Telecommunication Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

Lecture notes Telecommunication Systems by Jorma Kekalainen
Telecommunication Systems
Jorma Kekalainen
Introduction
1
Course objective
Understand principal concepts of
telecommunication systems and networks
Computer networks
Internet as a detailed example
Transmission media and physical layer
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
Communication satellite systems
Radar
GPS
Information sources
1.Usually, the most precise sources are the original
sources, i.e. standards, recommendations or other
specifications.
You can pull them from the Internet e.g.
ITU-T www.itu.int/ITU-T/
IETF www.ietf.org
3GPP www.3gpp.org
or from elsewhere.
Reading just the general sections in the
specifications and scanning the rest will be usually
enough to get sufficient understanding
2. You can look for material from corresponding
courses in the Internet
3. Some may find that the books are easier to read.
2
Books
Following references can be useful
Comer: Computer Networks and Internets
Duck, Read: Data Communications and Computer Networks
Elbert: The Satellite Communication Applications Handbook
Ericsson, Telia: Understanding Telecommunications, Part I & Part II
Forouzan: Data Communications and Networking
Freeman: Fundamentals of Telecommunications
Hofmann-Wellenhof, Lichtenegger, Collins: GPS Theory and Practice
Kolawole: Satellite Communication Engineering
Kurose, Ross: Computer Networking
Leick: GPS Satellite Surveying
Leon-Garcia, Widjaja: Communication Networks
Nathanson: Radar Design Principles
Parkinson, Spilker (Eds.): The Global Positioning System: Theory and
Applications
Roddy: Satellite Communications
Skolnik: Introduction to Radar Systems
Stallings: Data and Computer Communications
Tanenbaum: Computer Networks
Toomay: Radar Principles for the Non-Specialist
Here the networking part is based on the excellent books written by

Forouzan, Kurose and Ross. 5
Abbreviations
Telecommunication/Computer networking lectures are
full of abbreviations and acronyms
E.g a random list:
ADSL, AES, AMPS, AODV, ARP, ATM, BGP, CDMA, CDN,
CGI, CIDR, DCF, DES, DHCP, DMCA, FDM, FHSS, GPRS,
GSM, HDLC, HFC, HTML, HTTP, ICMP, IMAP, ISP, ITU,
LAN, LMDS, MAC, MACA, MIME, MPEG, MPLS, MTU, NAP,
NAT, NSA, NTSC, OFDM, OSPF, PCF, PCM, PGP, PHP, PM,
POTS, PPP, PSTN, QAM, QPSK, RED, RFC, RPC, RSA, RSVP,
RTP, SSL, TCP, TDM, UDP, URL, UTP, VLAN, VPN, VSAT,
WAN, WAP, WDMA, WEP, and WWW.
Abbreviations
refer (define) concepts
describe standards & parts of telecommunication systems
3
A view of history
1844 Steinheils
1826 Ohms law commercial telegraphy
1800
1850
Volta: batteries; Fourier, Laplace, Cauchy: Mathematics

Ampere, Faraday, Henry: Basic electricity Morse, Kelvin: 1897 Marconis
Early telegraphy wireless telegraphy
1864 Maxwells
1850 electrodynamics 1887 Strowgers automated switch
1900
Bell, Edison: Telephony

Heaviside, Pupin, Campbell: Theory of T.
1918 Armstrongs
1900 heterodyne radio Erlang, Nyquist PCM Transistor
1950
De Forrest: Triode-tube; 1969 ARPANET

1998 Digital TV
Transcontinental telephone. 1972 Motorolas
1950 Communications electronic cellular system
2000
DSP, coding trans-Pacific, Internet,

trans-Atlantic Wide spread digital
optical cables signal processing
7
Telecommunication
Communication is the exchange of
information between two or more parties.
The term telecommunication means
communication at a distance.
The word data refers to information
presented in whatever form agreed by the
parties.
Data communications are the exchange of
data between two devices via some form of
transmission medium.
4
Telecommunication system
A telecommunication system must transmit
information/data to the correct destination
in an accurate and timely manner.
The effectiveness of a telecommunication
system depends on four fundamental
characteristics:
delivery,
accuracy,
timeliness, and
jitter.
Effectiveness of telecommunication
system
Fundamental characteristics are
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data
to the correct destination.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the
data accurately.
Data that have been altered in transmission and
left uncorrected are unusable.
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5
Effectiveness
3. Timeliness. Data delivered late are

useless.
In the case of video and audio, timely delivery
means delivering data as they are produced, in
the same order that they are produced, and
without significant delay. This kind of delivery
is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the delay
variation in the arrival data.
This uneven delay in the delivery of audio or
video transmission results an uneven quality in
the audio or video.
11
Components
The five components that make up a
telecommunication system are
the message,
sender,
receiver,
medium, and
protocol.
12
6
Components
1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be
communicated
Forms of information are text, numbers, pictures, audio, and
video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message
a computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera etc.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message
a computer, workstation, telephone handset, television etc.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical
path by which a message travels from sender to receiver.
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications.
It represents an agreement between the communicating devices.
Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating.
13
Five components of communication
14
7
Data flow modes

Data flow between two devices can occur in one of
three ways:
simplex
The communication is unidirectional.
Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the
other can only receive
E.g. keyboards and monitors are examples of simplex
devices.
half-duplex
Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the
same time.
When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and
vice versa
full-duplex
Both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
E.g. communicating by in the telephone network
15
Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and

full-duplex)
16
8
Network
A network is a set of devices (often
referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links.
A node can be a computer or any other
device capable of sending and/or receiving
data generated by other nodes on the
network.
17
Telephone network
Smart Network
Dumb Terminals 18
9
Internet
Dumb Network
Smart Terminals 19
Distributed processing
Often networks use distributed processing,
in which a task is divided among multiple
computers.
Instead of one single large machine being
responsible for all aspects of a process,
separate computers handle a subset.
20
10
Network criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain
number of criteria.
The most important of these are
performance,
reliability, and
security.
21
Performance
The performance of a network depends on a
number of factors, including the number of users,
the type of transmission medium, the capabilities
of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of
the software.
Performance can be measured in many ways,
including transit time and response time.
Transit time is the amount of time required for a
message to travel from one device to another.
Response time is the elapsed time between an
inquiry and a response.
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11
Throughput and delay

Performance is often evaluated by two
networking metrics: throughput and delay.
More throughput and less delay is better.
However, these two criteria are often
contradictory.
If we try to send more data to the
network, we may increase throughput but
we increase the delay because of traffic
congestion in the network.
23
Reliability and security

Network reliability is measured by
the frequency of failure,
the time it takes a link to recover from a
failure and
the networks robustness in a catastrophe.
Network security issues include

protecting data from unauthorized access,
protecting data from damage and development,
and
procedures for recovery from data losses.
24
12
Type of connection
A network is a set of communication
devices connected by media links.
A link is a communications pathway that
transfers data from one device to another.
For communication to occur, two devices
must be connected in some way to the same
link at the same time.
There are two possible types of
connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
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Point-to-point and multipoint

A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated
link between two devices.
The entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices.
A multipoint (multidrop) connection is one in which
more than two specific devices share a single link
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel
is shared, either spatially or temporally.
If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a
spatially shared connection.
If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
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13
Types of connections: point-to-

point and multipoint
27
Topology
Topology refers to the physical or logical
arrangement of a network.
Physical topology
refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or
more links form a topology.
The topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the relationship of all
the links and linking devices (usually called
nodes) to one another.
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14
Basic topologies
Devices may be arranged in
a mesh,
star,
bus, or
ring topology.
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Categories of topology
30
15
Mesh
Every device has a dedicated point-to-point
link to every other device.
The link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
In a fully connected mesh network with n
nodes, we need n(n-1)/2 duplex-mode links.
To accommodate that many links, every
device on the network must have (n-1)
input/output (I/O) ports to be connected
to the other (n-1) stations.
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A fully connected mesh

topology
32
16
Advantages of a mesh topology

A mesh offers several advantages over other
network topologies.
First, each connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems caused by multiple
devices.
Second, a mesh topology is robust.
If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the
entire system.
Third, there is the advantage of privacy or security.
When every message travels along a dedicated line, physical
boundaries prevent other users from gaining access to
messages.
Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and
fault isolation easy.
Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected
problems.
33
Disadvantages of a mesh
topology
The main disadvantages of a mesh are related to
the amount of cabling and the number of I/O
ports required.
For these reasons a mesh topology is usually
implemented in a limited fashion, for example, as a
backbone connecting the main computers of a
hybrid network that can include several other
topologies.
One example of a mesh topology is the connection
of telephone regional offices in which each
regional office needs to be connected to every
other regional office.
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17
Star
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated
point-to-point link only to a central controller,
usually called a hub.
The devices are not directly linked to one another.
Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not
allow direct traffic between devices.
The controller acts as an exchange: If one device
wants to send data to another, it sends the data
to the controller, which then relays the data to
the other connected device
The star topology is used in local-area networks
(LANs)
35
Advantages of a star topology

In a star, each device needs only one link and one
I/O port to connect it to any number of others.
This factor also makes it easy to install and
reconfigure.
Additions, moves, and deletions involve only one
connection: between that device and the hub.
Other advantages include robustness.
If one link fails, only that link is affected.
All other links remain active.
As long as the hub is working, it can be used to monitor
link problems and bypass defective links.
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18
Disadvantage of a star topology

One big disadvantage of a star topology is
the dependency of the whole topology on
one single point, the hub.
If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
Although a star requires far less cable
than a mesh, each node must be linked to a
central hub.
For this reason, often more cabling is required
in a star than in some other topologies (such as
ring or bus).
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A star topology connecting four

stations
Hub is a central device in a star topology that provides a common connection among
38
the nodes.
19
Bus
A bus topology is multipoint.
One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a
network.
Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
A drop line is a connection running between the device and
the main cable.
A tap is a connector that create a contact into the main
cable.
As a signal travels along the backbone, some of its energy is
transformed into heat.
For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps and on
the distance between those taps.
Bus topology was the one of the first topologies used in the
design of early local-area networks.
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A bus topology connecting

three stations
40
20
Advantages and disadvantages of a

bus topology
Ease of installation.
A bus uses less cabling than mesh or star
topologies.
Disadvantages include difficult reconnection and
fault isolation.
A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient at
installation.
Adding new devices may therefore require modification
or replacement of the backbone
Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in
quality.
A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission,
even between devices on the same side of the problem.
The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of
origin, creating noise in both directions.
41
Ring topology
Each device has a dedicated point-to-point
connection with only the two devices on either side
of it.
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction,
from device to device, until it reaches its
destination.
Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
When a device receives a signal intended for
another device, its repeater regenerates the bits
and passes them along.
To add or delete a device requires changing only
two connections.
In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a
disabled station) can disable the entire network.
This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a
switch capable of closing off the break.
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21
A ring topology connecting six

stations
Repeater is a device that extends the distance a signal can travel by regenerating the
43
signal.
Hybrid topology
A network can be hybrid.
For example, we can have
a main star topology
with each branch connecting several stations in
a bus topology.
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22
A hybrid topology: a star backbone

with three bus networks
45
Network categories
A network can be categorized as a personal area network
(PAN), a local area network (LAN), a metropolitan-area
network (MAN), or a wide area network (WAN).
A PAN is a data communication system covering an area the
size of a few meters around a person.
A LAN is a data communication system within a building,
plant, or campus, or between nearby buildings.
A MAN is a data communication system covering an area the
size of a town or city.
A WAN is a data communication system spanning states,
countries, or the whole world.
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23
Network categories
coverage
WAN
MAN
LAN
PAN
47
A LAN connecting computers to a

hub
48
24
A switched WAN and a point-to-

point WAN
49
A heterogeneous network made of WANs and LANs
Router: An internetworking device operating at the first three OSI layers. A router is
50
attached to two or more networks and forwards packets from one network to another.
25
Internet
An internet is a network of networks.
The Internet is a collection of many
separate networks.
There are local, regional, national, and
international Internet service providers
(ISPs).
51
Hierarchical organization of the

