what they do when kept in
The reason is that in such a situation the likelihood of non-observed situations.
establishing contact or receiving a response from an individual is

often correlated with the measure of what is to be estimated.
5. NATURAL BIAS IN THE REPORTING OF DATA CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN
(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.

Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data is often the (b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries. (c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the
There is usually a downward bias in the income data collected research study.
by government taxation department, whereas we find an upward (d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in
a better way.
bias in the income data collected by some social organisation.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be
applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
There are different types of sample designs based on two factors
Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford
viz., the representation basis and the element selection
any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population has
technique.
of being included in the sample. Non-probability sampling is also known by
On the representation basis, the sample may be probability different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and
sampling or it may be non-probability sampling. judgement sampling. In this type of sampling, items for the sample are
selected deliberately by the researcher; his choice concerning the items
Probability sampling is based on the concept of random selection,
remains supreme. In other words, under non-probability sampling the
whereas non-probability sampling is non-random sampling.
organizers of the inquiry purposively choose the particular units of the
universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass that they
PROBABILITY SAMPLING COMPLEX RANDOM SAMPLING DESIGNS
Probability sampling is also known as random sampling or Probability sampling under restricted sampling
chance sampling. Under this sampling design, every item of the techniques, as stated above, may result in complex
universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample. It is, so random sampling designs. Such designs may as well be
to say, a lottery method in which individual units are picked up called mixed sampling designs for many of such designs
from the whole group not deliberately but by some mechanical may represent a combination of probability and non-
process. probability sampling procedures in selecting a sample.
(I) SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING (II) STRATIFIED SAMPLING
In some instances, the most practical way of sampling is If a population from which a sample is to be drawn does not
to select every ith item on a list. Sampling of this type is constitute a homogeneous group, stratified sampling technique is
known as systematic sampling. An element of generally applied in order to obtain a representative sample. Under
stratified sampling the population is divided into several sub-
randomness is introduced into this kind of sampling by
populations that are individually more homogeneous than the total
using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to
population (the different sub-populations are called strata) and then
start.
we select items from each stratum to constitute a sample.

(III) CLUSTER SAMPLING (IV) AREA SAMPLING
If the total area of interest happens to be a big one, a convenient If clusters happen to be some geographic subdivisions, in that
way in which a sample can be taken is to divide the area into a case cluster sampling is better known as area sampling. In other
number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then to randomly words, cluster designs, where the primary sampling unit
select a number of these smaller areas (usually called clusters), represents a cluster of units based on geographic area, are
with the ultimate sample consisting of all (or samples of) units in distinguished as area sampling. The plus and minus points of
these small areas or clusters. cluster sampling are also applicable to area sampling.
(VI) SAMPLING WITH PROBABILITY

(V) MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING
PROPORTIONAL TO SIZE
Multi-stage sampling is a further development of the principle of In case the cluster sampling units do not have the same number
cluster sampling. Suppose we want to investigate the working or approximately the same number of elements, it is considered
efficiency of nationalized banks in India and we want to take a sample appropriate to use a random selection process where the
of few banks for this purpose. The first stage is to select large primary
probability of each cluster being included in the sample is
sampling unit such as states in a country. Then we may select certain
proportional to the size of the cluster.
districts and interview all banks in the chosen districts. This would
represent a two-stage sampling design with the ultimate sampling
units being clusters of districts.
(VII) SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING
This sampling design is some what complex sample design. The RESEARCH
ultimate size of the sample under this technique is not fixed in
advance, but is determined according to mathematical decision
METHODOLOGY
2810006
rules on the basis of information yielded as survey progresses.
This is usually adopted in case of acceptance sampling plan in
context of statistical quality control.

TOPIC TYPE I ERROR
VARIOUS TERMS
It is committed when we reject a correct or true
hypothesis. It is denoted by .
TYPE II ERROR HYPOTHESIS
It is committed when we accept a wrong hypothesis. It is A hypothesis is a tentative answer / solution to the
denoted by . research problem, whose validity remains to be tested.
TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS NULL HYPOTHESIS
It means verification of a hypothesis as true or false in A statistical hypothesis which is stated for the purpose of
the light of facts. possible acceptance is called null hypothesis. It is
denoted by H0.

ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS DEGREE OF FREEDOM
Any hypothesis which is complementary to the null It can be defined as the number of components in the
hypothesis is called an alternative hypothesis and is calculation of a statistics that are free to vary.
usually denoted by H1.
ONE TAILED TEST TWO-RAILED TEST
A hypothesis test in which the population parameter is A hypothesis test in which a parameter statistic might fall
known to fall to the right or left of centre of the sampling within either the right or left tail of the sampling
distribution is called one tailed test. distribution is called two tailed test.
T-TEST Z-TEST
When the sample size is 30 or less and the population Z-test is based on the normal probability distribution and is
standard deviation is unknown, we can use the t- used for judging the significance of several statistical measures,
distribution. particularly the mean.
The relevant test statistic*, z, is worked out and compared with

its probable value (to be read from table showing area under
normal curve) at a specified level of significance for judging the
significance of the measure concerned.

F-TEST DEDUCTION
It is a way of making a particular conclusion from a
The object of the f-test is to discover whether the two
generalization.
independent estimates of population variance differ
significantly or whether the two samples may be regarded
as drawn from the normal population having the same
variance.
EMPIRICAL FACT
Relying/based on experience/observation/experiment An event that is true/happened
INDUCTION KNOWLEDGE
Having Information, associate with facts.
It is a process of reasoning to arrive at generalizations
from particular facts.

METHOD OBSERVATION
A way or mode of doing anything.
Systematic viewing of things to gather information.
The process of observing individuals in controlled

situations.
RESEARCH SCIENCE
It is a systematic search for relevant information on a It may mean accumulated body of knowledge or it may
specific topic. mean a process leading to knowledge.
PILOT STUDY PRE-TEST
A study conducted to familiarize oneself first with the A trial administration of an instrument such as a
research problem so that it can be operationalized with a questionnaire or scale to identify its weaknesses is called
good deal of knowledge about the problem. a pre-test.

RESEARCH DESIGN RESEARCH PROBLEM
A research problem is a felt need, which needs an
It is a systematic plan (planning), or blue print to direct a
answer/solution.
piece of research work.
DATA INTERVIEW
Quantitative or/ and qualitative information, collected for A method of collecting primary data by meeting the
study and analysis. informants and asking the questions.
QUESTIONNAIRE PRIMARY DATA

Data that is collected originally for the first time.
It is a device for collection of primary data containing a
list of questions pertaining to enquiry, sent to the
informants, and the informant himself writes the
answers.

SECONDARY DATA PUBLISHED SOURCES
Sources which consist of published statistical
Data which were collected and processed by someone else
information.
but are being used in the present study.
SCHEDULE ADMINISTRATIVE ERRORS
It is a device for collection of primary data containing a The administrative errors arise due to improper
list of questions to be filled in by the enumerators who administration of the research.
are specially appointed for that purpose.
CENSUS PARAMETERS
A complete survey of population is called census.
The numerical characteristics of a population are called
parameters.

MEASUREMENT NON-COMPARATIVE SCALES
Measurement is the process of observing and recording In non-comparative scaling, respondents need only
the observations that are collected as part of research. evaluate a single object.
NOMINAL SCALE ORDINAL SCALE
In this scale, the different scores on a measurement In this scale, the items are ranked according to whether
simply indicate different categories. they have more or less of a characteristic.
PAIRED COMPARISON SCALE Q-SORT SCALE
This is a comparative scaling technique in which a This is a comparative scale that uses a rank order
respondent is presented with two objects at a time and procedure to sort objects based on similarity with respect
asked to select one object according to some criterion. to some criterion.

RANK ORDER SCALE RATIO SCALE
In this scale, the respondents are presented with several Ratio scales permit the researcher to compare both
items simultaneously and asked to order or rank them differences in scores and relative magnitude of scores.
according to some criterion.
SCALING SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
Scaling is the assignment of objects to numbers or This is a seven point rating scale with end points
semantics according to a rule. associated with bipolar labels (such as good and bad,
complex and simple) that have semantic meaning.
STAPLE SCALE REPORT PRESENTATION
The Staple scale places a single adjective as a substitute A presentation is a commitment by the presenter to help
for the Semantic differential when it is difficult to create the audience do something, to solve the problem.
pairs of bipolar adjectives.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING DATA ANALYSIS
It is a method of making decision using data, whether It is a process of gathering, modeling & transforming data
from a controlled experiment or an observational study. with the goal of highlighting useful information,
suggesting conclusion and supporting decision making.
CROSS TABULATION DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
It is the merging of the frequency distribution of two or It is largely analysis the study of distributions of one variable.
more variable in a single table. It helps to understand This study provides us with profiles of companies,
how one variable such as brand loyalty relates to another workgroups, persons & other subject on any of a multiple of
characteristics such as size, composition, efficiency,
variable such as gender. It also called contingency tables.
preferences etc. it is in other word called one-dimensional
analysis. This analysis shows the benchmark data and
measures the state at any particular time.
UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS BIVARIATE ANALYSIS
It is concerned with the description of individual variables it is concerned with the relationship between pairs of
in a given data set. variables (X,Y) in a data set.

MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
These are appropriate for analyzing data when there are 2 RESEARCH
or more measurement of each observation and the
variables are to be analysed simultaneously.
METHODOLOGY
2810006
TOPIC INTRODUCTION
DATA ANALYSIS
The data, after collection, has to be processed and
analysed in accordance with the outline laid down for the
purpose at the time of developing the research plan.
This is essential for a scientific study and for ensuring It is a process of gathering, modeling & transforming data
that we have all relevant data for making contemplated with the goal of highlighting useful information,
comparisons and analysis. suggesting conclusion and supporting decision making.

STEPS IN DATA PREPARATION
DATA PROCESSING
PROCESS
Technically speaking, processing implies editing, coding, EDITING
classification and tabulation of collected data so that they
are amenable to analysis. The term analysis refers to the CODING
computation of certain measures along with searching for
patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups. CLASSIFICATIO
N
TABULATION
1. EDITING 1. EDITING
Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data Field editing consists in the review of the reporting forms by the
(specially in surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to correct investigator for completing (translating or rewriting) what the
these when possible.
latter has written in abbreviated and/or in illegible form at the
As a matter of fact, editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed
time of recording the respondents responses.
questionnaires and/or schedules.
Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with
other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as possible and
have been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.
Central editing should take place when all forms or schedules Editors must keep in view several points while performing their work:
have been completed and returned to the office. This type of (a) They should be familiar with instructions given to the interviewers
editing implies that all forms should get a thorough editing by a and coders as well as with the editing instructions supplied to them
single editor in a small study and by a team of editors in case of for the purpose.
a large inquiry (b) While crossing out an original entry for one reason or another, they
should just draw a single line on it so that the same may remain
legible.