Internet
52
NAP A network access point
26
Protocol
Simply definition: Protocol is synonymous
with rule.
A protocol is a set of rules that governs
data communication
The key elements of a protocol are syntax,
semantics, and timing.
TCP/IP is the protocol suite for the
Internet.
53
Layered architecture
Divide and conquer:
break the overall big
problem into smaller
ones with standardized
interfaces
Each layer provides a
service to upper layers
and utilizes the services
provided by lower layers
Performance may not be
optimal, but makes the
architecture simple and
flexible
54
27
Layered protocols: OSI model

OSI model breaks functionality into layers
called a protocol stack
55
Layered protocols
Somewhat like subroutines in programming
Each layer provides services (functions) to
higher layers
Function call interface hides details of how the
service is provided
e.g. network layer asks link layer to transport a
packet across a link, without any network details
the interface is well defined
benefits
reduction in complexity
Communications between peers using
protocols
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28
Encapsulation
Lower layers deal with higher layer by
treat information from higher layer as black
box
dont look inside data
just treat as bunch of bits
just break data into blocks
encapsulate the blocks, by adding
headers (e.g. addresses)
trailers
when passing back to higher layer
layers strip headers
join blocks back together
57
source
Example: Encapsulation
message M application
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical
switch
destination Hn Ht M network
M application Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical
58
29
Standards and standards organizations
Simply definition: Standards are agreed-upon

rules.
Standards are necessary to ensure that products
from different manufacturers can work together
as expected.
The ISO, ITU-T, ANSI, IEEE, and EIA are some
of the organizations involved in standards
creation.
Forums are special-interest groups that quickly
evaluate and standardize new technologies.
59
ITU-T Standards
G - Transmission systems and media, digital
systems and networks
H - Audiovisual and multimedia systems
I - ISDN
Q - Switching and signalling
V - Data communications over PSTN
X- Data networks and open system
communications
60
(www.itu.int)
30
Standards Bodies (Standardization

organizations)
Internet Engineering Task Force
Internet standards development
Request for Comments (RFCs)
International Telecommunications Union
International telecom standards
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers)
IEEE 802 Committee
Local area and metropolitan area network standards
ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards
Institute)
Industry Organizations
WiFi Alliance, World Wide Web Consortium
61
Internet Overview
31
Using Internet as example
whats the Internet?

whats a protocol?
network edge; hosts, access net,
physical media
network core: packet/circuit
switching, Internet structure
performance: loss, delay,
throughput
security
history
63
Whats the Internet?

PC millions of connected Mobile network
server computing devices: Global ISP
wireless
hosts = end systems
laptop
running network
cellular
handheld apps Home network
Regional ISP
communication links
access fiber, copper,
points
radio, satellite Institutional network
wired
links
transmission
rate = bandwidth
routers: forward
router
packets (chunks of
data) ISP - Internet Service Provider is a company that provides
64
Internet access to other companies and individuals.
32
Whats the Internet

Mobile network
protocols control sending,
receiving of msgs Global ISP
e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype,
Ethernet
Internet: network of Home network
networks Regional ISP
loosely hierarchical
public Internet versus Institutional network
private intranet
Internet standards
RFC: Request for comments
IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force
HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol - is the standard protocol for the carriage of data around 65
an internet ( browser server).
Internet: Service view

communication
infrastructure enables
distributed applications:
Web, VoIP, email, games,
e-commerce, file sharing
communication services
provided to apps:
reliable data delivery
from source to
destination
best effort (unreliable)
data delivery
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33
Protocols
human protocols: network protocols:
whats the time? machines rather than
I have a question humans
introductions all communication
activity in Internet
specific msgs sent governed by protocols
specific actions taken protocols define format,
when msgs received, order of msgs sent and
or other events received among network
entities, and actions
taken on msg
transmission, receipt
67
Protocols
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:
Hi
TCP connection
request
Hi
TCP connection
Got the response
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time
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34
Network structure
network edge:
applications and
hosts
access networks,
physical media:
wired, wireless
communication links
network core:
interconnected
routers
network of
networks 69
Network edge
end systems (hosts):
run application programs
e.g. Web, email
at edge of network peer-peer
client/server model
client host requests, receives
service from always-on server
client/server
e.g. Web browser/server;
email client/server
peer-peer model:
minimal (or no) use of
dedicated servers
e.g. Skype, BitTorrent
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35
Access networks and physical media

Q: How to connect end
systems to edge router?
residential access nets
institutional access
networks (school,
company)
mobile access networks
Keep in mind:
bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
shared or dedicated?
71
Dial-up modem
central
office
telephone
network Internet
home ISP
home
dial-up modem
PC
modem (e.g., AOL)
Uses existing telephony infrastructure

Home is connected to central office
up to 56Kbps direct access to router (often less)
Cant surf and phone at same time: not always on
36
Access Multiplexer (AM)

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Existing phone line: Internet
0-4kHz phone; 4-50kHz
home upstream data; 50kHz-1MHz
phone downstream data
DSLAM
telephone
splitter network
DSL
modem central
office
home
PC
Also uses existing telephone infrastruture

up to 1 Mbps upstream (today typically < 256 kbps)
up to 8 Mbps downstream (today typically < 1 Mbps)
dedicated physical line to telephone central office
Residential access: Cable modems
Does not use telephone infrastructure

Instead uses cable TV infrastructure
HFC: hybrid fiber coax
asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream, 2

Mbps upstream
network of cable and fiber attaches homes to
ISP router
homes share access to router
unlike DSL, which has dedicated access
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37
Residential access: Cable modems
Diagram: http://www.cabledatacomnews.com/cmic/diagram.html 75
Cable Network Architecture: Overview
Typically 500 to 5,000 homes
cable headend
home
cable distribution
network (simplified)
76
38
server(s)
cable headend
home
cable distribution
network
77
cable headend
home
cable distribution
network (simplified)
78
39
FDM:
C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Channels
cable headend
home
cable distribution
network
79
Optical Network Terminator (ONT)

Optical Link Terminator (OLT)
Fiber to the home

ONT
Internet optical
fibers
ONT
optical
fiber
OLT
optical
central office splitter
ONT
Optical links from central office to the home

Two competing optical technologies:
Passive Optical network (PON)
Active Optical Network (AON)
Much higher Internet rates; fiber also carries

television and phone services
40
Ethernet Internet access

100 Mbps Institutional
router
Ethernet To Institutions
switch ISP
100 Mbps
1 Gbps
100 Mbps
server
Typically used in companies, universities, etc

10 Mbs, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps Ethernet
Today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet
switch
Wireless access networks

shared wireless access
network connects end system
to router
via base station aka access
router
point
base
wireless LANs:
station
802.11b/g (WiFi): 11 or 54 Mbps
wider-area wireless access

provided by telco operator
~1Mbps over cellular system
(EVDO, HSDPA) mobile
next up (?): WiMAX (10s Mbps) hosts
over wide area
EV-DO - Evolution Data Optimized-provide broadband capabilities to mobile subscribers
HSDPA - High Speed Downlink Packet Access - increases user data rates from the Radio Access Network (RAN) to the mobile terminal. 82
WiMAX - Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access - the radio interface within two broad radio bands 2 11 GHz and 10 66 GHz
41
Home networks
Typical home network components:
DSL or cable modem
router/firewall/NAT
Ethernet
wireless access
point
wireless
to/from laptops
cable router/
cable
modem firewall
headend
wireless
access
Ethernet point
NAT - Network Address Translation - allows an organization with private addresses to 83

connect to the Internet by translating those addresses into a globally unique and routable address.
Physical media
Twisted Pair (TP)
Bit: propagates between two insulated copper
transmitter/receiver wires
pairs Category 3: traditional
physical link: what lies phone wires, 10 Mbps
between transmitter & Ethernet
receiver Category 5:
100Mbps Ethernet
guided media:
signals propagate in solid
media: copper, fiber, coax
unguided media:
signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio
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42
Physical media: Coax, fiber

Fiber optic cable:
Coaxial cable:
glass fiber carrying light
two concentric copper
pulses, each pulse a bit
conductors
high-speed operation:
baseband:
high-speed point-to-point
single channel on cable transmission (e.g., 10s-
legacy Ethernet 100s Gps)
broadband: low error rate: repeaters
multiple channels on spaced far apart ; immune
cable to electromagnetic noise
HFC
85
Hybrid Fiber Coax (HFC)
Physical media: Wireless (radio)

signal carried in Radio link types:
electromagnetic terrestrial microwave
spectrum e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
no physical wire LAN (e.g., Wifi)

propagation 11 Mbps, 54 Mbps
environment effects: wide-area (e.g., cellular)

reflection 3G cellular: ~ 1 Mbps
obstruction by objects satellite
interference Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
multiple smaller channels)
270 msec end-end delay
geosynchronous versus low
altitude
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43
Network core
mesh of interconnected
routers
the fundamental
question: how is data
transferred through net?
circuit switching:
dedicated circuit per
call: telephone net
packet-switching: data
sent thru net in
discrete chunks
87
Network core: Circuit switching
End-end resources
reserved for call
link bandwidth, switch
capacity
dedicated resources:
no sharing
circuit-like
(guaranteed)
performance
call setup required
88
44
Network core: Circuit switching

network resources dividing link bandwidth
(e.g., bandwidth) into pieces
divided into pieces frequency division
pieces allocated to calls time division
resource piece idle if
not used by owning call
(no sharing)
89
Circuit switching: FDM and TDM

Example:
FDM
4 users
frequency
time
TDM
frequency
time
90
45
Numerical example
How long does it take to send a file of
640,000 bits from host A to host B over a
circuit-switched network?
All links are 1.536 Mbps
Each link uses TDM with 24 slots/sec
500 msec to establish end-to-end circuit
Lets work it out as homework!
91
Numerical example
How long does it take to send a file of 640k bits from
host A to host B over a circuit-switched network?
All links are 1.536 Mbps
Each link uses TDM with 24 slots/sec
500 msec to establish end-to-end circuit
Lets work it out as homework!

Each link gets 1.526Mbps/24=64kbps
Time needed for 640kbps=640/64+0.5=10.5 seconds
Plus propagation! (for 20km link prop del~100 sec)
Plus queuing delay?? [In circuit switched (TDM) networks theres no
queuing]
46
Network core: Packet switching

each end-end data stream resource contention:
divided into packets aggregate resource
user A, B packets share demand can exceed
network resources amount available
each packet uses full link congestion: packets
bandwidth queue, wait for link use
resources used as needed store and forward:
packets move one hop
at a time
Bandwidth division into pieces Node receives complete
Dedicated allocation packet before forwarding
Resource reservation
93
Packet switching: Statistical multiplexing

100 Mb/s
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing C
1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link
D E
Sequence of A & B packets does not have fixed pattern,

bandwidth shared on demand statistical multiplexing.
TDM: each host gets same slot in revolving TDM frame.
94
47
Packet-switching: Store-and-forward
L
R R R
takes L/R seconds to Example:

transmit (push out) L = 7.5 Mbits
packet of L bits on to R = 1.5 Mbps
link at R bps
transmission delay = 15
store and forward:
sec
entire packet must
arrive at router before
it can be transmitted
on next link
delay = 3L/R (assuming
zero propagation delay)
95
Packet switching versus circuit switching

Packet switching allows more users to use network!
1 Mb/s link
each user:
100 kb/s when active
active 10% of time
N users
circuit-switching: 1 Mbps link
10 users
packet switching:
with 35 users,
Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
probability > 10 active
at same time is less
than .0004
96
48
Packet switching versus circuit switching

Packet switching
great for bursty data

resource sharing
simpler, no call setup
excessive congestion: packet delay and loss
protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
still an unsolved problem
97
Internet structure: Network of networks
roughly hierarchical
at center: tier-1 ISPs, national/international
coverage
treat each other as equals
Tier-1
providers
Tier 1 ISP
interconnect
(peer)
privately
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP
98
49
Tier-2 ISPs: smaller (often regional) ISPs

Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier-2 ISPs
Tier-2 ISPs
Tier-2 ISP pays Tier-2 ISP also peer
Tier-2 ISP privately with
tier-1 ISP for
connectivity to Tier 1 ISP each other.
rest of Internet
tier-2 ISP is
customer of
tier-1 provider Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
99
Tier-3 ISPs and local ISPs

last hop (access) network (closest to end systems)
local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Local and tier- Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
3 ISPs are
customers of Tier 1 ISP
higher tier
ISPs
connecting
them to rest Tier 1 ISP
of Internet
Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP
local
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP 100
50
a packet passes through many networks!
local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Tier 1 ISP
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

local
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP 101
How do loss and delay occur?

packets queue in router buffers
packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link
capacity
packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)
B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
102
51
Four sources of packet delay

1. nodal processing: 2. queueing
check bit errors time waiting at output
determine output link link for transmission
depends on congestion
level of router
transmission
A propagation
B
nodal
processing queueing
103
Delay in packet-switched networks

3. Transmission delay: 4. Propagation delay:
R=link bandwidth (bps) d = length of physical link
L=packet length (bits) s = propagation speed in
time to send bits into medium (~2x108 m/sec)
link = L/R propagation delay = d/s
Note: s and R are very

different quantities!
transmission
A propagation
B
nodal
processing queueing
104
52
Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
cars propagate at Time to push entire
100 km/hr caravan through toll
toll booth takes 12 sec to booth onto highway =
service car (transmission 12*10 = 120 sec
time) Time for last car to
car~bit; caravan ~ packet propagate from 1st to
2nd toll both:
Q: How long until caravan
100km/(100km/hr)= 1 hr
is lined up before 2nd toll
booth? A: 62 minutes
105
Caravan analogy (more)

100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth
Cars now propagate at 1000 km/hr

Toll booth now takes 1 min to service a car
Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd toll booth
before all cars serviced at 1st booth?
106
53
Nodal delay
d nodal d proc d queue d trans d prop
dproc = processing delay

typically a few microsecs or less
dqueue = queuing delay

depends on congestion
dtrans = transmission delay

= L/R, significant for low-speed links
dprop = propagation delay

a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs
107
Queuing delay
R=link bandwidth (bps)

L=packet length (bits)
a=average packet
arrival rate
traffic intensity = La/R
La/R ~ 0: average queuing delay small

La/R -> 1: delays become large
La/R > 1: more work arriving than can be
serviced, average delay infinite!
108
54
Packet loss
queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has
finite capacity
packet arriving to full queue dropped (lost)
lost packet may be retransmitted by previous
node, by source end system, or not at all
buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A
B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
109
Throughput
throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which
bits transferred between sender/receiver
instantaneous: rate at given point in time
average: rate over longer period of time
server,
server sendswith link
bits pipe capacity
that can carry link that
pipe capacity
can carry
file of F bits
(fluid) into pipe R
fluid
s bits/sec
at rate Rfluid
c bits/sec
at rate
to send to client Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec
110
55
Throughput (more)
Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?
Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec
Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?
Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec
bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
111
Throughput: Internet scenario
Rs
per-connection
Rs Rs
end-end
throughput:
R
min(Rc,Rs,R/10)
in practice: Rc or Rc Rc
Rs is often Rc
bottleneck
10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
112
56
Network security
The field of network security is about:
how we can defend networks against attacks
how to design architectures that are immune to
attacks
Internet not originally designed with
(much) security in mind
original vision: a group of mutually trusting
users attached to a transparent network
Security considerations in all layers!
113
Putting malware into hosts via

Internet
Malware can get in host from a virus, worm, or
trojan horse.
Spyware malware can record keystrokes, web

sites visited, upload info to collection site.
Infected host can be enrolled in a botnet (a group

of the infected PC ), used for spam and DDoS
attacks.
Malware is often self-replicating: from an

infected host, seeks entry into other hosts
A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an
114
attempt to make a computer resource unavailable to its intended users
57
Trojan horse, virus, and worm
Trojan horse
Hidden part of some otherwise useful software
Virus
infection by receiving object (e.g., e-mail
attachment), actively executing
self-replicating: propagate itself to other hosts
Worm
infection by passively receiving object that
gets itself executed
self- replicating: propagates to other hosts
115
Internet history
Early packet-switching systems
1969: first ARPAnet

node operational
1970: ALOHAnet
satellite network in
Hawaii
116
58
Internet history
1970-1980: Internetworking and proprietary nets
Cerf and Kahns internetworking

1974: Cerf and Kahn - principles:
architecture for minimalism, autonomy - no
interconnecting networks internal changes required
1976: Ethernet to interconnect networks
best effort service model
Late70s: proprietary
stateless routers
architectures: DECnet, SNA,
decentralized control
XNA
define todays Internet
late 70s: switching fixed
architecture
length packets (ATM
precursor)
Motto: Be liberal in what you
1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes accept, and conservative
in what you send.
117
Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks
1983: deployment of TCP/IP
1982: smtp e-mail protocol defined
1983: DNS defined for name-to-IP-
address translation
1985: ftp protocol defined
1988: TCP congestion control
118
59
Internet history
1990, 2000s: commercialization, the Web, new apps
early 1990s: Web Late 1990s 2000s:

hypertext P2P file sharing
network security to
HTML, HTTP
forefront
Mosaic, later Netscape est. 100 million+ users
late 1990s: backbone links running at
commercialization of the Gbps
Web
119
Internet history
2010:
~1 billion hosts
Voice, Video over IP
YouTube, gaming
wireless, mobility
120
60
Layers
Why layering?
Networks are complex! Question:
many pieces: Is there any hope of
hosts organizing structure
routers of network?
links of various
media Layers: each layer implements
a service
applications
via its own internal-
protocols layer actions
hardware, software relying on services
provided by layer below
122
61
Why layering?
Dealing with complex systems
explicit structure allows identification and detect
relationship of complex systems pieces
modularization eases maintenance and updating of
system
change of implementation of layers service
transparent to rest of system
e.g., change in some layer procedure doesnt
affect rest of system
layered reference model is useful!
123
Internet protocol stack

application: supporting network
applications application
FTP, SMTP, HTTP
transport: process-process data transport
transfer
TCP, UDP network
network: routing of datagrams from
source to destination link
IP, routing protocols
link: data transfer between physical
neighboring network elements
PPP, Ethernet
physical: bits on the wire
124
62
Some protocols
TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
TCP is a reliable protocol used by the majority of applications
on the Internet .
It provides a connection-oriented, full-duplex, point to point
service between hosts.
In addition, flow control is provided which prevents TCP
endpoints from sending data to the network if the network is
experiencing congestion.
UDP - User Datagram Protocol
UDP is a standard, connectionless, host-to-host protocol.
UDP is typically used for real time applications.
IP - Internet Protocol
IP provides a connectionless datagram service between
networks.
IP Datagram can be defined as the fundamental unit of
information which is passed across the Internet.
It contains header information such as the source and
destination addresses along with the payload data.
PPP - Point to Point Protocol
The Point to Point Protocol was designed to provide router to
router and host to network connections
ISO/OSI reference model

presentation: allow applications to
interpret meaning of data, e.g., application
encryption, compression, machine-
presentation
specific conventions
session: synchronization, session
checkpointing, recovery of data transport
exchange
network
Internet stack missing these
layers! link
these services, if needed, must physical
be implemented in application
126
63
Encapsulation
Lower layers deal with higher layer by
treat information from higher layer as black
box
dont look inside data
just treat as bunch of bits
just break data into blocks
encapsulate the blocks, by adding
headers (e.g. addresses)
trailers
when passing back to higher layer
layers strip headers
join blocks back together
127
message M
source
application
Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical
switch
destination Hn Ht M network
M application Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical
128
64
Top Down or Bottom Up?
Bottom Up: Start with Physical

Application
(e.g., wires) layer and move up
to Applications (e.g., mail, web
Transport
browsers) layer explaining how
functions are implemented
Network
Top Down : Start with
Link Application layer and move
Physical
down to Physical layer,
explaining what expectations
from applications, and how
such services are implemented
Bottom Up
Bottom Up: Start with Physical

Application
(e.g., wires) layer and move up
to Applications (e.g., mail, web
Transport
browsers) layer explaining how

functions are implemented
Network
Link
Physical
65
Layer 1: Physical layer

Function: Transmission of raw bit stream
between devices.
Services: Physical connection, modulation
Issues: # pins/wires, duplex, serial/parallel,
modulation
Media:
copper wire: e.g. coax, twisted pair
fibre optics
free air optics
microwave, satellite,
infra-red
131
Layer 2: Link layer

Function: provide reliable transport of information
between a pair of adjacent nodes.
Services: creates frames/packets, error control, flow
control
Issues: Medium Access Control (MAC),
headers/trailers
Examples:
Ethernet
Token-ring
IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi)
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) (also layer 3)
POS (Packet over SONET)
PPP (Point to Point Protocol)
132
66
Layer 3: Network layer

Function: forwarding packets from end-to-end
Services: packet forwarding, some congestion
control
Issues: determining what routing to use
Examples:
IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)
IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) (also layer 2)
Routing protocols (e.g. OSPF, RIP, EIGRP)
133
Routing details
OSPF - Open Shortest Path First
Open Shortest Path First is a link state (each node possesses information
about the complete network topology), hierarchical IGP (Interior Gateway
Protocol) routing algorithm. Features supported by OSPF include least cost
routing, multipath routing and load balancing.
RIP - Routing Information Protocol
Routing Information Protocol is used to manage router information within a
self contained network such as a corporate LAN (Local Area Network) or an
interconnected group of such LAN. RIP is classified by the IETF (Internet
Engineering Task Force) as one of several internal gateway protocols called
IGP (Interior Gateway Protocols).
IGP - Interior Gateway Protocol
An Interior Gateway Protocol is used to exchange routing information within
an autonomous system.
AS Autonomous System
Autonomous system (Internet), a collection of IP networks and routers
under the control of one entity (typically an Internet service provider or a
very large organization with independent connections to multiple networks,
that adhere to a single and clearly defined routing policy)
EIGRP - Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol
An advanced version of Interior Gateway Routing Protocol. It provides
superior convergence properties and operating efficiency, and combines the
advantages of link state protocols with those of distance vector protocols
(in distance-vector routing protocols each router does not possess
information about the full network topology).
134
67
Layer 4: Transport layer

Function: reliable end-to-end transport of
data
Services: multiplexing, end-to-end error
and flow control
Issues: congestion control algorithm
Examples:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
UDP (User datagram Protocol)
SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
RTP (Real-time Transport Protocol)
135
SCTP - Stream Control Transmission

Protocol
Stream Control Transmission Protocol is
a reliable transport protocol operating on
top of IP .
It provides acknowledged error free non
duplicated transfer of data with flow
control.
STCP also detects data corruption, loss
of data and duplication of data by using
checksums and sequence numbers.
A selective retransmission mechanism is
applied to correct loss or corruption of
the data.
136
68
Layer 5: Application layer