1. EDITING 2. CODING
(c) They must make entries (if any) on the form in some Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other
distinctive colour and that too in a standardized form. symbols to answers so that responses can be put into a limited
(d) They should initial all answers which they change or supply. number of categories or classes. Such classes should be
appropriate to the research problem under consideration.
(e) Editors initials and the date of editing should be placed on
each completed form or schedule.
2. CODING 3. CLASSIFICATION
Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which
the several replies may be reduced to a small number of must be reduced into homogeneous groups if we are to get
classes which contain the critical information required for meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates classification of
analysis. Coding decisions should usually be taken at the data which happens to be the process of arranging data in
designing stage of the questionnaire. groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics.
3. CLASSIFICATION
(a) Classification according to attributes: As stated above, data are classified on the
basis of common characteristics which can either be descriptive (such as literacy,
sex, honesty, etc.) or numerical (such as weight, height, income, etc.).
Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon which cannot be

measured quantitatively; only their presence or absence in an individual item can
be noticed.
Data obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are known as statistics of
attributes and their classification is said to be classification according to attributes.

3. CLASSIFICATION
Classification according to class-intervals: Unlike descriptive characteristics, the
numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon which can be
measured through some statistical units.
Data relating to income, production, age, weight, etc. come under this category.
Such data are known as statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of
class intervals.
For instance, persons whose incomes, say, are within Rs 201 to Rs 400 can form
one group, those whose incomes are within Rs 401 to Rs 600 can form another
group and so on.
4. TABULATION
When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for

the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical
order. This procedure is referred to as tabulation.
Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and

displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical
tables) for further analysis.
In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in

columns and rows.
4. TABULATION
Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons.
1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive

statement to a minimum.
2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors

and omissions.
4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.

4. TABULATION 4. TABULATION
Generally accepted principles of tabulation: Such principles of tabulation, 4. The units of measurement under each heading or sub-heading must always be
particularly of constructing statistical tables, can be briefly states as follows:* indicated.
1. Every table should have a clear, concise and adequate title so as to make the 5. Explanatory footnotes, if any, concerning the table should be placed directly beneath the
table intelligible without reference to the text and this title should always be placed table, along with the reference symbols used in the table.
just above the body of the table. 6. Source or sources from where the data in the table have been obtained must be
2. Every table should be given a distinct number to facilitate easy reference. indicated just below the table.
3. The column headings (captions) and the row headings (stubs) of the table should 7. Usually the columns are separated from one another by lines which make the table more
be clear and brief. readable and attractive. Lines are always drawn at the top and bottom of the table and
below the captions.
4. TABULATION
8. There should be thick lines to separate the data under one class RESEARCH
from the data under another class and the lines separating the sub-
divisions of the classes should be comparatively thin lines.
METHODOLOGY
2810006
9. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference.
10. Those columns whose data are to be compared should be kept

side by side. Similarly, percentages and/or averages must also be kept
close to the data.
TOPIC TYPE-I ERROR AND TYPE-II ERROR
TYPE-I ERROR AND TYPE-II ERROR In the context of testing of hypotheses, there are basically two
HYPOTHESIS TESTING PROCESS types of errors we can make. We may reject H0 when H0 is true
and we may accept H0 when in fact H0 is not true.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PARAMETRIC TEST AND NON-
PARAMETRIC TEST The former is known as Type I error and the latter as Type II
error.

TYPE-I ERROR AND TYPE-II ERROR TYPE-I ERROR AND TYPE-II ERROR
In a tabular form the said two errors can be presented as
In other words, Type I error means rejection of hypothesis which
follows:
should have been accepted and Type II error means accepting the
hypothesis which should have been rejected.
Type I error is denoted by (alpha) known as a error, also called

the level of significance of test; and
Type II error is denoted by (beta). (beta) known as b error.
The probability of Type I error is usually determined in advance and is But with a fixed sample size, n, when we try to reduce Type I
understood as the level of significance of testing the hypothesis. error, the probability of committing Type II error increases.
If type I error is fixed at 5 per cent, it means that there are about 5 Both types of errors cannot be reduced simultaneously.
chances in 100 that we will reject H0 when H0 is true. There is a trade-off between two types of errors which means that
We can control Type I error just by fixing it at a lower level. For the probability of making one type of error can only be reduced if
instance, if we fix it at 1 per cent, we will say that the maximum we are willing to increase the probability of making the other type
probability of committing Type I error would only be 0.01. of error.
To deal with this trade-off in business situations, If Type I error involves the time and trouble of reworking
decision-makers decide the appropriate level of Type I a batch of chemicals that should have been accepted,
error by examining the costs or penalties attached to both whereas Type II error means taking a chance that an
types of errors. entire group of users of this chemical compound will be
poisoned, then in such a situation one should prefer a
Type I error to a Type II error.

TYPE-I ERROR AND TYPE-II ERROR HYPOTHESIS TESTING PROCESS
As a result one must set very high level for Type I error in (i) Making a formal statement
ones testing technique of a given hypothesis. (ii) Selecting a significance level

(iii) Deciding the distribution to use
Hence, in the testing of hypothesis, one must make all
(iv) Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate
possible effort to strike an adequate balance between
value
Type I and Type II errors.
(v) Calculation of the probability
(vi) Comparing the probability
(I) MAKING A FORMAL STATEMENT (I) MAKING A FORMAL STATEMENT
The step consists in making a formal statement of the null For instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering Department
hypothesis (H0) and also of the alternative hypothesis (Ha). wants to test the load bearing capacity of an old bridge which
This means that hypotheses should be clearly stated, considering must be more than 10 tons, in that case he can state his
the nature of the research problem. hypotheses as under:
Null hypothesis H0 : = 10 tons
Alternative Hypothesis Ha: > 10 tons
(I) MAKING A FORMAL STATEMENT (II) SELECTING A SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL:
The formulation of hypotheses is an important step which must The hypotheses are tested on a pre-determined level of
be accomplished with due care in accordance with the object and significance and as such the same should be specified. Generally,
nature of the problem under consideration. It also indicates in practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for the purpose.
whether we should use a one-tailed test or a two-tailed test. If Ha
is of the type greater than (or of the type lesser than), we use a
one-tailed test, but when Ha is of the type whether greater or
smaller then we use a two-tailed test.

(II) SELECTING A SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL: (II) SELECTING A SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL:
The factors that affect the level of significance are: (A directional hypothesis is one which predicts the direction of
(a) the magnitude of the difference between sample means; the difference between, say, means). In brief, the level of
significance must be adequate in the context of the purpose and
(b) the size of the samples;
nature of enquiry.
(c) the variability of measurements within samples; and
(d) whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional
(IV) SELECTING A RANDOM SAMPLE AND

(III) DECIDING THE DISTRIBUTION TO USE: COMPUTING AN APPROPRIATE VALUE:
After deciding the level of significance, the next step in Another step is to select a random sample(s) and compute
hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate sampling an appropriate value from the sample data concerning
distribution. the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution.
The choice generally remains between normal distribution and In other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data.
the t-distribution.
The rules for selecting the correct distribution are similar to

those which we have stated earlier in the context of estimation.
(V) CALCULATION OF THE PROBABILITY (VI) COMPARING THE PROBABILITY
One has then to calculate the probability that the sample Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus
result would diverge as widely as it has from calculated with the specified value for a , the significance level.
expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true. If the calculated probability is equal to or smaller than the a
value in case of one-tailed test (and a /2 in case of two-tailed
test), then reject the null hypothesis (i.e., accept the alternative
hypothesis), but if the calculated probability is greater, then
accept the null hypothesis.

(VI) COMPARING THE PROBABILITY PARAMETRIC TEST AND NON-PARAMETRIC TEST
In case we reject H0, we run a risk of (at most the level of To make the generalization about the population from the
significance) committing an error of Type I, but if we sample, statistical tests are uses.
accept H0, then we run some risk (the size of which These hypothetical testing related to differences are classified as
cannot be specified as long as the H0 happens to be parametric and nonparametric tests.
vague rather than specific) of committing an error of Type

II.
BASIS FOR COMPARISON PARAMETRIC TEST NONPARAMETRIC TEST
PARAMETRIC TEST AND NON-PARAMETRIC TEST

A statistical test, in which specific A statistical test used in the case
assumptions are made about the of non-metric independent
Meaning
population parameter is known as variables, is called non-parametric
On one hand, the parametric test is one which has information about parametric test. test.
population parameter while on the other hand, nonparametric tests,

Basis of test statistic Distribution Arbitrary
is one where the researcher has no idea regarding the population
parameter. Measurement level Interval or ratio Nominal or ordinal
So, take a full read of this article, to know the significant differences Measure of central tendency Mean Median
between parametric and nonparametric test. Information about population Completely known Unavailable
Applicability Variables Variables and Attributes
Correlation test Pearson Spearman
TOPIC
RESEARCH INTERPRETATION OF DATA
METHODOLOGY REPORT
2810006 PRESENTATION

INTERPRETATION INTERPRETATION
After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to It refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts
accomplish the task of drawing inferences followed by report writing. after study.
This has to be done very carefully, otherwise misleading conclusions It is search for broader meaning of research findings.
may be drawn and the whole purpose of doing research may get
Two aspects:-
vitiated.
1)The effort to establish continuity in research by linking the results
It is only through interpretation that the researcher can expose
of study with another results.
relations and processes that underlie his findings.
2) Establishment of some explanatory concept.
INTERPRETATION WHY INTERPRETATION?

Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the collected facts after
It maintains Continuity in research
an analytical and/or experimental study.
In fact, it is a search for broader meaning of research findings. It opens new avenues for further research an stimulates
The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz., quest for new knowledge
(i) the effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given
Shows real significance of research findings
study with those of another, and
(ii) the establishment of some explanatory concepts.
In one sense, interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected

data, partially overlapping analysis.
TECHNIQUE OF INTERPRETATION PRECAUTIONS IN INTERPRETATION
STEP I establishing the relationships among research Satisfy himself about data, its collection, analysis part.
findings. Be aware of the errors ( false generalizations)
STEP II Using extraneous information. It is closely linked with analysis
STEP III seeking experts opinion Broad generalization should be avoided.
STEP IV Consider all relevant factors affecting the Special attention to initial hypothesis, theoretical conceptions,
problem to avoid false interpretation. empirical observations, etc.

DIFFERENT STEPS IN WRITING REPORT 1. LOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SUBJECT MATTER:
The usual steps involved in writing report are: It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a subject.
There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and (b)
(a) logical analysis of the subject-matter; chronologically.
(b) preparation of the final outline; The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and
associations between the one thing and another by means of analysis.
(c) preparation of the rough draft;
Logical treatment often consists in developing the material from the simple possible
(d) rewriting and polishing; to the most complex structures.
(e) preparation of the final bibliography; and Chronological development is based on a connection or sequence in time or
occurrence. The directions for doing or making something usually follow the
(f) writing the final draft. chronological order.
2. PREPARATION OF THE FINAL OUTLINE: 3. PREPARATION OF THE ROUGH DRAFT:
It is the next step in writing the research report Outlines are the This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the
framework upon which long written works are constructed. They preparation of the final outline.
are an aid to the logical organisation of the material and a Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits
reminder of the points to be stressed in the report. to write down what he has done in the context of his research
study.
4. REWRITING AND POLISHING OF 5. PREPARATION OF THE FINAL BIBLIOGRAPHY:

THE ROUGH DRAFT:
This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal writing. Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final bibliography.
The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list

Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough
of books in some way pertinent to the research which has been done.
draft.
It should contain all those works which the researcher has consulted.
The careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and
The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into
a good piece of writing.
two parts; the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and
While rewriting and polishing, one should check the report for the second part may contain the names of magazine and newspaper articles.
weaknesses in logical development or presentation.