E-mail (POP, IMAP, SMTP)
File transfer (FTP File Transfer
Protocol)
Remote terminal (Telnet)
WWW (HTTP Hyper-Text Transfer
Protocol)
File sharing
Video conferences
VoIP (Voice over IP)
137
Layered protocols: TCP/IP model
User Datagram Protocol (UDP), a simple transport protocol used in the Internet. The
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is chiefly to send error messages
indicating, for instance, that a requested service is not available or that a host or
router could not be reached. The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol for
determining a network host's link layer or hardware address when only its Internet
138
Layer (IP) or Network Layer address is known. Packet over SONET (POS)
69
TCP/IP Encapsulation
Data segment
TCP segment
IP packet
Ethernet frame
139
TCP/IP operation
140
70
Hourglass IP
robustness against
technological
innovations
anyone can innovate at
either end
new applications built
by anyone
new physical/link layers
allows huge
heterogeneity
success
141
Broken layering
TCP/IP layers are broken more often than not
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) - uses
IP, but controls its operation
BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is a routing
protocol (IP layer), but is routed
IP over ATM over IP over ATM over SONET
anything involving MPLS (Multiprotocol Label
Switching)
often services are provided at multiple layers:
error and flow control, e.g. error control in SONET (sort-
of physical), link layer, IP, TCP
Note: In this light 7-layer OSI model seems
to be too complicated
142
71
End-to-end principle
Put functionality as high up the stack as
possible.
pushes functionality out towards the end points
results in
dumb network, smart terminals
contrast to PSTN (Telephone Network)
smart network, dumb terminals
also allows survival of partial network failures
e.g. link failure, we can reroute
143
Distributed control
anything centralized is vulnerable
distribute physical infrastucture
distribute network control
e.g. routing protocols
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First), IS-IS, BGP
(Border Gateway Protocol)
not everything can be completely
decentralized
e.g. NOC, NCC
still can provide redundancy
Intermediate system to intermediate system (IS-IS), is a protocol used by routers to determine the
best way to forward datagrams through a packet-switched network. IS-IS protocol was defined
within OSI reference design.
A network operations center (NOC) or Network Control Center (NCC) is one or more locations from
144
which control is exercised over a computer or telecommunications network.
72
Top Down
Start with Application layer

Application
and move down to Physical
layer, explaining what
Transport
expectations from applications,

and how such services are
Network implemented
Link
Physical
Application Layer
73
Application layer
Principles of network applications
Brief survey of some applications
Web and HTTP
Electronic Mail
DNS
147
Network applications
e-mail voice over IP
web real-time video
instant messaging conferencing
remote login grid computing
P2P file sharing
multi-user network
games
streaming stored video
clips
148
74
Creating a network app application

transport
network
data link
write programs that physical
run on (different) end

systems
communicate over network
e.g., web server software
communicates with browser
software application
No need to write software

transport
network
data link
for network-core devices
application
physical
transport
network
Network-core devices do data link
physical
not run user applications
applications on end systems
allows for rapid application
development, propagation
149
Application architectures
Client-server
Peer-to-peer (P2P)
Hybrid of client-server and P2P
150
75
Client-server architecture
server:
always-on host
permanent IP address
server farms for
scaling
clients:
client/server communicate with server
may be intermittently
connected
may have dynamic IP
addresses
do not communicate
directly with each other
151
Pure P2P architecture

no always-on server
arbitrary end systems
directly communicate peer-peer
peers are intermittently
connected and change IP
addresses
Highly scalable but

difficult to manage
152
76
Hybrid of client-server and P2P

Skype
voice-over-IP P2P application
centralized server: finding address of remote
party:
client-client connection: direct (not through
server)
Instant messaging
chatting between two users is P2P
centralized service: client presence
detection/location
user registers its IP address with central
server when it comes online
user contacts central server to find IP
addresses of buddies
153
Processes communicating
Process: program running Client process: process
within a host. that initiates
within same host, two
communication
processes communicate Server process: process
using inter-process that waits to be
communication (defined contacted
by OS).
processes in different Note: applications with
hosts communicate by P2P architectures have
exchanging messages client processes &
server processes
154
77
Sockets
host or host or
process sends/receives server server
messages to/from its
socket controlled by
application developer
socket analogous to door process process
sending process shoves socket socket

message out door TCP with TCP with
buffers, Internet buffers,
sending process relies on variables variables
transport infrastructure
on other side of door which
controlled
brings message to socket by OS
at receiving process
155
Addressing processes
to receive messages, identifier includes both
process must have IP address and port
identifier numbers associated with
host device has unique process on host.
32-bit IP address Example port numbers:
Q: does IP address of HTTP server: 80
host on which process Mail server: 25
runs suffice for to send HTTP message
identifying the to web server we need:
process? IP address: e.g.
A: No, many 128.119.245.12
processes can be Port number: 80
running on same host
156
78
Application layer protocol defines
Types of messages Public-domain protocols:

exchanged, defined in RFCs
e.g., request, response allows for
Message syntax: interoperability
what fields in messages &
e.g., HTTP, SMTP
how fields are delineated
Proprietary protocols:
Message semantics
meaning of information in
e.g., Skype
fields
Rules for when and how
processes send &
respond to messages
157
What transport service does an application need?
Data loss Throughput

some applications (e.g., audio) some applications (e.g.,
can tolerate some loss multimedia) require
other applications (e.g., file
minimum amount of
transfer, telnet) require 100%
throughput to be
reliable data transfer
effective
other applications (elastic
Timing applications) make use of
some applications (e.g., whatever throughput they get
Internet telephony, Security
interactive games)
Encryption, data
require low delay to be
effective integrity,
158
79
Transport service requirements of applications
Application Data loss Throughput Time Sensitive
file transfer no loss elastic no

e-mail no loss elastic no
Web documents no loss elastic no
real-time audio/video loss-tolerant audio: 5kbps-1Mbps yes, 100s msec
video:10kbps-5Mbps
stored audio/video loss-tolerant same as above yes, few secs
interactive games loss-tolerant few kbps up yes, 100s msec
instant messaging no loss elastic yes and no
159
Internet transport protocols services
TCP service: UDP service:

connection-oriented: setup unreliable data transfer
required between client and between sending and
server processes receiving process
reliable transport between does not provide:
sending and receiving process connection setup,
flow control: sender wont reliability, flow control,
overwhelm receiver congestion control, timing,
throughput guarantee, or
congestion control: throttle
security
sender when network
overloaded
does not provide: timing, Q: Why is there a UDP?
minimum throughput
guarantees, security
160
80
Internet: Application and transport protocols
Application Underlying
Application layer protocol transport protocol
e-mail SMTP [RFC 2821] TCP

remote terminal access Telnet [RFC 854] TCP
Web HTTP [RFC 2616] TCP
file transfer FTP [RFC 959] TCP
streaming multimedia HTTP (eg Youtube), TCP or UDP
RTP [RFC 1889]
Internet telephony SIP, RTP, proprietary
(e.g., Skype) typically UDP
Hypertext Transport Protocol (HTTP) is the

standard protocol for the carriage of data around an
RTP Real-time Transport Protocol internet. HTTPS (Secure HTTP) is an additional
161
SIP Session Initiation Protocol protocol function used to encrypt the HTTP payload.
Web and HTTP

Web page consists of objects
Object can be HTML file, JPEG image, Java
applet, audio file,
Web page consists of base HTML-file which
includes several referenced objects
Each object is addressable by a URL
Example URL:
www.someschool.edu/someDept/pic.gif
host name path name
URL - Uniform Resource Locator

A standard way of specifying the location of an object, typically a web page, on the Internet. URL
are the form of address used on the WWW (World Wide Web). 162
81
HTTP overview
HTTP: hypertext
transfer protocol
Webs application layer HTTP request
protocol
HTTP response
client/server model PC
client: browser that
requests, receives, Server
displays Web objects
server: Web server
sends objects in
response to requests
163
HTTP overview
Uses TCP: HTTP is stateless
client initiates TCP server maintains no
connection (creates socket) information about
to server, port 80 past client requests
server accepts TCP
connection from client Note
Protocols that maintain
HTTP messages (application- state are complex!
layer protocol messages) past history (state) must
exchanged between browser be maintained
(HTTP client) and Web
if server/client crashes,
server (HTTP server)
their views of state may
TCP connection closed
be inconsistent, must be
reconciled
164
82
HTTP connections
Nonpersistent HTTP Persistent HTTP
At most one object is Multiple objects can
sent over a TCP be sent over single
connection. TCP connection
between client and
server.
165
Electronic mail outgoing

message queue
user mailbox
user
Three major components: agent
user agents mail
user
server
mail servers agent
simple mail transfer SMTP mail
protocol: SMTP server user
SMTP agent
User agent
a.k.a. mail reader SMTP
mail user
composing, editing, reading agent
server
mail messages
e.g., Eudora, Outlook, user
agent
outgoing, incoming messages
user
stored on server agent
166
83
Electronic mail: Mail servers

user
Mail servers agent
mailbox contains incoming mail
user
messages for user server
agent
message queue of outgoing
SMTP
(to be sent) mail messages mail
server user
SMTP protocol between mail
servers to send email SMTP agent
messages SMTP
client: sending mail mail user
agent
server server
server: receiving mail
user
server agent
user
agent
167
Electronic Mail: SMTP [RFC 2821]
uses TCP to reliably transfer email message

from client to server, port 25
direct transfer: sending server to receiving
server
three phases of transfer
handshaking (greeting)
transfer of messages
closure
168
84
Scenario: A sends message to B

1) A uses UA to compose 4) SMTP client sends As
message message over the TCP
2) As UA sends message to connection
her mail server; message 5) Bs mail server places the
placed in message queue message in Bs mailbox
3) Client side of SMTP opens
TCP connection with Bs 6) B invokes his user agent to
mail server read message
1 mail
mail
server user
user server
2 agent
agent 3 6
4
5
169
Mail access protocols

SMTP SMTP access user
user
agent protocol agent
senders mail receivers mail

server server
SMTP: delivery/storage to receivers server

Mail access protocol: retrieval from server
POP: Post Office Protocol [RFC 1939]
authorization (agent <-->server) and download
IMAP: Internet Mail Access Protocol [RFC 1730]
more features (more complex)
manipulation of stored msgs on server
HTTP: gmail, Hotmail, Yahoo! Mail, etc.
170
85
DNS: Domain Name System
People: many identifiers: Domain Name System:

SSN, name, passport # distributed database
Internet hosts, routers: implemented in hierarchy of
many name servers
IP address (32 bit) -
application-layer protocol
used for addressing
host, routers, name servers to
datagrams
communicate to resolve names
name, e.g., (address/name translation)
www.yahoo.com - used
note: core Internet
by humans
function, implemented as
application-layer protocol
complexity at networks
edge
171
DNS
DNS services Why not centralize DNS?
hostname to IP single point of failure
address translation traffic volume
host aliasing distant centralized
Canonical, alias names database
mail server aliasing maintenance
load distribution
replicated Web doesnt scale!
servers: set of IP
addresses for one
canonical name
172
86
Distributed, hierarchical database