5. PREPARATION OF THE FINAL BIBLIOGRAPHY: 6. WRITING THE FINAL DRAFT
For book: This constitutes the last step.
Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, New Delhi, Vikas The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1978 and in simple language, avoiding vague expressions such as it
For magazine or newspaper seems, there may be, and the like ones.
Robert V. Roosa, Coping with Short-term International Money While writing the final draft, the researcher must avoid abstract
Flows, The Banker, London, September, 1971, p. 995 terminology and technical jargon.
PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING

FEATURES OF RESEARCH REPORT
RESEARCH REPORTS
Accuracy While determining the length of the report (since research
Comprehensibility reports vary greatly in length), one should keep in view the fact
Simplicity Reliability that it should be long enough to cover the subject but short
Clarity Economy enough to maintain interest.
Brevity Timelines A research report should not, if this can be avoided, be dull; it
Appearance Logical content. should be such as to sustain readers interest.
PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING PRECAUTIONS FOR WRITING

RESEARCH REPORTS RESEARCH REPORTS
Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be
a research report. appropriate and in accordance with the objective of the research
problem.
Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of
The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be
the main findings and as such the report must provide a ready
prepared strictly in accordance with the techniques of composition of
availability of the findings. report-writing such as the use of quotations, footnotes,
documentation, proper punctuation and use of abbreviations in
footnotes and the like.

The report must present the logical analysis of the subject Towards the end, the report must also state the policy
matter. It must reflect a structure wherein the different pieces of implications relating to the problem under consideration.
analysis relating to the research problem fit well. Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data
A research report should show originality and should necessarily in the report.
be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem.

Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean,
and must necessarily be given. whether typed or printed.
Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various
such must be prepared and appended at the end. constraints experienced in conducting the research study may
also be stated in the report.

INGREDIENTS OF RESEARCH REPORTS
RESEARCH REPORTS 1. Title page
Objective of the study, the nature of the problem, the 2. Table of contents
3. Foreword
methods employed and the analysis techniques adopted
4. Statement of objectives
must all be clearly stated in the beginning of the report in 5. Methodology
the form of introduction. 6. Limitations
7. Findings
8. Conclusion & recommendations
9. Annexure
10.Bibliography & references

TITLE PAGE TABLE OF CONTENTS
In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title There should be a table of contents followed by list of
and date, followed by acknowledgements in the form of tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or
Preface or Foreword. anybody interested in reading the report can easily locate
the required information in the report.
FOREWORD STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES
It provides the outlines about the report along with brief The formal statement of objective should be mentioned as
summary of the given report. to get proper introduction about the reason of developing
such project.
METHODOLOGY LIMITATIONS
The methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully The researcher mentioned the limitations before he
explained. The scientific reader would like to know in detail about started his research.
such thing: How was the study carried out? What was its basic
Few limitations may be overcome, while rests can not.
design? If the study was an experimental one, then what were the
experimental manipulations? If the data were collected by means of Thus, the impact of limitations can be seen on the result
questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions were asked of the research.
(The questionnaire or interview schedule is usually given in an
appendix)?

FINDINGS CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS
Finally, we come to a conclusion of our exercise of familiarizing you
After introduction, the research report must contain a with the art of planning and organizing a research programme by
statement of findings and recommendations in non- describing various stages with clarity of concepts and illustrations. We
technical language so that it can be easily understood by advise readers to resort to IT-enabled techniques for exploring the
all concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at various possibilities and arriving at a final conclusion.
this point they should be put in the summarised form. It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very
brief summary, resting in brief the research problem, the
methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions drawn
from the research results.
ANNEXURE BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES

At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in In the bibliography, the referenced publications are listed
respect of all technical data such as questionnaires, alphabetically by authors name. All the authors
sample information, mathematical derivations and the surnames and initials are listed in full. If there is more
like ones. than one work by the same author, these are listed
chronologically.
TYPES OF REPORT
Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each

individual case, both the length and the form are largely dictated
TYPES OF REPORTS by the problems at hand. For instance, business firms prefer
reports in the letter form, just one or two pages in length.
Banks, insurance organisations and financial institutions are
generally fond of the short balance-sheet type of tabulation for
their annual reports to their customers and shareholders.

(A) TECHNICAL REPORT (A) TECHNICAL REPORT
In the technical report the main emphasis is on A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
(i) the methods employed, 1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in
(ii) assumptions made in the course of the study, two or three pages.
(iii) the detailed presentation of the findings including 2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of
their limitations and supporting data. study, formulation of the problem in operational terms, the
working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required, etc.
(A) TECHNICAL REPORT (A) TECHNICAL REPORT
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their 5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of
limitations. For instance, in sampling studies we should give details of data and presentation of the findings of the study with
sample design viz., sample size, sample selection, etc. supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully
4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics narrated. This, in fact, happens to be the main body of the report
and limitations. If secondary data are used, their suitability to the usually extending over several chapters.
problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of a survey, the manner in
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy
which data were collected should be fully described.
implications drawn from the results be explained.
(A) TECHNICAL REPORT (B) POPULAR REPORT
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
prepared and attached. attractiveness. The simplification should be sought through clear
writing, minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details
8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical
and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with
matters relating to questionnaire, mathematical derivations, large print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now and
elaboration on particular technique of analysis and the like ones. then is another characteristic feature of the popular report. Besides, in
such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the
implications.
report at the end.

(B) POPULAR REPORT (B) POPULAR REPORT
We give below a general outline of a popular report. 3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem
1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is arise is presented along with the specific objectives of the project
given on the findings of most practical interest and on the under study.
implications of these findings. 4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of
2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the methods and techniques used, including a short review of
the basis of the findings of the study is made in this section of the the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of the
report. report.

(B) POPULAR REPORT
RESEARCH REPORTS
5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report While determining the length of the report (since research
wherein the results of the study are presented in clear and non- reports vary greatly in length), one should keep in view the fact
technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations such as that it should be long enough to cover the subject but short
charts, diagrams and the like ones.
enough to maintain interest.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used,
A research report should not, if this can be avoided, be dull; it
forms, etc. is presented in the form of appendices. But the appendices
should be such as to sustain readers interest.
are often not detailed if the report is entirely meant for general public.

Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be avoided in The layout of the report should be well thought out and must be
a research report. appropriate and in accordance with the objective of the research
problem.
Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick knowledge of
The reports should be free from grammatical mistakes and must be
the main findings and as such the report must provide a ready
prepared strictly in accordance with the techniques of composition of
availability of the findings. report-writing such as the use of quotations, footnotes,
documentation, proper punctuation and use of abbreviations in
footnotes and the like.

The report must present the logical analysis of the subject Towards the end, the report must also state the policy
matter. It must reflect a structure wherein the different pieces of implications relating to the problem under consideration.
analysis relating to the research problem fit well. Appendices should be enlisted in respect of all the technical data
A research report should show originality and should necessarily in the report.
be an attempt to solve some intellectual problem.

Bibliography of sources consulted is a must for a good report Report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean,
and must necessarily be given. whether typed or printed.
Index is also considered an essential part of a good report and as Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned and the various
such must be prepared and appended at the end. constraints experienced in conducting the research study may
also be stated in the report.

REPORT PRESENTATION
RESEARCH REPORTS
Objective of the study, the nature of the problem, the A presentation is a commitment by the presenter to help
methods employed and the analysis techniques adopted the audience do something, to solve the problem.
must all be clearly stated in the beginning of the report in
the form of introduction.

ESSENTIAL FEATURE OF A PRESENTATION PROPER SEQUENCING
PROPER SEQUENCING There should be a chronological structure of
RAPPORT presentation.
FACTS & FIGURES It should cover all necessary parts of report.
FILLERS
COLOURS
FEEDBACK
RAPPORT FACTS & FIGURES

An understanding between presenter and audience All the facts and figures should be shown by using
should be match. various charts and graphs along with its evidence.
FILLERS COLOURS
Humour and interaction can make the presentation more
Different colours can be used to make the presentation
effective.
more effective and attractive.

FEEDBACK
Give the necessary feedback of the questions to be asked

by audience. STAGES OF
PRESENTATION
PLANNING PRESENTATION 1. PLANNING PRESENTATION
Identify the topic

DELIVERING
PRESENTATION Prepare the general outline for topic
Integrate the materials and other facts and figure

DEVELOPING &
Mention the purpose for presentation
DISPLAYING VISUAL AIDS
Analysis your audience for presentation
HANDLING QUESTION
FROM THE AUDIENCE
2. DELIVERING THE PRESENTATION 3. DEVELOPING AND DISPLAYING VISUAL AIDS
Rehearsal for presentation is must Use of technology
It is the most important part for presentation Use of LCD projector
Brushing up the style to present the topic Videotapes and audio clips can attract the attention of audience
Audio-visual aids help to understand the topic easily

Growing the self confidence for the presentation of topic
Some facts and figures can be revealed through charts and graphs.
Control of tone and temper while delivering the speech of
presentation Relevant graphics and pictures make value addition for the audience.

4. HANDLING QUESTION FROM AUDIENCE
Keep special time for the question-answer session at the end of the
presentation GRAPHICS DIAGRAMMATIC DATA
PRESENTATION
It is one of the crucial part of the whole presentation
Preparation for this section is very essential for the speaker
Solve the doubts or queries for presentation
Give proper answers for all the questions
Satisfy the audience and conclude the presentation.
TYPES OF GRAPHS
TYPES OF GRAPHS
Time
0t<5 5 t < 10 10 t < 15 15 t < 20 20 t < 25
t minutes
TYPES OF GRAPHS Number of
10 16 30 22 4
students
frequency
30 x FREQUENCY
POLYGON
x
20
10 x
0 5 10 15 20 25
t minutes

OGIVE CURVE BAR CHARTS
Time
0t<5 5 t < 10 10 t < 15 15 t < 20 20 t < 25
t minutes
Number of students 10 16 30 22 4
Cumulative frequency 10 26 56 78 82
PIE CHART PICTOGRAPHS

Number of A pictograph uses
Class students
pictures.
Distinction 12
First class 26
Second class 35
Failed 18
Total 91
WHAT IS A PICTOGRAPH????? EXAMPLE OF A PICTOGRAPH

To the left is an
A pictograph is similar to a bar graph example of what a
The figures or icons that are used each represent the pictograph is. The icon
for each row is equal to
same value the others in different
A pictograph is usually made with icons such as people, rows. One fish equals
birds, cats, money, M&Ms, or even carrots. one dog, and so on. If
one cat equaled 5
pounds, then two fish
would equal 10 pounds!