Root DNS Servers
com DNS servers org DNS servers edu DNS servers
pbs.org poly.edu umass.edu

yahoo.com amazon.com
DNS servers DNS serversDNS servers
DNS servers DNS servers
Client wants IP for www.amazon.com; 1st approx:

client queries a root server to find com DNS server
client queries com DNS server to get amazon.com
DNS server
client queries amazon.com DNS server to get IP
address for www.amazon.com
173
DNS: Root name servers

contacted by local name server that can not resolve name
root name server:
contacts authoritative name server if name mapping not known
gets mapping
returns mapping to local name server
a Verisign, Dulles, VA
c Cogent, Herndon, VA (also LA)
d U Maryland College Park, MD k RIPE London (also 16 other locations)
g US DoD Vienna, VA
h ARL Aberdeen, MD i Autonomica, Stockholm (plus
j Verisign, ( 21 locations) 28 other locations
e NASA Mt View, CA Tokyo
f Internet Software C. Palo Alto,
CA (and 36 other locations)
13 root name
servers worldwide
b USC-ISI Marina del Rey, CA
l ICANN Los Angeles, CA
174
87
TLD and authoritative servers

Top-level domain (TLD) servers:
responsible for com, org, net, edu, etc.
Authoritative DNS servers:
organizations DNS servers, providing
authoritative hostname to IP mappings for
organizations servers (e.g., Web, mail).
can be maintained by organization or service
provider
175
Local name server

does not strictly belong to hierarchy
each ISP (residential ISP, company,
university) has one.
also called default name server
when host makes DNS query, query is sent
to its local DNS server
acts as proxy, forwards query into hierarchy
176
88
DNS name root DNS server
resolution example
2
Host at cis.poly.edu 3
TLD DNS server
wants IP address for 4
gaia.cs.umass.edu 5
iterated query: local DNS server

dns.poly.edu
contacted server 7 6
replies with name of 1 8
server to contact
authoritative DNS server
I dont know this
dns.cs.umass.edu
name, but ask this requesting host
server cis.poly.edu
gaia.cs.umass.edu
177
DNS name
resolution example root DNS server
recursive query: 2 3
puts burden of name 6
7
resolution on
TLD DNS server
contacted name
server
heavy load? local DNS server
dns.poly.edu 5 4
1 8
authoritative DNS server

dns.cs.umass.edu
requesting host
cis.poly.edu
gaia.cs.umass.edu
178
89
DNS: Caching and updating records

once (any) name server learns mapping, it caches
mapping
cache entries timeout (disappear) after some
time
TLD servers typically cached in local name
servers
Thus root name servers not often visited
update/notify mechanisms under design by IETF
RFC 2136
http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/dnsind-charter.html
179
Transport Layer
90
Transport services and protocols

application
provide logical communication

transport
network
between application data link
physical
processes running on
different hosts
transport protocols run in
end systems
sender side: breaks
application messages into
segments, passes to
network layer
receiver side: application
reassembles segments transport
network
into messages, passes to data link
application layer physical
more than one transport

protocol available to
applications
Internet: TCP and UDP
181
Transport vs. network layer

network layer: logical communication
between hosts
transport layer: logical communication
between processes
transport layer
relies on and
enhances
network layer services
182
91
Internet transport-layer protocols

reliable, in-order
application
transport
network
delivery (TCP) data link
physical
network
congestion control data link
network
physical
data link
flow control physical
connection setup
unreliable, unordered
network
data link
physicalnetwork
delivery: UDP data link
physical
extension of best- network
data link
effort IP physical network
application
transport
data link network
services not available: physical data link
physical
delay guarantees
bandwidth guarantees
183
Multiplexing/demultiplexing
Demultiplexing at rcv host: Multiplexing at send host:
gathering data from multiple
delivering received segments
sockets, enveloping data with
to correct socket
header (later used for
demultiplexing)
= socket = process
P3 P1
P1 P2 P4 application
application application
transport transport transport
network network network
link link link
physical physical physical
host 2 host 3
host 1
184
92
How demultiplexing works

host receives IP datagrams
each datagram has source 32 bits
IP address, destination IP
address source port # dest port #
each datagram carries 1

transport-layer segment other header fields
each segment has source,
destination port number
host uses IP addresses & port application
numbers to direct segment to data
appropriate socket (message)
TCP/UDP segment format
185
Connectionless demultiplexing
When host receives UDP
Create sockets with port
segment:
numbers:
DatagramSocket mySocket1 = new checks destination port
DatagramSocket(12534); number in segment
DatagramSocket mySocket2 = new directs UDP segment to
DatagramSocket(12535); socket with that port
number
UDP socket identified by
two-tuple: IP datagrams with
different source IP
(dest IP address, dest port number)
addresses and/or source
port numbers directed
to same socket
186
93
Connectionless demux
DatagramSocket serverSocket = new DatagramSocket(6428);
P2 P1
P1
P3
SP: 6428 SP: 6428

DP: 9157 DP: 5775
SP: 9157 SP: 5775

client DP: 6428 DP: 6428 Client
server
IP: A IP: C IP:B
SP provides return address
187
Connection-oriented demux
TCP socket identified Server host may support
by 4-tuple: many simultaneous TCP
source IP address sockets:
source port number each socket identified by
dest IP address its own 4-tuple
dest port number Web servers have
receiver host uses all different sockets for
four values to direct each connecting client
segment to appropriate non-persistent HTTP will
socket have different socket for
each request
188
94
Connection-oriented demux
P1 P4 P5 P6 P2 P1P3
SP: 5775
DP: 80
S-IP: B
D-IP:C
SP: 9157 SP: 9157

client DP: 80 DP: 80 Client
server
IP: A S-IP: A
IP: C S-IP: B IP:B
D-IP:C D-IP:C
189
UDP: User Datagram Protocol [RFC 768]
Internet transport
protocol Why is there a UDP?
best effort service, UDP no connection
segments may be: establishment (which can
lost add delay)
delivered out of order simple: no connection state
to app at sender, receiver
connectionless: small segment header
no handshaking between no congestion control: UDP
UDP sender, receiver can blast away as fast as
each UDP segment desired
handled independently
of others
190
95
UDP (more)
often used for streaming
multimedia apps 32 bits
loss tolerant Length, in source port # dest port #

rate sensitive bytes of UDP length checksum
segment,
other UDP uses including
DNS header
SNMP
reliable transfer over UDP: Application
add reliability at data
application layer (message)
application-specific
error recovery!
UDP segment format
SNMP - Simple Network Management Protocol - is part of the TCP/IP suite and
191
is used to control and manage IP gateways and other network functions.
UDP checksum
Goal: detect errors (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted
segment
Sender: Receiver:
treat segment contents compute checksum of
as sequence of 16-bit received segment
integers check if computed checksum
checksum: addition (1s equals checksum field value:
complement sum) of NO - error detected
segment contents YES - no error detected.
sender puts checksum But maybe errors
value into UDP checksum nonetheless?
field
192
96
Internet checksum example

Note
When adding numbers, a carryout from the
most significant bit needs to be added to the
result
Example: add two 16-bit integers
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
wraparound 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
sum 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
checksum 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
193
Principles of reliable data transfer

important in app., transport, link layers
top-10 list of important networking topics!
characteristics of unreliable channel will determine

complexity of reliable data transfer protocol (rdt)
194
97


195


196
98
Reliable data transfer: Getting started

rdt_send(): called from above, deliver_data(): called by
(e.g., by app.). Passed data to rdt to deliver data to upper
deliver to receiver upper layer
send receive
side side
udt_send(): called by rdt, rdt_rcv(): called when packet

to transfer packet over arrives on rcv-side of channel
unreliable channel to receiver
197
Reliable data transfer: Getting started

Well:
incrementally develop sender, receiver sides of
reliable data transfer protocol (rdt)
consider only unidirectional data transfer
but control info will flow on both directions!
198
99
Rdt1.0: Reliable transfer over a reliable channel

underlying channel perfectly reliable
no bit errors
no loss of packets
sender, receiver:
sender sends data into underlying channel
receiver read data from underlying channel
199
Rdt2.0: Channel with bit errors

underlying channel may flip bits in packet
checksum to detect bit errors
the question: how to recover from errors:

acknowledgements (ACKs): receiver explicitly tells sender
that pkt received OK
negative acknowledgements (NAKs): receiver explicitly
tells sender that pkt had errors
sender retransmits pkt on receipt of NAK
new mechanisms in rdt2.0 (beyond rdt1.0):

error detection
receiver feedback: control msgs (ACK,NAK) rcvr->sender
200
100
rdt2.0 has a fatal weakness!

What happens if Handling duplicates:
ACK/NAK corrupted? sender retransmits current
sender doesnt know what pkt if ACK/NAK garbled
happened at receiver! sender adds sequence
cant just retransmit: number to each pkt
possible duplicate receiver discards (doesnt
deliver up) duplicate pkt
stop and wait

Sender sends one packet,
then waits for receiver
response
201
rdt2.1: Discussion
Sender: Receiver:
seq # added to pkt must check if received
two seq. #s (0,1) will packet is duplicate
suffice. state indicates whether
0 or 1 is expected pkt
must check if received seq #
ACK/NAK corrupted
note: receiver can not
twice as many states know if its last
state must remember ACK/NAK received OK
whether current pkt
at sender
has 0 or 1 seq. #
202
101
rdt2.2: NAK-free protocol
same functionality as rdt2.1, using ACKs only

instead of NAK, receiver sends ACK for last pkt
received OK
receiver must explicitly include seq # of pkt being ACKed
duplicate ACK at sender results in same action as
NAK: retransmit current pkt
203
rdt3.0: Channels with errors and loss
New assumption: Approach: sender waits

underlying channel can reasonable amount of
also lose packets (data time for ACK
or ACKs) retransmits if no ACK
checksum, seq. #, ACKs, received in this time
retransmissions will be if pkt (or ACK) just delayed
of help, but not enough (not lost):
retransmission will be
duplicate, but use of seq.
#s already handles this
receiver must specify seq
# of pkt being ACKed
requires countdown timer
204
102
rdt3.0 in action
205
rdt3.0 in action
206
103
Performance of rdt3.0
rdt3.0 works, but performance stinks

ex: 1 Gbps link, 15 ms prop. delay, 8000 bit packet:
L 8000 bits
d trans 8 microseconds
R 10 9 bps
U sender: utilization fraction of time sender busy sending
U L/R .008
sender
= = = 0.00027
RTT + L / R 30.008 microsec
1KB pkt every 30 msec -> 33kB/sec thruput over 1 Gbps link
network protocol limits use of physical resources!
Definition of RTT: time for a small packet to travel from client to server and207
back.
rdt3.0: Stop-and-wait operation

sender receiver
first packet bit transmitted, t = 0
last packet bit transmitted, t = L / R
first packet bit arrives

RTT last packet bit arrives, send ACK
ACK arrives, send next

packet, t = RTT + L / R
U L/R .008
sender
= = = 0.00027
RTT + L / R 30.008 microsec
208
104
Pipelined protocols
Pipelining: sender allows multiple, in-flight, yet-to-
be-acknowledged pkts
range of sequence numbers must be increased
buffering at sender and/or receiver
Two generic forms of pipelined protocols: go-Back-N,

selective repeat
209
Pipelining: Increased utilization

sender receiver
first packet bit transmitted, t = 0
last bit transmitted, t = L / R
first packet bit arrives

RTT last packet bit arrives, send ACK
last bit of 2nd packet arrives, send ACK
last bit of 3rd packet arrives, send ACK
ACK arrives, send next
packet, t = RTT + L / R
Increase utilization
by a factor of 3!
U 3*L/R .024
sender
= = = 0.0008
RTT + L / R 30.008 microsecon
210
105
Pipelining protocols
Go-back-N: big picture: Selective repeat: big
Sender can have up to picture
N unacked packets in Sender can have up to
pipeline N unacked packets in
Receiver only sends pipeline
cumulative acks Receiver acks
Doesnt ack packet if individual packets
theres a gap Sender maintains
Sender has timer for timer for each
oldest unacked packet unacked packet
If timer expires, When timer expires,
retransmit all unacked retransmit only unack
packets packet
211
Selective repeat: Big picture