HOW MANY FLOWERS DOES KIM
HAVE?
Key
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
= 2 flowers
2810006
TOPIC DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS It is largely analysis the study of distributions of one variable.

This study provides us with profiles of companies,
i. UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS
workgroups, persons & other subject on any of a multiple of
ii. BIVARIATE ANALYSIS
characteristics such as size, composition, efficiency,
iii. MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS preferences etc. it is in other word called one-dimensional
analysis. This analysis shows the benchmark data and
measures the state at any particular time.
DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS
Descriptive analysis of data limits generalization to a The descriptive analysis of data provides the following:
particular group of individuals observed. No conclusions The first estimates and summaries, arranged in tables and
extend beyond this group and any similarity to those outside graphs, to meet the objectives.
the group cannot be assumed. The data describe one group
Information about the variability or uncertainty in the data
and that group only. Much simple action research involves
Indications of unexpected patterns and observations that
descriptive analysis and provides valuable information about
need to be considered when doing formal analysis
the nature of the particular group of individuals

TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS
UNIVARIATE
It is concerned with the description of individual variables in a
ANALYSIS
given data set.

BIVARIATE Univariate analysis is the simplest form of analyzing data. Uni
means one, so in other words your data has only one variable.
MULTIVARIATE It doesnt deal with causes or relationships (unlike regression)

and its major purpose is to describe; it takes data, summarizes
that data and finds patterns in the data.
UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS
Some ways you can describe patterns found in univariate You have several options for describing data with univariate data.
data include central tendency (mean, mode and median)

and dispersion: range, variance, maximum, minimum, Frequency Distribution Tables.
quartiles (including the interquartile range), and standard Bar Charts.
deviation. Histograms.
Frequency Polygons.
Pie Charts.
UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS
Univariate analysis explores each variable in a data set, UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS EXAMPLE
separately. It looks at the range of values, as well as the central

tendency of the values. It describes the pattern of response to the Pie charts of sales via territory, bar chart of support call
variable. It describes each variable on its own. volume by products, line charts of profit over several quarters
Descriptive statistics describe and summarize data. Univariate - all of these descriptions involve one variable at a time. They
descriptive statistics describe individual variables. are all considered part of an univariate analysis.

BIVARIATE ANALYSIS BIVARIATE ANALYSIS
Bivariate studies are different from univariate studies because it Data in statistics is sometimes classified according to
allows the researcher to analyze the relationship between two variables how many variables are in a particular study. For
(often denoted as X, Y) ins order to test simple hypotheses of
example, height might be one variable and weight
association and causality. For example, if you wanted to know whether
might be another variable. Depending on the number of
there is a relationship between the number of students in an
engineering classroom (independent variable) and their grades in that variables being looked at, the data might be univariate, or
subject (dependent variable), you would use bivariate analysis since it it might be bivariate.
measures two elements based on the observation of data.
BIVARIATE ANALYSIS BIVARIATE ANALYSIS EXAMPLE
The results from bivariate analysis can be stored in a Ice cream sales compared to the temperature that day.
two-column data table. For example, you might want to
Traffic accidents along with the weather on a particular day
find out the relationship between caloric intake and
A presentation of two variables at a time as in a scatter plot. Any
weight (of course, there is a pretty strong relationship
analysis that is performed on the scatter plot. Attempt to
between the two). Caloric intake would be your
independent variable, X and weight would be your understand the relationship between sales volume and ad
dependent variable, Y. spending. These are all examples of bivariate analysis.
BIVARIATE ANALYSIS EXAMPLE TYPES OF BIVARIATE ANALYSIS

Height (X) and weight (Y ) are measured for each individual in a sample. 1. Scatter plots,
Stock market valuation (X) and quarterly corporate earnings (Y ) are These give you a visual idea of the pattern that your
recorded for each company in a sample. variables follow.
A cell culture is treated with varying concentrations of a drug, and the
growth rate (X) and drug concentration (Y ) are recorded for each trial.
Temperature (X) and precipitation (Y ) are measured on a given day at a

set of weather stations.

TYPES OF BIVARIATE ANALYSIS TYPES OF BIVARIATE ANALYSIS
2. Regression Analysis 3. Correlation Coefficients
Regression analysis is a catch all term for a wide variety of tools Calculating values for correlation coefficients are using performed on a
computer, although you can find the steps to find the correlation
that you can use to determine how your data points might be
coefficient by hand here. This coefficient tells you if the variables are
related. In the image above, the points look like they could follow
related. Basically, a zero means they arent correlated (i.e. related in
an exponential curve (as opposed to a straight line). Regression some way), while a 1 (either positive or negative) means that the
analysis can give you the equation for that curve or line. It can variables are perfectly correlated (i.e. they are perfectly in sync with
also give you the correlation coefficient. each other).
MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
These are appropriate for analyzing data when there are 2 Multivariate analysis is used to study more complex sets
or more measurement of each observation and the of data than what univariate analysis methods can
variables are to be analysed simultaneously. handle. This type of analysis is almost always performed
with software (i.e. SPSS or SAS), as working with even the
smallest of data sets can be overwhelming by hand.
Multivariate analysis can reduce the likelihood of Type I Multivariate analytical techniques represent a variety of mathematical
models used to measure and quantify outcomes, taking into account
errors. Sometimes, univariate analysis is preferred as
important factors that can influence this relationship. There are several
multivariate techniques can result in difficulty interpreting
multivariate analytical techniques that one can use to examine the
the results of the test. For example, group differences on a
relationship among variables. The most popular is multiple regression
linear combination of dependent variables in MANOVA can be analysis which helps one understand how the typical value of the dependent
unclear. In addition, multivariate analysis is usually variable changes when any one of the independent variables is varied, while
unsuitable for small sets of data. the other independent variables are held fixed. Other techniques include
factor analysis, path analysis and multiple analyses of variance (MANOVA).

Multivariate: Multivariate analysis methods typically used for:
Consumer and market research
When there are more than one target (or response) Quality control and quality assurance across a range of industries
variables, any analysis involving studying the effect of such as food and beverage, paint, pharmaceuticals, chemicals,
energy, telecommunications, etc.
predictors on the responses and their interactions is
termed multivariate analysis. Process optimization and process control
Research and development
TOPICS
RESEARCH POWER OF STATISTICAL TEST
METHODOLOGY 6 Ws OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
2810006 HYPOTHESIS AND PROPOSITION
POWER OF STATISTICAL TEST
Definition. The power of a hypothesis test is the
POWER OF TEST probability of making the correct decision if the

alternative hypothesis is true. That is,
the power of a hypothesis test is the probability
of rejecting the null hypothesis H0 when the
alternative hypothesis HA is the hypothesis that is

WHAT IS THE POWER OF A TEST? WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?
The power of a statistical test gives the likelihood of rejecting the Although you can conduct a hypothesis test without it,
null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is false. Just as the calculating the power of a test beforehand will help you
significance level (alpha) of a test gives the probability that the ensure that the sample size is large enough for the
null hypothesis will be rejected when it is actually true (a wrong purpose of the test. Otherwise, the test may be
decision), power quantifies the chance that the null hypothesis inconclusive, leading to wasted resources.
will be rejected when it is actually false (a correct decision). Thus,
power is the ability of a test to correctly reject the null hypothesis.
WHAT FACTORS AFFECT THE

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT?
POWER OF A TEST?
On rare occasions the power may be calculated after the To increase the power of your test, you may do any of the
test is performed, but this is not recommended except to following:
determine an adequate sample size for a follow-up study 1. Increase the effect size (the difference between the null and
(if a test failed to detect an effect, it was obviously alternative values) to be detected
underpowered nothing new can be learned by 2. Increase the sample size(s)
calculating the power at this stage). 3. Decrease the variability in the sample(s)
4. Increase the significance level (alpha) of the test
6 Ws OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
6 Ws OF DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH

6 Ws OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 6 Ws OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
The Six Ws, are questions whose answers are considered Everything in search begins with keyword research,
basic in information-gathering. They are often mentioned outcomes of this piece of research will help make
in journalism, research, and police investigations. They informed decisions and act as a starting point for the
constitute a formula for getting the complete story on a other pillars. Before you send through that list of
subject. According to the principle of the Six Ws, a report keywords for your clients to approve, make sure you have
can only be considered complete if it answers these done your homework and show the reasons you have
questions starting with an interrogative word. selected those keywords to target.
6 Ws OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Who is the target audience? Are the keywords suited to the target audience?
What tools did you use to pull keyword data? What level of improvements can we HYPOTHESIS
expect by targeting these keywords?
When are these keywords highly searched for?

AND
Why did you choose these keywords? Is it because of popularity? Conversions? PROPOSITION
Where are these keywords going to be mapped on the sales funnel? Does every
keyword have a mapped page and are there content gaps?
How is this piece of deliverable going to help with the overall strategy?
HYPOTHESIS AND PROPOSITION HYPOTHESIS
The terms "proposition" and "hypothesis" both refer to the Forming a hypothesis is the initial step in developing a theory
formulation of a possible answer to a specific scientific question. under the scientific method. It is an educated guess based on
In particular, a proposition deals with the connection between research and working knowledge. For a hypothesis to be
two existing concepts. The main difference between the two is considered valid, it must make a prediction that scientists can
that a hypothesis must be testable and measurable, while a test using a repeatable experiment. If a hypothesis cannot be
proposition deals with pure concepts for which no laboratory test falsified through experimentation, it cannot be considered part of
is currently available. a valid scientific theory.

PROPOSITION USES FOR PROPOSITIONS
A proposition is similar to a hypothesis, but its main purpose is to Propositions can serve an important role in the scientific
suggest a link between two concepts in a situation where the link process. By suggesting a link between two concepts, a
cannot be verified by experiment. As a result, it relies heavily on scientific proposition can suggest promising areas of
prior research, reasonable assumptions and existing correlative inquiry for researchers.
evidence. A scientist can use a proposition to spur further
research on a question or pose one in hopes that further evidence
or experimental methods will be discovered that will make it a
testable hypothesis.
USES FOR PROPOSITIONS USES FOR PROPOSITIONS
In areas of study where valid hypotheses can rarely be This can occur in extremely complex systems, such as
made, a proposition may serve as a common assumption those dealt with by sociology and economics, where an
that can support further speculation. experimental test would be prohibitively expensive or
difficult.
USES FOR PROPOSITIONS DRAWBACKS OF PROPOSITIONS
Propositions are also valuable in areas of study in which Because a proposition does not rely on testable data, it is
little hard evidence remains, such as archeological and more difficult to disprove in a scientific context. It only
paleontological studies in which only fragments of needs to be convincing and internally consistent to
evidence have been discovered. appear valid.

DRAWBACKS OF PROPOSITIONS DRAWBACKS OF PROPOSITIONS
Propositions that satisfy both of these conditions have Belief in propositions that have been commonly accepted
nevertheless been found to be wrong or inaccurate when for long periods of time may be extremely difficult to
new testable data becomes available. overcome, even if other researchers put more likely
propositions forward.
TOPICS
RESEARCH TERMS
METHODOLOGY
2810006
1. SAMPLE FRAME AND

POPULATION
In statistics, a sampling frame is the source material or
device from which a sample is drawn. It is a list of all
TERMS those within a population who can be sampled, and may
include individuals, households or institutions.