Sender can have up to N unacked packets
in pipeline
Receiver acks individual packets
Sender maintains timer for each unacked
packet
When timer expires, retransmit only unack
packet
212
106
Go-Back-N
Sender:
k-bit seq # in pkt header
window of up to N, consecutive unacked pkts allowed
ACK(n): ACKs all pkts up to, including seq # n - cumulative ACK
may receive duplicate ACKs (see receiver)
timer for each in-flight pkt
timeout(n): retransmit pkt n and all higher seq # pkts in window
Receiver:
ACK-only: always send ACK for correctly-received pkt with
highest in-order seq #
may generate duplicate ACKs
need only remember expectedseqnum
out-of-order pkt:
discard (dont buffer) -> no receiver buffering!
Re-ACK pkt with highest in-order seq # 213
GBN in
action
214
107
Selective repeat
receiver individually acknowledges all correctly
received pkts
buffers pkts, as needed, for eventual in-order delivery
to upper layer
sender only resends pkts for which ACK not
received
sender timer for each unACKed pkt
sender window
N consecutive seq #s
again limits seq #s of sent, unACKed pkts
215
Selective repeat
sender receiver
data from above : pkt n in [rcvbase, rcvbase+N-1]
if next available seq # in send ACK(n)
window, send pkt out-of-order: buffer
timeout(n): in-order: deliver (also
resend pkt n, restart timer deliver buffered, in-order
pkts), advance window to
ACK(n) in [sendbase,sendbase+N]: next not-yet-received pkt
mark pkt n as received
pkt n in [rcvbase-N,rcvbase-1]
if n smallest unACKed pkt,
ACK(n)
advance window base to
next unACKed seq # otherwise:
ignore
216
108
TCP: Overview RFCs: 793, 1122, 1323, 2018, 2581
point-to-point: full duplex data:

one sender, one receiver bi-directional data flow
reliable, in-order byte in same connection

MSS: maximum segment
stream:
size
no message boundaries
connection-oriented:
pipelined:
handshaking (exchange
TCP congestion and flow
of control msgs) inits
control set window size sender, receiver state
send & receive buffers before data exchange
flow controlled:
application
sender will not
application
socket writes data reads data
socket
overwhelm receiver
door door
TCP TCP
send buffer receive buffer
segment
217
TCP segment structure

32 bits
URG: urgent data counting
(generally not used) source port # dest port #
by bytes
sequence number of data
ACK: ACK #
valid acknowledgement number (not segments!)
head not
PSH: push data now len used
UA P R S F Receive window
(generally not used) # bytes
checksum Urg data pnter
receiver willing
RST, SYN, FIN: to accept
Options (variable length)
connection estab
(setup, teardown
commands)
application
Internet data
checksum (variable length)
(as in UDP)
RST (1 bit) Reset the connection, SYN (1 bit) Synchronize sequence numbers,
218
FIN (1 bit) No more data from sender
109
TCP seq. #s and ACKs

Seq. #s:
Host A Host B
byte stream
number of first User
types
byte in segments C
data host ACKs
receipt of
ACKs: C, echoes
seq # of next byte back C
expected from
other side host ACKs
cumulative ACK receipt
of echoed
Q: how receiver handles C
out-of-order segments
A: TCP spec doesnt
time
say, - up to
simple telnet scenario
implementor
219
TCP Round Trip Time and Timeout

Q: how to set TCP Q: how to estimate RTT?
timeout value? SampleRTT: measured time from
longer than RTT segment transmission until ACK
but RTT varies
receipt
ignore retransmissions
too short: premature
timeout SampleRTT will vary, want
unnecessary
estimated RTT smoother
retransmissions average several recent
too long: slow reaction

measurements, not just
current SampleRTT
to segment loss
220
110

EstimatedRTT = (1- )*EstimatedRTT + *SampleRTT
Exponential weighted moving average

influence of past sample decreases exponentially fast
typical value: = 0.125
221
Example: RTT estimation
222
111

Setting the timeout
EstimtedRTT plus safety margin
large variation in EstimatedRTT -> larger safety margin
first estimate of how much SampleRTT deviates from
EstimatedRTT:
DevRTT = (1-)*DevRTT +
*|SampleRTT-EstimatedRTT|
(typically, = 0.25)
Then set timeout interval:
TimeoutInterval = EstimatedRTT + 4*DevRTT
223
TCP reliable data transfer

TCP creates rdt Retransmissions are
service on top of IPs triggered by:
unreliable service timeout events
Pipelined segments duplicate acks
Cumulative acks Initially consider
TCP uses single
simplified TCP sender:
ignore duplicate acks
retransmission timer
ignore flow control,
congestion control
224
112
TCP sender events

data rcvd from app: timeout:
Create segment with retransmit segment
seq # that caused timeout
seq # is byte-stream restart timer
number of first data Ack rcvd:
byte in segment If acknowledges
start timer if not previously unacked
already running (think segments
of timer as for oldest update what is known to
unacked segment) be acked
expiration interval: start timer if there are
TimeOutInterval outstanding segments
225
TCP: Retransmission scenarios

Host A Host B Host A Host B
Seq=92 timeout
timeout
X
loss
Sendbase
= 100
Seq=92 timeout
SendBase
= 120
SendBase
= 100 SendBase
= 120 premature timeout
time time
lost ACK scenario 226
113
TCP: Retransmission scenarios (more)

timeout Host A Host B
X
loss
SendBase
= 120
time
Cumulative ACK scenario
227
TCP ACK generation [RFC 1122, RFC 2581]
Event at Receiver TCP Receiver action

Arrival of in-order segment with Delayed ACK. Wait up to 500ms
expected seq #. All data up to for next segment. If no next segment,
expected seq # already ACKed send ACK
Arrival of in-order segment with Immediately send single cumulative

expected seq #. One other ACK, ACKing both in-order segments
segment has ACK pending
Arrival of out-of-order segment Immediately send duplicate ACK,

higher-than-expect seq. # . indicating seq. # of next expected byte
Gap detected
Arrival of segment that Immediate send ACK, provided that

partially or completely fills gap segment starts at lower end of gap
228
114
Fast retransmit
Time-out period often If sender receives 3
relatively long: ACKs for the same
long delay before data, it supposes that
resending lost packet segment after ACKed
Detect lost segments data was lost:
via duplicate ACKs. fast retransmit: resend
Sender often sends segment before timer
many segments back-to- expires
back
If segment is lost,
there will likely be many
duplicate ACKs.
229
Host A Host B
X
timeout
time
Resending a segment after triple duplicate ACK 230
115
TCP flow control

flow control
sender wont overflow
receive side of TCP receivers buffer by
connection has a transmitting too much,
receive buffer: too fast
speed-matching
service: matching the
send rate to the
receiving apps drain
rate
application process
may be slow at reading
from buffer
231
TCP flow control: How it works

Rcvr advertises spare
room by including value
of RcvWindow in
segments
Sender limits unACKed
(Suppose TCP receiver data to RcvWindow
discards out-of-order guarantees receive
segments) buffer doesnt overflow
spare room in buffer
= RcvWindow
= RcvBuffer-[LastByteRcvd -
LastByteRead]
232
116
TCP connection management

Recall: TCP sender, receiver Three way handshake:
establish connection
before exchanging data Step 1: client host sends TCP
segments SYN segment to server
initialize TCP variables: specifies initial seq #
seq. #s no data
buffers, flow control Step 2: server host receives

info (e.g. RcvWindow) SYN, replies with SYNACK
client: connection initiator segment
Socket clientSocket = new
server allocates buffers

Socket("hostname","port
specifies server initial
number");
seq. #
server: contacted by client
Socket connectionSocket =
Step 3: client receives SYNACK,
welcomeSocket.accept(); replies with ACK segment,
which may contain data
233
TCP connection management (more)
Closing a connection: client server
close
client closes socket:
clientSocket.close();
Step 1: client end system close

sends TCP FIN control
segment to server
timed wait
Step 2: server receives

FIN, replies with ACK.
Closes connection, sends
FIN. closed
234
117
Step 3: client receives FIN, client server

replies with ACK. closing
Enters timed wait -
will respond with ACK
to received FINs
closing
Step 4: server, receives
ACK. Connection closed.
timed wait
Note: with small
closed
modification, can handle
simultaneous FINs.
closed
235
TCP server
lifecycle
TCP client
lifecycle
236
118
Principles of congestion control
Congestion:
informally: too many sources sending too much
data too fast for network to handle
different from flow control!
manifestations:
lost packets (buffer overflow at routers)
long delays (queueing in router buffers)
a top-10 problem!
237
Causes/costs of congestion: Scenario 1

Host A
out
two senders, two
in : original data
receivers
unlimited shared
one router,
Host B
output link buffers
infinite buffers
no retransmission
large delays
when congested
maximum
achievable
throughput
238
119
one router, finite buffers

sender retransmission of lost packet
Host A in : original out

data
'in : original data, plus
retransmitted data
Host B finite shared output

link buffers
239

always: in= out (goodput)
perfect retransmission only when loss: in> out
retransmission of delayed (not lost) packet makes larger
in
(than perfect case) for same out
R/2 R/2 R/2
R/3
out
out
out
R/4
R/2 R/2 R/2

in in in
a. b. c.
costs of congestion:
more work (retrans) for given goodput
unneeded retransmissions: link carries multiple copies of pkt
240
120

four senders Q: what happens as
multihop paths in
and increase ?
timeout/retransmit in
Host A out
in : original data
'in : original data, plus
retransmitted data
finite shared output

link buffers
Host B
241

H
o
o
s
u
t
A t
H
o
s
t
B
Another cost of congestion:

when packet dropped, any upstream transmission
capacity used for that packet was wasted!
242
121
Approaches towards congestion control

Two broad approaches towards congestion control:
End-end congestion Network-assisted

control: congestion control:
no explicit feedback from routers provide feedback
network to end systems
congestion inferred from single bit indicating
end-system observed loss, congestion (SNA,
delay DECbit, TCP/IP ECN,
approach taken by TCP ATM)
explicit rate sender
243
Case study: ATM ABR congestion control
ABR: available bit rate: RM (resource management)

elastic service cells:
if senders path sent by sender, interspersed
underloaded: with data cells
sender should use bits in RM cell set by switches
available bandwidth (network-assisted)
if senders path NI bit: no increase in rate
congested: (mild congestion)
sender throttled to CI bit: congestion
minimum guaranteed indication
rate RM cells returned to sender by
receiver, with bits intact
244
122
Case study: ATM ABR congestion control
two-byte ER (explicit rate) field in RM cell

congested switch may lower ER value in cell
sender send rate thus maximum supportable rate on path
EFCI bit in data cells: set to 1 in congested switch

if data cell preceding RM cell has EFCI set, sender sets CI
bit in returned RM cell
245
TCP congestion control: additive increase,

multiplicative decrease
Approach: increase transmission rate (window size), probing for
usable bandwidth, until loss occurs
additive increase: increase CongWin by 1 MSS every RTT
until loss detected
multiplicative decrease: cut CongWin in half after loss
congestion
window
congestion window size
24 Kbytes
Saw tooth 16 Kbytes
behavior: probing
for bandwidth 8 Kbytes
time
time
The Maximum segment size (MSS) is the largest amount of data, specified in bytes, that TCP is
willing to send in a single segment. For best performance, the MSS should be set small enough to
246
avoid IP fragmentation, which can lead to excessive retransmissions if there is packet loss.
123
TCP congestion control: Details

sender limits transmission: How does sender
LastByteSent-LastByteAcked perceive congestion?
CongWin loss event = timeout or
Roughly, 3 duplicate acks
CongWin TCP sender reduces
rate = Bytes/sec
RTT rate (CongWin) after
CongWin is dynamic, function
loss event
of perceived network three mechanisms:
congestion AIMD
slow start
The additive increase/multiplicative-decrease (AIMD)
conservative after
algorithm is a feedback control algorithm used in TCP
Congestion Avoidance. AIMD combines linear growth of timeout events
the congestion window with an exponential reduction
247
when a congestion takes place.
TCP slow start

When connection begins, When connection begins,
CongWin = 1 MSS increase rate
Example: MSS = 500 exponentially fast until
bytes & RTT = 200 msec first loss event
initial rate = 20 kbps
available bandwidth may
be >> MSS/RTT
desirable to quickly ramp
up to respectable rate
248
124
TCP slow start (more)

When connection Host A Host B
begins, increase rate
exponentially until
RTT
first loss event:
double CongWin every
RTT
done by incrementing
CongWin for every ACK
received
Summary: initial rate
is slow but ramps up
exponentially fast time
249
Refinement: Inferring loss

After 3 dup ACKs:
CongWin is cut in half Philosophy:
window then grows
linearly 3 dup ACKs indicates
But after timeout event:
network capable of
delivering some segments
CongWin instead set to
timeout indicates a
1 MSS;
more alarming
window then grows congestion scenario
exponentially
to a threshold, then
grows linearly
250
125
Refinement
Q: When should the
exponential
increase switch to
linear?
A: When CongWin
gets to 1/2 of its
value before
timeout.
Implementation:
Variable Threshold
At loss event, Threshold is
set to 1/2 of CongWin just
before loss event
251
Summary: TCP congestion control
When CongWin is below Threshold, sender in

slow-start phase, window grows exponentially.
When CongWin is above Threshold, sender is in

congestion-avoidance phase, window grows linearly.
When a triple duplicate ACK occurs, Threshold

set to CongWin/2 and CongWin set to
Threshold.
When timeout occurs, Threshold set to

CongWin/2 and CongWin is set to 1 MSS.
252
126
TCP sender congestion control

State Event TCP Sender Action Commentary
Slow Start ACK receipt CongWin = CongWin + MSS, Resulting in a doubling of
(SS) for previously If (CongWin > Threshold) CongWin every RTT
unacked set state to Congestion
data Avoidance
Congestion ACK receipt CongWin = CongWin+MSS * Additive increase, resulting
Avoidance for previously (MSS/CongWin) in increase of CongWin by
(CA) unacked 1 MSS every RTT
data
SS or CA Loss event Threshold = CongWin/2, Fast recovery,
detected by CongWin = Threshold, implementing multiplicative
triple Set state to Congestion decrease. CongWin will not
duplicate Avoidance drop below 1 MSS.
ACK
SS or CA Timeout Threshold = CongWin/2, Enter slow start
CongWin = 1 MSS,
Set state to Slow Start
SS or CA Duplicate Increment duplicate ACK count CongWin and Threshold not
ACK for segment being acked changed
253
TCP throughput
Whats the average throughout of TCP as a
function of window size and RTT?
Ignore slow start
Let W be the window size when loss occurs.
When window is W, throughput is W/RTT
Just after loss, window drops to W/2,
throughput to W/2RTT.
Average throughout: .75 W/RTT
254
127
TCP fairness
Fairness goal: if K TCP sessions share same
bottleneck link of bandwidth R, each should have
average rate of R/K
TCP connection 1
bottleneck
TCP
router
connection 2
capacity R
255
Fairness (more)
Fairness and UDP Fairness and parallel TCP
connections
Multimedia apps often
do not use TCP nothing prevents app from
do not want rate opening parallel
throttled by congestion connections between 2
control hosts.
Instead use UDP: Web browsers do this
pump audio/video at Example: link of rate R
constant rate, tolerate supporting 9 connections;
packet loss
new app asks for 1 TCP, gets
Research area: TCP rate R/10
friendly new app asks for 11 TCPs,
gets R/2 !
256
128
Network Layer
Network layer
transport segment from application
transport
sending to receiving host network

data link
physical
on sending side network
data link
network
data link
encapsulates segments
network physical
physical
data link
physical
into datagrams
network network
data link data link
physical physical
on receiving side, network network

delivers segments to data link
physical
network
data link
physical
transport layer data link

physical
application
network layer protocols network
data link
transport
network
in every host, router

network
physical data link
network data link
physical
data link physical
router examines header

physical

fields in all IP datagrams
passing through it
258
129
Two key network-layer functions
forwarding: move analogy:

packets from routers
input to routers routing: process of
output planning trip from
source to destination
routing: determine
route taken by forwarding: process
packets from source of getting through
to destination single interchange or
crossroads
routing algorithms
259
Interaction between routing and forwarding
routing algorithm
local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1
value in arriving
packets header
0111 1
3 2
260
130
Connection setup
important function in some network architectures:
ATM, frame relay, X.25
before datagrams flow, two end hosts and intervening
routers establish virtual connection
routers get involved
network vs transport layer connection service:
network: between two hosts (may also involve
intervening routers in case of VCs)
transport: between two processes
261
The X.25 protocol is a widely available, low speed, packet switched data service.
Network service model

Q: What service model for channel transporting
datagrams from sender to receiver?
Example services for Example services for a

individual datagrams: flow of datagrams:
guaranteed delivery in-order datagram
guaranteed delivery delivery
with less than 40 msec guaranteed minimum
delay bandwidth to flow
restrictions on
changes in inter-
packet spacing
262
131
Network layer service models

Guarantees ?
Network Service Congestion
Architecture Model Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback
Internet best effort none no no no no (inferred

via loss)
ATM CBR constant yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM VBR guaranteed yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM ABR guaranteed no yes no yes
minimum
ATM UBR none no yes no no
ABR (Available Bit Rate) is QoS (Quality of Service) class used for connections that do not
require timing relationships between source and destination. ABR provides no guarantees in
terms of cell loss or delay, providing only best-effort service. Unspecified Bit Rate - 263
(UBR)
Network layer connection and

connectionless service
datagram network provides network-layer
connectionless service
VC network provides network-layer
connection service
analogous to the transport-layer services,
but:
service: host-to-host
no choice: network provides one or the other
implementation: in network core
132
Virtual circuits
source-to-dest path behaves much like telephone
circuit
performance-wise
network actions along source-to-destination path
call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host
address)
every router on source-destination path maintains state
for each passing connection
link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be
allocated to VC (dedicated resources = predictable service)
265
VC implementation
a VC consists of:
1. path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link along
path
3. entries in forwarding tables in routers along
path
packet belonging to VC carries VC number
(rather than destination address)
VC number can be changed on each link.
New VC number comes from forwarding table
266
133
ForwardingVCtable
number
12 22 32
1 3
2
Forwarding table in interface

northwest router: number
Incoming interface Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC #
1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87

Routers maintain connection state information!

267
Virtual circuits: Signaling protocols
used to setup, maintain teardown VC

used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
not used Internet
application
6. Receive data application
transport 5. Data flow begins
network 4. Call connected 3. Accept call transport
data link 1. Initiate call 2. incoming call network
data link
physical
physical
268
134
Datagram networks
no call setup at network layer
routers: no state about end-to-end connections
no network-level concept of connection
packets forwarded using destination host address

packets between same source-destination pair may take
different paths
application
application
transport
transport
network
data link 1. Send data 2. Receive data network
data link
physical
physical
269
Datagram or VC network?
Internet (datagram) ATM (VC)

data exchange among evolved from telephony
computers
human conversation:
elastic service, no strict
strict timing, reliability
timing req.
requirements
smart end systems
need for guaranteed
(computers)
service
can adapt, perform
dumb end systems
control, error recovery
telephones
simple inside network,
complexity inside
complexity at edge
network
many link types
different characteristics
uniform service difficult
270
135
Router architecture overview

Two key router functions:
run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link
271
More of router architecture on Switching Systems course!
Internet Network layer

Host, router network layer functions:
Transport layer: TCP, UDP
Routing protocols IP protocol

path selection addressing conventions
RIP, OSPF, BGP datagram format
Network packet handling conventions
layer forwarding
ICMP protocol
table
error reporting
router signaling
Link layer
physical layer
136
IP datagram format
IP protocol version 32 bits
number total datagram
header length length (bytes)
ver head. type of length
(bytes) len service for
type of data fragment fragmentation/
16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number time to upper header
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
32 bit source IP address
each router)
32 bit destination IP address
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to Options (if any) E.g. timestamp,
record route
how much overhead data taken, specify
with TCP? (variable length, list of routers
20 bytes of TCP typically a TCP to visit.
or UDP segment)
20 bytes of IP
= 40 bytes + app
layer overhead
IP fragmentation & reassembly

network links have MTU
(max.transfer size) - largest
possible link-level frame.
different link types, fragmentation:
different MTUs in: one large datagram
out: 3 smaller datagrams
large IP datagram divided
(fragmented) within net
one datagram becomes
several datagrams reassembly
reassembled only at final
destination
IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments
MTU - Maximum Transmission Unit is defined as the maximum packet size (in
bytes or octets), that a particular interface can handle. For example, the MTU for
274
Ethernet is 1500 bytes.
137
IP addressing: Introduction
IP address: 32-bit 223.1.1.1
identifier for host, 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2
router interface 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
interface: connection
223.1.2.2
between host/router 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27
and physical link

routers typically have
multiple interfaces 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
host typically has one
interface
IP addresses
associated with each 223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
interface
223 1 1 1
275
Subnets
IP address: 223.1.1.1
subnet part (high 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2
order bits) 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
host part (low order
bits) 223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2
223.1.3.27
Whats a subnet ?
subnet
device interfaces with
same subnet part of IP 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
address
can physically reach
each other without
intervening router network consisting of 3 subnets
276
138
Subnets
223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24
Recipe
To determine the
subnets, detach each
interface from its
host or router,
creating islands of
isolated networks.
Each isolated network
is called a subnet.
223.1.3.0/24
Subnet mask: /24

277
Example: Subnets
223.1.1.2
How many? 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0
223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0
223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27
223.1.2.1 223.1.2.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
139
IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address
subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23
279
IP addresses: How to get one?
Q: How does a host get IP address?
hard-coded by system administrator

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address from a server
plug-and-play
140
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
Goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address

from network server when it joins network
Can renew its lease on address in use
Allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while connected
an on)
Support for mobile users who want to join network
DHCP overview:
host broadcasts DHCP discover msg
DHCP server responds with DHCP offer msg
host requests IP address: DHCP request msg
DHCP server sends address: DHCP ack msg
DHCP client-server scenario
A 223.1.1.1 DHCP 223.1.2.1

server
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
B
223.1.2.2 arriving DHCP
223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27 E client needs
address in this
223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
network
141
IP addresses: How to get one?

Q: How does network get subnet part of IP
addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISPs
address space
ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20
Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23

Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... .. . .
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23
283
Hierarchical addressing: Route aggregation
Hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing

information:
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . ISP1 200.23.16.0/20
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
Send me anything
ISP2
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16
284
142
IP addressing
Q: How does an ISP get block of addresses?