2. RESTRICTED AND 3. SAMPLE ACCURACY AND
UNRESTRICTED SAMPLING SAMPLE PRECISION
When each sample element is drawn individually from the
population at large, then the sample so drawn is known
as unrestricted sample, whereas all other forms of
sampling are covered under the term restricted
sampling.
3. SAMPLE ACCURACY AND 3. SAMPLE ACCURACY AND

SAMPLE PRECISION SAMPLE PRECISION
Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or known value. Accuracy refers to how close your observed sample statistic comes to the true
For example, if in lab you obtain a weight measurement of 3.2 kg for a given population parameter, or more formally, how close the mean of the sampling
substance, but the actual or known weight is 10 kg, then your measurement is not distribution is to the mean of the population distribution. For example, how close is
accurate. In this case, your measurement is not close to the known value. the mean of all your percentage values to the true percentage of children who like
Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each other. Using chocolate?
the example above, if you weigh a given substance five times, and get 3.2 kg each Precision refers to how close your replicate values of the sample statistic are to each
time, then your measurement is very precise. Precision is independent of accuracy. other, or more formally, how wide the sampling distribution is, which can be
You can be very precise but inaccurate, as described above. You can also be expressed as the standard deviation of the sampling distribution. For example,
accurate but imprecise. what is the standard deviation of your big collection of percentage values?
4. PROPORTIONATE AND 5. SYSTEMATIC ERROR AND ERROR

DISPROPORTIONATE SAMPLING VARIANCE
The only difference between proportionate and Sample surveys do imply the study of a small portion of the population
disproportionate stratified random sampling is and as such there would naturally be a certain amount of inaccuracy
their sampling fractions. With disproportionate sampling, in the information collected. This inaccuracy may be termed as
the different strata have different sampling fractions. The precision sampling error or error variance.
of this design is highly dependent on the sampling fraction allocation Systematic errors in experimental observations usually come from the
of the researcher. measuring instruments. They may occur because: There is something
wrong with the instrument or its data handling system, or because the
instrument is wrongly used by the experimenter.

6. DESCRIPTIVE HYPOTHESIS 7. RELATIONAL HYPOTHESIS
Sometimes a researcher comes across a complex phenomenon. He/ Relational hypotheses aim to determine if relationships
she does not understand the relations among the observed facts. But exist between a set of variables
how to account for these facts? The answer is a descriptive hypothesis.
A hypothesis is descriptive when it is based upon the points of
resemblance of some thing. It describes the cause and effect
relationship of a phenomenon e.g., the current unemployment rate of a
state exceeds 25% of the work force. Similarly, the consumers of local
made products constitute a significant market segment.
8. CORRELATIONAL HYPOTHESIS 9. ANALOGICAL HYPOTHESIS
Correlational Hypothesis can be used to make predictions When we formulate a hypothesis on the basis of
about the value of one variable from the known value of similarities (analogy), it is called an analogical hypothesis
another variable e.g., families with higher earnings invest more surplus
income on long term investments.
10. WORKING/ EXPLAINATORY

HYPOTHESIS
Sometimes certain facts cannot be explained adequately by existing RESEARCH
hypotheses, and no new hypothesis comes up. Thus, the investigation
is held up. In this situation, a researcher formulates a hypothesis
METHODOLOGY
2810006
which enables to continue investigation. Such a hypothesis, though
inadequate and formulated for the purpose of further investigation
only, is called a working hypothesis. It is simply accepted as a starting
point in the process of investigation.

TOPIC
TYPES EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN If you have decided that an experiment is the best approach
to testing your hypothesis, then you need to design the
experiment.
Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated

to the different conditions (or IV groups) in an experiment.
COMMONLY USED
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Probably the commonest way to design an experiment in
psychology is to divide the participants into two groups, 1. INDEPENDENT MEASURE
the experimental group and the control group, and then
introduce a change to the experimental group and not the 2. REPEATED MEASURE
control group.
3. MATCHED PAIR
1. INDEPENDENT MEASURES 1. INDEPENDENT MEASURES
Different participants are used in each condition of the Independent measures involves using two separate
independent variable. groups of participants; one in each condition. For
This means that each condition of the experiment includes a example:
different group of participants.
This should be done by random allocation, which ensures that

each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to one
group or the other.

1. INDEPENDENT MEASURES 1. INDEPENDENT MEASURES
Pro: Avoids order effects (such as practice or fatigue) as Con: More people are needed than with the repeated measures
people participate in one condition only. design (i.e. more time consuming).
If a person is involved in several conditions they may Differences between participants in the groups may affect
become bored, tired and fed up by the time they come to results, for example; variations in age, sex or social background.
the second condition, or becoming wise to the These differences are known as participant variables
requirements of the experiment!
1. INDEPENDENT MEASURES 2. REPEATED MEASURES
Control: After the participants have been recruited, they The same participants take part in each condition of the
should be randomly assigned to their groups. This should independent variable. This means that each condition of
ensure the groups are similar, on average (reducing the experiment includes the same group of participants.
participant variables).
2. REPEATED MEASURES 2. REPEATED MEASURES
Pros: Fewer people are needed as they take part in all Cons: There may be order effects. Order effects refer to the order
conditions (i.e. saves time). of the conditions having an effect on the participants behavior.
As the same participants are used in each condition, Performance in the second condition may be better because the
participant variables (i.e., individual differences) are participants know what to do (i.e. practice effect).
reduced. Or their performance might be worse in the second condition
because they are tired (i.e. fatigue effect). This limitation can be
controlled using counterbalancing.

2. REPEATED MEASURES 3. MATCHED PAIRS
Control: To combat order effects the researcher counter Each condition uses different but similar participants. An effort
balances the order of the conditions for the is made to match the participants in each condition in terms of
participants. Alternating the order in which participants any important characteristic which might affect performance, e.g.
perform in different conditions of an experiment. sex, age, intelligence etc.
One member of each matched pair must be randomly assigned to

the experimental group and the other to the control group.
3. MATCHED PAIRS 3. MATCHED PAIRS
Pros: Reduces participant variables because the researcher

has tried to pair up the participants so that each condition
has people with similar abilities and characteristics.
Avoids order effects, and so counterbalancing is not

necessary.
3. MATCHED PAIRS 3. MATCHED PAIRS
Cons: Very time-consuming trying to find closely Control: Members of each pair should be randomly
matched pairs. assigned to conditions. However, this does not solve all
Impossible to match people exactly, unless identical twins these problems.

SUMMARY
1. Independent measures / groups: Different participants are RESEARCH

used in each condition of the independent
2. Repeated measures: The same participants take part in each
variable.
METHODOLOGY
2810006
condition of the independent variable.
3. Matched pairs: Each condition uses different participants,
but they are matched in terms of important characteristics, e.g.
sex, age, intelligence etc.
TOPIC
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUE IN DATA COLLECTION Projective techniques (or what are sometimes called as
METHOD
indirect interviewing techniques) for the collection of data
have been developed by psychologists to use projections
of respondents for inferring about underlying motives,
urges, or intentions which are such that the respondent
either resists to reveal them or is unable to figure out
himself.
In projective techniques the respondent in supplying The use of these techniques requires intensive specialized
information tends unconsciously to project his own training. In such techniques, the individuals responses to the
attitudes or feelings on the subject under study. stimulus-situation are not taken at their face value. The
stimuli may arouse many different kinds of reactions. The
Projective techniques play an important role in
nature of the stimuli and the way in which they are presented
motivational researches or in attitude surveys.
under these techniques do not clearly indicate the way in
which the response is to be interpreted.

1. WORD ASSOCIATION TESTS
TYPES
OF
PROJECTIVE
TECHNIQUES
1. WORD ASSOCIATION TESTS 2. SENTENCE COMPLETION TESTS
These tests are used to extract information regarding such words which These tests happen to be an extension of the technique of word
have maximum association. In this sort of test the respondent is asked to association tests. Under this, informant may be asked to complete a
mention the first word that comes to mind, ostensibly without thinking, as sentence (such as: persons who wear Khadi are...) to find association
the interviewer reads out each word from a list. If the interviewer says cold, of Khadi clothes with certain personality characteristics. Several
the respondent may say hot and the like ones. The general technique is to sentences of this type might be put to the informant on the same
use a list of as many as 50 to 100 words. Analysis of the matching words subject. Analysis of replies from the same informant reveals his
supplied by the respondents indicates whether the given word should be attitude toward that subject, and the combination of these attitudes of
used for the contemplated purpose. all the sample members is then taken to reflect the views of the
This technique is frequently used in advertising research. population.
3. STORY COMPLETION TESTS: 4. VERBAL PROJECTION TESTS:
Such tests are a step further wherein the researcher may These are the tests wherein the respondent is asked to
contrive stories instead of sentences and ask the comment on or to explain what other people do.
informants to complete them. The respondent is given For example, why do people smoke? Answers may reveal
just enough of story to focus his attention on a given the respondents own motivations.
subject and he is asked to supply a conclusion to the
story.

5. PICTORIAL TECHNIQUES: 5. PICTORIAL TECHNIQUES:
There are several pictorial techniques. The important (a) Thematic apperception test (T.A.T.): The TAT consists of
ones are as follows: a set of pictures (some of the pictures deal with the
ordinary day-to-day events while others may be
ambiguous pictures of unusual situations) that are
shown to respondents who are asked to describe what
they think the pictures represent.
(b) Rosenzweig test: This test uses a cartoon format (c) Rorschach test: This test consists of ten cards having prints
wherein we have a series of cartoons with words inserted of inkblots. The design happens to be symmetrical but
in balloons above. The respondent is asked to put his meaningless. The respondents are asked to describe what
they perceive in such symmetrical inkblots and the responses
own words in an empty balloon space provided for the
are interpreted on the basis of some pre-determined
purpose in the picture. From what the respondents write
psychological framework. This test is frequently used but the
in this fashion, the study of their attitudes can be made.
problem of validity still remains a major problem of this test.

(d) Holtzman Inkblot Test (HIT): This test from W.H. Holtzman is a (e) Tomkins-Horn picture arrangement test: This test is
modification of the Rorschach Test explained above. This test consists designed for group administration. It consists of twenty-
of 45 inkblot cards (and not 10 inkblots as we find in case of
five plates, each containing three sketches that may be
Rorschach Test) which are based on colour, movement, shading and
arranged in different ways to portray sequence of events.
other factors involved in inkblot perception. Only one response per
card is obtained from the subject (or the respondent) and the The respondent is asked to arrange them in a sequence
responses of a subject are interpreted at three levels of form which he considers as reasonable.
appropriateness.

6. PLAY TECHNIQUES: 6. PLAY TECHNIQUES:
Under play techniques subjects are asked to improvise or act out These techniques have been used for knowing the attitudes of younger
ones through manipulation of dolls. Dolls representing different racial
a situation in which they have been assigned various roles. The
groups are usually given to children who are allowed to play with them
researcher may observe such traits as hostility, dominance,
freely. The manner in which children organise dolls would indicate
sympathy, prejudice or the absence of such traits. their attitude towards the class of persons represented by dolls. This
is also known as doll-play test, and is used frequently in studies
pertaining to sociology. The choice of colour, form, words, the sense of
orderliness and other reactions may provide opportunities to infer
deep-seated feelings.
7. QUIZZES, TESTS AND

8. SOCIOMETRY:
EXAMINATIONS:
This is also a technique of extracting information Sociometry is a technique for describing the social
regarding specific ability of candidates indirectly. In this relationships among individuals in a group. In an indirect
procedure both long and short questions are framed to way, sociometry attempts to describe attractions or
test through them the memorizing and analytical ability repulsions between individuals by asking them to
indicate whom they would choose or reject in various
of candidates.
situations. Thus, sociometry is a new technique of
studying the underlying motives of respondents.
TOPIC
RESEARCH DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS
METHODOLOGY DATA EDITING

2810006
DATA CODING
DATA CLASSIFICATION
DATA TABULATION

Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data Field editing consists in the review of the reporting forms
(specially in surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to correct by the investigator for completing (translating or
these when possible. As a matter of fact, editing involves a careful rewriting) what the latter has written in abbreviated
scrutiny of the completed questionnaires and/or schedules. Editing is and/or in illegible form at the time of recording the
done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts respondents responses. This type of editing is necessary
gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have been in view of the fact that individual writing styles often can
well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation. be difficult for others to decipher.
1. EDITING 2. CODING
Central editing should take place when all forms or schedules Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or
have been completed and returned to the office. This type of
other symbols to answers so that responses can be put
editing implies that all forms should get a thorough editing by
into a limited number of categories or classes. Such
a single editor in a small study and by a team of editors in
case of a large inquiry. Editor(s) may correct the obvious classes should be appropriate to the research problem
errors such as an entry in the wrong place, entry recorded in under consideration.
months when it should have been recorded in weeks, and the
like.
2. CODING 3. CLASSIFICATION
Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the Most research studies result in a large volume of raw
several replies may be reduced to a small number of classes
data which must be reduced into homogeneous groups if
which contain the critical information required for analysis.
we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact
Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing
stage of the questionnaire. This makes it possible to precode necessitates classification of data which happens to be
the questionnaire choices and which in turn is helpful for the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the
computer tabulation as one can straight forward key punch
basis of common characteristics.
from the original questionnaires.

4. TABULATION 4. TABULATION
When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for Tabulation is essential because of the following reasons.
the researcher to arrange the same in some kind of concise and 1. It conserves space and reduces explanatory and descriptive
logical order. This procedure is referred to as tabulation. Thus, statement to a minimum.
tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the
2. It facilitates the process of comparison.
same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for
3. It facilitates the summation of items and the detection of errors and
further analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly
omissions.
arrangement of data in columns and rows.
4. It provides a basis for various statistical computations.
TOPIC
RESEARCH DIFFERENCE BETWEEN Z - TEST AND T - TEST
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2810006
1. Z-test is a statistical hypothesis test that follows a normal 3. T-test is more adaptable than Z-test since Z-test will often
distribution while T-test follows a Students T-distribution. require certain conditions to be reliable. Additionally, T-test has
2. A T-test is appropriate when you are handling small samples (n many methods that will suit any need.
< 30) while a Z-test is appropriate when you are handling 4. T-tests are more commonly used than Z-tests.
moderate to large samples (n > 30). 5. Z-tests are preferred than T-tests when standard deviations are
known.

TOPIC
RESEARCH FOCUS GROUP INTERVIEW TECHNIQUE
METHODOLOGY
2810006
In focus group discussion investigators interview people It is a helpful technique which enables you to study the
with common qualities or experience for eliciting ideas, reaction of consumers to a companys new product or to
thoughts and perceptions about particular subject areas the companys strategies.
or certain issues associated with an area of interest.
INTRODUCTION ADVANTAGES
A focus group is a group interview of approximately six to twelve It is an inexpensive and fast method of acquiring valuable data.
people who share similar characteristics or common interests. A
Co-workers and friends are more comfortable in voicing views in
facilitator guides the group based on a predetermined set of topics.
each others company than on their own with the researcher.
The facilitator creates an environment that encourages participants
Participants are given a chance to reflect or react to the viewpoint
to share their perceptions and points of view. Focus groups are a
qualitative data collection method, meaning that the data is of others with which they may disagree or of which theyre
descriptive and cannot be measured numerically. unaware.

ADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES
The dynamic discussion between participants stimulates All individuals along with the researcher have a chance to
their thoughts and reminds them of their own thoughts ask questions, and these will produce more information
regarding the research subject. when compared with individual interviews. Informants
The researcher can clarify clashes among participants can build on the answers of others.
and ask about these diverse opinions.
LIMITATIONS LIMITATIONS
The researcher has trouble controlling discussion and Recording data can present difficulties; it is actually not
managing the process in comparison to individual interview. possible to record when so many participants are
A few individuals could possibly be introverts while others speaking at the same time.
take control of the debate and impact the end result, or
Also tape recorders may record just those who are closer.
possibly even introduce bias.
Data analysis could be time consuming and challenging
The group climate can hinder or fail to energize the individual,
task.
or it can be livelier and produce more data.
WHEN SHOULD YOU USE FOCUS

LIMITATIONS
GROUPS FOR EVALUATION?
Focus group discussions usually are not replicable. To get more in-depth information on perceptions,
The validity and dependability of the findings are tough to insights, attitudes, experiences, or beliefs.
ascertain on their own. To gather additional information as an adjunct to

quantitative data collection methods.
As part of a mixed method evaluation approach.

THE NATURE OF DATA OBTAINED THE NATURE OF DATA OBTAINED
THROUGH FOCUS GROUPS THROUGH FOCUS GROUPS
It should be noted that though data obtained through Also, since the members are not selected scientifically to
these homogeneous group members are the least reflect the opinions of the population at large (see the
expensive of the various data collection methods, and next chapter on sampling for more details on this), their
also lend themselves for quick analysis, the content opinions cannot be considered to be truly representative.
analysis of the data so obtained provides only qualitative
and not quantitative information.
THE NATURE OF DATA OBTAINED THE NATURE OF DATA OBTAINED

THROUGH FOCUS GROUPS THROUGH FOCUS GROUPS
However, when exploratory information is collected as a Consider for example, the value of focus groups in
basis for further scientific research, focus groups serve exploring the concept of intellectual Property. When
an important function. animated discussions take place, there is a serendipitous

flow of new ideas among the group members who discuss
the nuances of each thought process. Researchers are
thereby helped to obtain valuable insights from the
snowballing effects of the discussions.
TOPIC
RESEARCH SAMPLING METHODS
METHODOLOGY

Meaning of Sampling For e.g., When Hussain comes at your
Sampling is the selection of some of the doorstep to sell Harpic bathroom cleaner,
elements in population, from which we he will give a demonstration using the
may draw conclusions about the entire sachet of the cleaner and not the original
population. bottle.
Why sampling is necessary ?
When the population size is too large.

When the resources like money, human
resource, etc. are limited. Classification of
When population units possess similar
characteristics. Sampling
Methods
Meaning Of Probability
Sampling
Probability sampling is
a sampling technique wherein
the samples are gathered in a
process that gives all the
individuals in the population
equal chances of being
selected.

Probability Sampling
1.Probability Sampling
Probability sampling includes following
methods :
1) Simple random sampling
2) Systematic sampling
3) Stratified sampling
4) Cluster sampling
5) Double Sampling
6) Area sampling
Lottery system
Simple random sampling

There are some ways of selecting a
A simple random sample is one in which sample by simple random sampling
each element of the population has an method. Which are :
equal and independent chance of being 1) Lottery Method
included in the sample. 2) L.H.C.Tippets random method

By using random table of L.H.C.
Tippet
Disadvantages of Simple Random Advantages of Simple Random

Sampling Sampling
Representativeness is not ensured. Minimum knowledge of population.
Does not use knowledge of Error free.
population. Provides appropriate data.
Less accuracy
Systematic Sampling
In this approach, every kth element in the
population is sampled, beginning with a random
start of an element in the range of 1 to k. For
these there should be a list of information of all
the individuals of the population in any
systematic way.
k = skip interval = population size

sample size

Disadvantages Of Systematic
Sampling
Subjective
Sampling frame is necessary
Representativeness is not ensured
Less accurate
Advantages Of Systematic
Sampling
Simplicity
Cost-beneficial
Representation of population
Useful for deriving conclusion
Stratified sampling
When employing this technique, the
researcher divides his population in strata
on the basis of some characteristics and
from each of these smaller homogeneous
groups (strata) draws at random a
predetermined number of units.

Advantages Of Stratified Disadvantages Of Stratified
Sampling Sampling
Good representative Difficult for stratification
Better then simple random Risk in generalizes
sampling. Costly, Time consuming
Stratified sampling is Proportionate sampling

further divided into two Proportionate sampling refers to the selection from
types: each sampling unit of a sample that is
1. Proportionate stratified sampling. proportionate to the size of the unit.
2. Disproportionate stratified sampling.
Disproportionate
sampling
Disproportionate sampling means that the size of
the sample in each unit is not proportionate to
the size of the unit but depends upon
considerations involving personal judgment and
convenience.

Cluster sampling
In a simple random sample, each
population element is selected
individually. The population can also
be divided into groups of elements
with some groups randomly selected
for study. These is cluster sampling.
Disadvantages Of Cluster
Advantages Of Cluster Sampling
Sampling
Easy Possibility of error
Good representative of population Not comprehensive
Economical
Highly applicable in education.
Double Sampling Double Sampling

Double sampling may be more
convenient to collect some information
by sample and then use this
information as the basis for selecting a
sub sample for further study. This
procedure is called double sampling.
This technique enables one to check on
the reliability of the information
obtained from the first sample.

Advantages Of Double Sampling
Reduces error
Reliable
Disadvantages Of Double
Sampling
Time consuming, Costly
Complicated
Cannot be used for large number of
samples.
Area sampling
Many research involves population that
can be identified with some geographic
area. When this occurs, it is possible to
use area sampling, the most important
form of cluster sampling.

Advantages of area sampling : Disadvantages of area sampling :
Simple Subjectivity
Useful in census Time consuming
Economical
Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling is a sampling
technique where the samples are gathered
in a process that does not give all the
individuals in the population equal
chances of being selected.
Non-Probability sampling
includes following
methods :
1) Convenience sampling
2) Judgment sampling
3) Quota sampling
4) Snowball sampling

Convenience sampling
Non-probability sampling that are
unrestricted are called convenience sample.
This sampling method is cheapest and
easiest to conduct. Researchers or field
workers have the freedom to choose
whomever they find, thus the name
convenience.
Advantages Of Convenience Disadvantages Of Convenience

sampling sampling
Easy Not a good representative of
Used in behavioral science population
Flexible in time Possibility of error
Economical
Purposive sampling
A non probability sample that
conforms to certain criterion is
called purposive sampling.

Advantages Of Purposive Disadvantages Of Purposive
Sampling Sampling
Control over variation Less Reliable
Homogeneity is used Error in classification of subject
Use of best available knowledge Knowledge of population is required
Difficulty in generalization
Purposive sampling has two major

types : Judgement Sampling
1) Judgement sampling
2) Quota sampling
Judgement sampling
Judgment sample is a type of
nonrandom sample that is selected
based on the opinion of an expert.
Results obtained from a judgment
sample are subject to some degree of
bias, due to the frame and population
not being identical.

Advantages Of Judgment Disadvantages Of Judgment
Sampling Sampling
Knowledge of investigator is used
Risky
Economical
Possibility of error
Uncontrolled variations
Quota sampling
This method is used to improve representativeness.
The population is classified into several categories:
on the basis of judgment or assumption or
previous knowledge, the proportion of population
falling into each category is decided. Then a quota
of cases is fixed and the observer is allowed to
sample as he likes.
Advantages Of Quota Sampling

Easy
Useful in social surveys

Disadvantages Of Quota
Sampling
Not a representative of population
Possibility of error
Influence of regional and social factors
Snowball sampling
This method is used when a population is
hidden or difficult to gain access to.
In the initial stage individuals are discovered
and may or may not be selected. This group is
used to refer the researcher to others who
posses similar characteristics and in turn,
identify others.
Advantages of snowball Disadvantages of snowball

sampling: sampling:
Simple and economical Less accurate
Requires minimum workforce Difficult to find errors
Less reliable

Bibliography
The reference is taken from :
Cooper . R . D and Schindler . P . S BUSINESS
GUIDED BY
RESEARCH METHODS , TATA McGraw HILL 9th
EDITION.
Kothari C. R. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
METHODS & TECHNIQUES Vishwa Prakashan
New Delhi 1990. 2nd edition.
Prof. NISHANT FOFARIA
Singh Yogesh Kumar Fundamentals of research
methodology and statistics New age International
Publishers.
QUESTIONNAIRE
MEANING DEFINITION
A questionnaire is a technique of gathering primary data. But it is A questionnaire is a list of questions to be asked to
not always possible to know by observation or other methods of
respondents to seek important knowledge about certain
collecting data, why a buyer makes particular purchases or what
his opinion about a product is. Compared with either direct
specified matter from them.
observations or experimentations (methods of primary data
collection), a questionnaire yields a broader range of information
and are effective for producing information on social economic
characteristics, attitudes, opinions, motives, etc.

DEFINITION
The word questionnaire refers to a device for securing

answers to questions by using a form which the
PROCESS TO
respondent fills in him. DEVELOP A
QUESTIONNAIRE
Have a re-look at the research objectives. Study them properly.

Study the population characteristics of the research study. TYPES OF QUESTIONS

Decide on the information that one seeks through the study. DICHOTOMOUS QUESTIONS

THE MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
The sequence in which it is to be obtained.
RANK ORDER SCALING
Formulate the questions to be asked. Decide on the exact wordings. THE RATING SCALE

THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
Prepare a layout and draft, arranging the questions in a proper sequence.
LIKERT SCALE
Pre-test the questionnaire THE OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

THE DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONS
Prepare the final questionnaire.
DICHOTOMOUS QUESTIONS THE MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

The dichotomous question is generally a yes/no
The multiple-choice question consists of three or more
question. An example of the dichotomous questions is
mutually exclusive categories. Multiple choice questions may
Have you ever purchase a product or service from our be asked for a single or multiple answers.
website?
The IT capital of India is
Yes- No-
Bangalore
Mumbai
Mexico
Hyderabad

RANK ORDER SCALING
Rank order scaling questions allow a certain set of brands

or products be ranked based upon a specific attribute or
characteristic. Perhaps we know that Toyota, Honda,
Mazda and Ford are most likely to be purchased. You
may request that the options be ranked based upon a
particular attribute.
For example, here are five rating questions with a five point scale.
THE RATING SCALE

A rating scale question requires a person to rate a
product or brand along a well-defined, evenly spaced
continuum. Rating scales are often use to measure the
direction and intensity of attitudes.
RATE THE CURRENT PRIME MINISTER OF OUR COUNTRY ON EACH OF THE FOLLOWING
DIMENSIONS:
THE SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL
SCALE Strong ____:____:____:____:____:____:____ Weak
The semantic differential scale asks a person to rate a

Decisive ____:____:____:____:____:____:____ Indecisive
product, brand or company based upon a seven-point
rating scale that has two bi-polar adjectives at each end, Good ____:____:____:____:____:____:____ Bad
the respondent selects the point that represents his or

Cheap ____:____:____:____:____:____:____ Expensive
her opinion.
Active ____:____:____:____:____:____:____ Passive
Lazy ____:____:____:____:____:____:____ Industrious

LIKERT SCALE THE OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS
Likert scale is normally a five point scale, wherein a respondent rates The open-ended seeks to explore the qualitative, in-depth as
a statement with which he shows the amount of agreement or pacts of a particular topic or issue. It gives a person the
disagreement. chance to respond in detail. Although open-ended questions
Academic advisors should be able to help me with personal issues. are important, they are time-consuming and should not be
Strongly Disagree
over-used.
Disagree
Agree Give your valuable suggestion about digital marketing in
Strongly Agree india?
Not Sure/not applicable
THE DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONS

Demographic questions are in integral part of any questionnaire. They are used to
identify characteristics such as age, gender, income, race, geographic place of
TYPES OF

residence, number of children and so forth.
Q. Age: What is your age?
RESEARCH DESIGN
Under 12 years old
12-17 years old
18-24 years old
25-34 years old
35-44 years old
45-54 years old
55-64 years old
65-74 years old
75 years or older
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH-
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN
MEANING
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN
The information known on a particular subject matter is
CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
little. Hence, a study is conducted to know more about it
* DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
* CAUSAL RESEARCH DESIGN so as to formulate the problem and procedures of the
study. Such a study is called exploratory/formulate
study.

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH- EXPLORATORY RESEARCH-
MEANING MEANING
Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulate When a researcher has a limited amount of experience with or knowledge
about a research issue, exploratory research is a useful preliminary step
research studies. The main purpose of such studies is
that helps ensure that a more rigorous, more conclusive future study will
that of formulating a problem for more precise not begin with an inadequate understanding of the nature of the
investigation or of developing the working hypotheses management problem. The findings discovered through exploratory
from an operational point of view. research would lead the researcher to emphasize learning more about the
particulars of the findings in subsequent conclusive studies. Conclusive
research answers questions of fact necessary to determine course of action.
This is never the purpose of exploratory research.
WHY CONDUCY EXPLORATORY TECHNIQUES OF EXPLORATORY

RESEARCH? RESEARCH
The purpose of exploratory research is intertwined with Literature research
the need for a clear and precise statement of the Experience survey
recognized problem. Three interrelated forms of Projective techniques
exploratory research exist: (1) diagnosing a situation, (2)
Depth Interview
screening alternatives, and (3) discovering new ideas.
Focus groups
Role play and case study
LITERATURE RESEARCH EXPERIENCE SURVEY
Developed by past researchers The survey of people who have had practical experience
with the problem to be studied
Reliability and objectivity
The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the
To develop accurate hypothesis
relationships between variables and new ideas relating to
Fertile ground for hypothesis formulation
the research problem
Mostly interview technique is used for this and

respondent is investigated

PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
DEPTH INTERVIEW
Projective technique is used based of estimation of expert Investigation by expert
Trend analysis Experience collecting interview technique is used
Based on past data and estimate the future Respondent will be given the questions in advance to
Few statistical methods are used prepare the answers in advance
Major issues are covered in it
FOCUS GROUPS ROLE PLAYING & CASE STUDY
Unstructured and free flow interview with a small group To obtain information about various situation at various
places
Flexible format of questions will be asked
Opportunity to discover new facts and various results
Major discussion part is covered
Depth analysis is possible
Brief and quick analysis with low expenses
Role play is a dynamic technique
To identify the behaviour of the individuals in group
Identifying the behaviour and the feelings of the respondents
IMPORTANCE OF EXPLORATORY NEW DISCOVERIES CAN BE

RESEARCH DESIGN MADE
New discoveries can be made Identify the new opportunities in the market
Increasing understanding Mostly scientific researches are based on exploratory
Flexibility of sources research
Better conclusions Various plans are developed for the same target
Strategic planning

INCREASING UNDERSTANDING FLEXIBILITY OF SOURCES
Developing various methods for the same goal increases Various sources can be used
the understanding of researcher Primary and secondary data gives the better result to
Expertise will be developed explore the result
Potentiality is increased
BETTER CONCLUSION STRATEGIC PLANNING
Scope to conclude the research in desirable manner Used in defense
Opportunities for better result and introducing new Solve the problem by newer ways
methods for identifying the solutions for a problem Best method to develop the plan and implementation
LIMITATION OF EXPLORATORY NOT USEFUL FOR DECISION

RESEARCH DESIGN MAKING
Not useful for decision making
Only prospective results are there
Incomplete information
Not generalizable Various alternatives may create ambiguities, but cant
costly derive the final decision
Time consuming
Can mislead the data.

INCOMPLETE INFORMATION NOT GENERALIZABLE
Difficult to find descriptive result Only exploratory details are given
Only basic idea is identified Every time its generalization is difficult
Mostly incomplete information is given Information is available in parts, so difficult to generalize
Only estimation is possible
COSTLY TIME CONSUMING
Ultimately high cost occurs Consume more time
After spending high cost, result is not reliable Less possibilities to derive the desirable result
Wastage of money and wastage of time, if result is not More number of manpower is engaged without the
derived expectation of expected result for many hours
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH-
CAN MISLEAD THE DATA.
MEANING
Some data may mislead the researcher The major purpose of descriptive research is the
Some useless information or undesirable information may description of a person, situation, institution or an event
be found out, which divert the researchers result as it exists. Generally fact finding studies are of this type.

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH- DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH-
MEANING MEANING
It studies, as their name implies are Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-
designed to describe something. finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of
the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social
science and business research we quite often use
the term Ex post facto research for descriptive
research studies. The main characteristic of this
method is that the researcher has no control over
the variables; he can only report what has
happened or what is happening.
IMPORTANCE OF DESCRIPTIVE
APPLICABLE IN MANY AREAS
RESEARCH DESIGN
Applicable in many areas
As it is ex-post facto research, it is universal
Qualitative & Quantitative
Provides relevant data Maximum number of areas of research are
Hypothesis generation
covered under it.
It is one of the most convenient research design

among all
QUALITATIVE & QUANTITATIVE PROVIDES RELEVANT DATA

Both qualitative and quantitative research are covered under It is capable to provide relevant data which is already
it. given
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
Irrelevant data should be omitted from it.
quantity or amount.
Necessary information will help to have better decision
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or making
involving quality or kind.

HYPOTHESIS GENERATION LIMITATION OF DESCRIPTIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN
Confidentiality
Easy to generate hypothesis
Carries observers paradox
All information about the problem is available to set the Errors
hypothesis Requires more skills
Unreliable & Unscientific
The objective of the study can be justified to set relevant
hypothesis
CONFIDENTIALITY CARRIES OBSERVERS PARADOX
Confidential information can never be disclosed Descriptive research is depending upon the approach of
Only general information can be revealed the researcher
For confidential information, exploratory research should Biased researcher can not derive the facts about the
be used problem
ERRORS REQUIRES MORE SKILLS
The is a huge scope of errors Only qualified researcher works
Intentional and unintentional Unskilled researcher fails to bring facts about the
Few errors can never be revoked problem
Ultimate result may not be favourable

CAUSAL/ EXPERIMENTAL
UNRELIABLE & UNSCIENTIFIC
RESEARCH- MEANING
The method is unscientific it seeks to find out the cause and effect relationship of
Reliability level is low the phenomenon under study.
Unreliable data does not works for result The goal of causal-comparative research is to establish
cause-and-effect relationships just like an experimental
research.
CAUSAL/ EXPERIMENTAL CAUSAL/ EXPERIMENTAL

RESEARCH- MEANING RESEARCH- MEANING
Continuing the example of marriage and Causal research studies typically take the form of
counselling, there are sets of factors that can experiments, because experiments are best suited to
determine cause-effect relationships.
affect the relationship between counselling and
The experiment should be repeated more than once. By
marriage problems
doing so the statistical accuracy will be increased.
IMPORTANCE CAUSE AND EFFECT

Cause and effect Primary advantage can easily be determined
Reliable result Behaviour difference can be identified by cause and effect
Provides helpful insight relationship
Control over variables

RELIABLE RESULT PROVIDES HELPFUL INSIGHT
Qualitative and quantitative measurement are possible It helps to offer insight about the data for research
The results are trusted for decision making Various tools and techniques are used for better and
Experiment results can be useful in other populations desirable result
also
LIMITATIONS OF EXPERIMENTAL
CONTROL OVER VARIABLES RESEARCH DESIGN
Interaction between two variables is more possible Artificiality
A few control over variables are possible Biased
Manipulation possible
Not possible to completely control the variable
Uncertainty of reaction.
ARTIFICIALITY BIASED
Experiments are not typical real life situation Human input is a disadvantage
The scope of succeed based on laboratory is very less Personal thoughts are laid down on others
Generalization of data is difficult Biased data can never provide necessary inputs

NOT POSSIBLE TO COMPLETELY
MANIPULATION POSSIBLE
CONTROL THE VARIABLE
Data may be manipulated for personal benefitted Variable changes its attributes at every experiment
The main motive of research is spoiled Variables are not controlled by researcher
People may be influenced by wrong research
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH-
UNCERTAINTY OF REACTION.
MEANING
Reaction is uncertain
It is the standard experimental method of most scientific
Reaction differs at every experiment
disciplines. These experiments are sometimes referred to
as true science and use traditional mathematical &
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH- QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH-

MEANING MEANING
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of It is the standard experimental method of most scientific
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that disciplines. These experiments are sometimes referred to
can be expressed in terms of quantity. as true science and use traditional mathematical &

CHARACTERISTICS OF BASED UPON NUMERICAL
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH MEASUREMENTS
Based upon numerical measurements
Data is given in numerical forms
Relates with analysis
Large scale of studies Easy to analysis
It is controllable
It is logical & Pre-determined
Use statistical tests
Focus on proof rather than discovery
RELATES WITH ANALYSIS LARGE SCALE OF STUDIES
Analytical part is easy Even large studies are possible with numerical
Decision making process can be done easily Qualitative data can not work with large population
Correlation between various factors are possible with

numerical data
IT IS LOGICAL & PRE-

IT IS CONTROLLABLE
DETERMINED
Controlled data Some logic is there in given data
Easily control over the variability in data All the available data is pre-determined

FOCUS ON PROOF RATHER THAN
USE STATISTICAL TESTS
DISCOVERY
Various statistical tests like ANOVA, CHI-SQUARE TEST, The evidence should be presented to support the data
Z-TEST, T-TEST apply for data analysis collected
The discovery part is associated with exploratory, but

proofs are associated with quantitative data
Necessary supportive documents should be presented

with data
ADVANTAGES OF QUANTITATIVE
IT IS A STANDARD TOOL.
RESEARCH
It is a standard tool. The most standard tool for data analysis
Results can be legitimately Easy decision making
Results is real & unbiased Major organization use the quantitative research design
Accurate result for their research
RESULTS CAN BE LEGITIMATELY RESULTS IS REAL & UNBIASED
Easily justify the result The result is presented in unbiased manner
Its true and fair Only real result is presented
Legality of object can be explained with this Fake information is avoided from the research part
Focus on reality than fantasy

DISADVANTAGE OF
ACCURATE RESULT
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
It is very expensive & time consuming
Accuracy is highlighted
It requires lots of statistical analysis
Result is accurate to take accurate decision It gives only proved or unproved results with uncertainty
The research plan is implemented in proper manner
IT IS VERY EXPENSIVE & TIME IT REQUIRES LOTS OF

CONSUMING STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The collection of data is time consuming process The complex statistical techniques are used
It takes a huge cost to hire researchers, analyst and other The expert is needed to do that
employees to conduct the research The interpretation of statistical analysis is difficult tot
take a decision
IT GIVES ONLY PROVED OR UNPROVED TECHNIQUES OF QUANTITATIVE

RESULTS WITH UNCERTAINTY RESEARCH
Survey
The reliability on available data is vague
Observation
The result is uncertain and some unproved data is used Experiments
to take better decision

SURVEY OBSERVATION
It means a planned effort to collect the desired Observe the facts to identify the variation in results
information from a representative sample of the relevant Provide the necessary result by making perfect
population generally known as respondents. observation about the object
EXPERIMENTS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

It is a used extensively by scientists and researchers
A research investigation in which conditions are
studying human behavior & habits.
controlled so that an independent variable can be
manipulated to test a hypothesis about a dependent
variable. It allows evaluation of causal relationship
among variable while all other variables are eliminated.
CHARACTERISTICS UNDERSTAND THE SITUATION
Understand the situation
It is primary data collection instrument
It is an inductive research strategy.
It is a field work.

IT IS PRIMARY DATA IT IS AN INDUCTIVE RESEARCH
COLLECTION INSTRUMENT STRATEGY.
IT IS A FIELD WORK. ADVANTAGES
USE WHEN SUBJECT IS COMPLEX

BROADER SCOPE
IT IS AN INDEPENDENT FROM THE SAMPLE SIZE.
USE WHEN SUBJECT IS IT IS THE EASIER METHOD

COMPLEX

IT IS AN INDEPENDENT FROM
BROADER SCOPE
THE SAMPLE SIZE.
DISADVANTAGES WHEN THERE IS AN EMERGENCY

WHEN THERE IS AN EMERGENCY
IT IS GIVE A GUIDE TO GENERAL TRENDS
IT IS GIVE A GUIDE TO GENERAL

TRENDS

Qualitative Methods Quantitative Methods
Methods include focus groups, in-depth interviews, and Surveys, structured interviews & observations, and reviews
reviews of documents for types of themes of records or documents for numeric information
Primarily inductive process used to formulate theory or Primarily deductive process used to test pre-specified
hypotheses concepts, constructs, and hypotheses that make up a
theory
More subjective: describes a problem or condition from the More objective: provides observed effects (interpreted by
point of view of those experiencing it researchers) of a program on a problem or condition
Text-based Number-based
More in-depth information on a few cases Less in-depth but more breadth of information across a
large number of cases
Unstructured or semi-structured response options Fixed response options
No statistical tests Statistical tests are used for analysis
Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on skill and rigor Can be valid and reliable: largely depends on the
of the researcher measurement device or instrument used
Time expenditure lighter on the planning end and heavier Time expenditure heavier on the planning phase and lighter
during the analysis phase on the analysis phase
Less generalizable More generalizable

Rm-1 Introduction and Features of Research

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Rm-1 Introduction and Features of Research

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CONTENT

RESEARCH Introduction of research

A systematized effort to gain new knowledge

Research comprises defining and redefining problems,

PREPARED BY NISHANT FOFARIA 1

PREPARED BY NISHANT FOFARIA 2

STATISTICAL METHODS ORIGINAL WORK

Unnecessary data must be avoided to remove

PREPARED BY NISHANT FOFARIA 3

Highly caliber person can put his/ her optimum effort

FACTS OR PRINCIPLES ANSWERS ALL TYPE OF QUESTIONS

Research is capable enough to reply of each and

It should be based on facts and reality.

Principled based research can provide better result,

PREPARED BY NISHANT FOFARIA 4

2. EXTENSIVE LITERATURE 3. FORMULATION OF

PREPARED BY NISHANT FOFARIA 5

A research design is the logical and systematic planning and

6. COLLECTING THE DATA 7. EXECUTION OF THE PROJECT

8. ANALYSIS OF DATA 9. TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS

PREPARED BY NISHANT FOFARIA 6

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

2. Understanding marketplace 6. Expanding business

7. Exploring new business

PREPARED BY NISHANT FOFARIA 7

Predict Market condition For better understanding of market place

Formulation of business plan

UNDERSTANDING PERCEIVED IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF

Identify the needs of customers Developing various marketing alternatives

To determine the value of goods for consumers

SOLVING OPERATIONAL &

Finding faults and gaining more profits by Improving customers acceptance

PREPARED BY NISHANT FOFARIA 8

Updated technology Production on large scale

LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH LIMITATIONS OF RESEARCH

Some problem just cannot be researched.

PREPARED BY NISHANT FOFARIA 9

PROMOTING BUSINESS JUDGING PROBLEM

Economic business promotion Prepared with solutions of daily arising problems

Consuming less time Easily judging the basic issues

CLEARLY DEFINED PROBLEM SELECT THE CORRECT METHOD

Better efficiency Balanced data collection of primary data and

PREPARED BY NISHANT FOFARIA 10

SCOPE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH SCOPE OF BUSINESS RESEARCH

PRICING MARKETING STRATEGY

DECISION MAKING TOOLS MANAGERIAL PLANNING

PROBLEM SOLVING CONTROLLING METHODS

SALES PROMOTION PRICING

Advertising strategies Price elasticity of demand

Personal selling methods Suitable pricing policies

PREPARED BY NISHANT FOFARIA 11

Technological advancement Evaluation of alternatives

ECONOMIES OF SCALE CONSUMPTION PATTERN

Optimum utilization of resources Buyers behaviour

Production on large scale Identify the needs and wants of customers

Purchasing power and income level of

Study the market conditions

PREPARED BY NISHANT FOFARIA 12

Finding resources Find out the weaknesses and shortcomings

Exploring opportunities Necessary corrections in current level

MARKET COMPLEXITY DISTRIBUTION STRATEGY

Standard of living of customers Suitable policies for distributors

Growth of market Appointments of distributors

Offering better services for distributors