A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers
allocates addresses
manages DNS
assigns domain names, resolves disputes
285
NAT: Network Address Translation
rest of local network

Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1
10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7
10.0.0.3
All datagrams leaving local Datagrams with source or

network have same single source destination in this network
NAT IP address: 138.76.29.7, have 10.0.0/24 address for
different source port numbers source, destination (as usual)
143
Motivation: local network uses just one IP address as

far as outside world is concerned:
range of addresses not needed from ISP: just one IP
address for all devices
can change addresses of devices in local network
without notifying outside world
can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
devices inside local net not explicitly addressable,
visible by outside world (a security plus).
287

Implementation: NAT router must:
outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port

#) of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address,
new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT
IP address, new port #) as destination addr.
remember (in NAT translation table) every (source

IP address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #)
translation pair
incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new

port #) in dest fields of every incoming datagram
with corresponding (source IP address, port #)
stored in NAT table
288
144

NAT translation table
2: NAT router 1: host 10.0.0.1
WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40.186, 80
source addr from

10.0.0.1, 3345 to
138.76.29.7, 5001, S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
updates table D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345 4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
3: Reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345
16-bit port-number field:

60,000 simultaneous connections with a single
LAN-side address!
NAT is controversial:
routers should only process up to layer 3
violates end-to-end argument
NAT possibility must be taken into account by
application designers, eg, P2P applications
address shortage should instead be solved by
IPv6
145
NAT traversal problem

client wants to connect to
server with address 10.0.0.1
10.0.0.1
server address 10.0.0.1 local Client
to LAN (client cant use it as ?
destination addr)
only one externally visible 10.0.0.4
NATted address: 138.76.29.7
138.76.29.7 NAT
solution 1: statically
router
configure NAT to forward
incoming connection
requests at given port to
server
e.g., (138.76.29.7, port 2500)
always forwarded to 10.0.0.1
port 25000

solution 2: Universal Plug and
Play (UPnP) Internet Gateway 10.0.0.1
Device (IGD) Protocol.
IGD
allows NATted host to:
learn public IP address 10.0.0.4
(138.76.29.7) 138.76.29.7 NAT

add/remove port mappings router
(with lease times)
i.e., automate static NAT port

map configuration
146

solution 3: relaying (used in Skype)
NATed client establishes connection to relay
External client connects to relay
relay bridges packets between to connections
2. connection to
relay initiated 1. connection to
by client relay initiated
10.0.0.1
by NATted host
3. relaying
Client
established
138.76.29.7 NAT
router
ICMP: Internet Control Message

Protocol
used by hosts & routers to communicate network-level
information
error reporting: unreachable host, network, port,
protocol
echo request/reply (used by ping)
network-layer above IP:
ICMP msgs carried in IP datagrams
ICMP message: type, code plus first 8 bytes of IP datagram
causing error
147
IPv6
Initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon
to be completely allocated.
Additional motivation:
header format helps speed processing/forwarding
header changes to facilitate QoS
IPv6 datagram format:
fixed-length 40 byte header
no fragmentation allowed
295
IPv6 header
Priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow
Flow Label: identify datagrams in same flow.
(concept offlow not well defined).
Next header: identify upper layer protocol for data
296
148
Other changes from IPv4

Checksum: removed entirely to reduce
processing time at each hop
Options: allowed, but outside of header,
indicated by Next Header field
ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
additional message types, e.g. Packet Too Big
multicast group management functions
297
Transition from IPv4 to IPv6

Not all routers can be upgraded simultaneous
How will the network operate with mixed IPv4 and
IPv6 routers?
Tunneling: IPv6 carried as payload in IPv4
datagram among IPv4 routers
A B tunnel
E F
Logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6
A B E F
Physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6
298
149
Tunneling
A B tunnel
E F
Logical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6
A B C D E F
Physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6
Flow: X Src:B Src:B Flow: X

Src: A Dest: E Dest: E Src: A
Dest: F Dest: F
Flow: X Flow: X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data
data data
A-to-B: E-to-F:
B-to-C: B-to-C:
IPv6 IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4
299
Interaction between routing, forwarding
routing algorithm
local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1
value in arriving
packets header
0111 1
3 2
300
150
Routing algorithm classification

Global or decentralized Static or dynamic?
information? Static:
Global:
routes change slowly
all routers have complete
topology, link cost info
over time
link state algorithms Dynamic:
Decentralized: routes change more
router knows physically- quickly
connected neighbors, link
periodic update
costs to neighbors
iterative process of in response to link
computation, exchange of cost changes
info with neighbors
distance vector algorithms
Routing algorithm: algorithm that finds least-cost path

More of routing algorithms on Switching Systems and Telecommunication Network Design
301
courses!
(Data) Link Layer
151
Link layer: Introduction

Some terminology:
hosts and routers are nodes
communication channels that
connect adjacent nodes along
communication path are links
wired links
wireless links
LANs
layer-2 packet is a frame,
encapsulates datagram
data-link layer has responsibility of

transferring datagram from one node
to adjacent node over a link
303
Link layer: Context

datagram transferred by
transportation analogy
trip from Princeton to
different link protocols
Lausanne
over different links:
limo: Princeton to JFK
e.g., Ethernet on first link,
plane: JFK to Geneva
frame relay on
intermediate links, 802.11 train: Geneva to Lausanne
on last link tourist = datagram

each link protocol transport segment =
provides different communication link
services transportation mode =
e.g., may or may not link layer protocol
provide rdt over link
travel agent = routing
algorithm
304
152
Link layer services

framing, link access:
encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header, trailer
channel access if shared medium
MAC addresses used in frame headers to identify
source, dest
different from IP address!
reliable delivery between adjacent nodes
we learned how to do this already (chapter 3)!
seldom used on low bit-error link (fiber, some twisted
pair)
wireless links: high error rates
Q: why both link-level and end-end reliability?
A: just to make sure? Wasted resources?
305
Link layer services (more)

flow control:
pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes
error detection:
errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
receiver detects presence of errors:
signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
error correction:
receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without
resorting to retransmission
half-duplex and full-duplex
with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can transmit,
but not at same time
306
153
Where is the link layer implemented?

in each and every host
link layer implemented in
adapter (aka network
interface card, NIC) host schematic
Ethernet card, PCMCIA application

card, 802.11 card transport
network cpu memory
implements link, physical link
layer
host
attaches into hosts system controller
bus
buses
(e.g., PCI)
link
physical
combination of hardware, physical
transmission
software, firmware
PCMCIA - Personal Computer Memory Card network adapter
International Association card
Technical standard for small cards which are

able to plug into notebooks to provide enhanced
functions. Common examples include network 307
cards, modem cards and security cards.
Adapters communicate
datagram datagram
controller controller
sending host receiving host

datagram
frame
sending side: receiving side

encapsulates datagram in looks for errors, rdt, flow
frame control, etc
adds error checking bits, extracts datagram, passes
rdt, flow control, etc. to upper layer at receiving
side
308
154
Error Detection and Correction (EDC)

EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)
D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields
Error detection not 100% reliable!

protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
larger EDC field yields better detection and correction
otherwise
309
Parity checking
Single Bit Parity: Two Dimensional Bit Parity:
Detect single bit errors Detect and correct single bit errors
0 0
310
155
Internet checksum
Goal: detect errors (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted
packet (note: used at transport layer only)
Sender: Receiver:
compute checksum of
treat segment contents
as sequence of 16-bit received segment
integers check if computed checksum
checksum: addition (1s

equals checksum field value:
complement sum) of NO - error detected
segment contents YES - no error detected.
sender puts checksum But maybe errors
value into UDP checksum nonetheless?
field
311
Checksumming: Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
view data bits, D, as a binary number

choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G
goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that
<D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo 2)
receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero remainder:
error detected!
can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
widely used in practice (Ethernet, 802.11 WiFi, ATM)
156
CRC example
Want:
D.2r XOR R = nG
equivalently:
D.2r = nG XOR R
equivalently:
if we divide D.2r by
G, want remainder R
D.2r
R = remainder[ ]
G
Multiple access links and protocols

Two types of links:
point-to-point
PPP for dial-up access
point-to-point link between Ethernet switch and host
broadcast (shared wire or medium)
old-fashioned Ethernet
upstream HFC
802.11 wireless LAN
humans at a
shared wire (e.g., shared RF shared RF cocktail party
cabled Ethernet) (e.g., 802.11 WiFi) (satellite) (shared air, acoustical)
314
157
Multiple access protocols

single shared broadcast channel
two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes:
interference
collision if node receives two or more signals at the same time
multiple access protocol
distributed algorithm that determines how nodes
share channel, i.e., determine when node can transmit
communication about channel sharing must use channel
itself!
no out-of-band channel for coordination
315
Ideal multiple access protocol

Broadcast channel of rate R bps
1. when one node wants to transmit, it can send at
rate R.
2. when M nodes want to transmit, each can send at
average rate R/M
3. fully decentralized:
no special node to coordinate transmissions
no synchronization of clocks
4. simple
316
158
MAC Protocols: Taxonomy

Three broad classes:
Channel Partitioning
divide channel into smaller pieces (time slots,
frequency, code)
allocate piece to node for exclusive use
Random Access
channel not divided, allow collisions
recover from collisions
Taking turns
nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can take
longer turns
317
Channel partitioning MAC protocols: TDMA
TDMA: time division multiple access

access to channel in "rounds"
each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt
trans time) in each round
unused slots go idle
example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, slots 2,5,6
idle
6-slot
frame
1 3 4 1 3 4
318
159
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: FDMA

FDMA: frequency division multiple access
channel spectrum divided into frequency bands
each station assigned fixed frequency band
unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle
example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, frequency
bands 2,5,6 idle
frequency bands
FDM cable
319
Random access protocols

When node has packet to send
transmit at full channel data rate R.
no a priori coordination among nodes
two or more transmitting nodes collision,

random access MAC protocol specifies:
how to detect collisions
how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed
retransmissions)
Examples of random access MAC protocols:
slotted ALOHA
ALOHA
CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
CSMA/CD - Carrier Sensing Multiple Access / Collision Detection
320
CSMA/CA - Carrier Sensing Multiple Access / Collision Avoidance
160
Slotted ALOHA
Assumptions: Operation:
all frames same size when node obtains fresh
time divided into equal frame, transmits in next
size slots (time to slot
transmit 1 frame) if no collision: node can
nodes start to transmit send new frame in next
only slot beginning slot
nodes are synchronized if collision: node
if 2 or more nodes
retransmits frame in
transmit in slot, all each subsequent slot
nodes detect collision with prob. p until
success
Slotted ALOHA
Pros Cons
single active node can collisions, wasting slots
continuously transmit idle slots
at full rate of channel nodes may be able to
highly decentralized: detect collision in less
only slots in nodes than time to transmit
packet
need to be in sync
clock synchronization
simple
322
161
Slotted Aloha efficiency

Efficiency : long-run max efficiency: find
fraction of successful slots p* that maximizes
(many nodes, all with many Np(1-p)N-1
frames to send) for many nodes, take
limit of Np*(1-p*)N-1
suppose: N nodes with as N goes to infinity,
many frames to send, gives:
each transmits in slot Max efficiency = 1/e = .37
with probability p
!
prob that given node At best: channel
has success in a slot = used for useful
p(1-p)N-1 transmissions 37%
prob that any node has of time!
a success = Np(1-p)N-1
323
Pure (unslotted) ALOHA

unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization
when frame first arrives
transmit immediately
collision probability increases:

frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1,t0+1]
324
162
Pure Aloha efficiency

P(success by given node) = P(node transmits) .
P(no other node transmits in [t0-1,t0] .

P(no other node transmits in [t0,t0+1]
= p . (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1
= p . (1-p)2(N-1)
choosing optimum p and then letting n -> infinity ...
= 1/(2e) = .18
even worse than slotted Aloha!
325
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA: listen before transmit:

If channel sensed idle: transmit entire frame
If channel sensed busy, defer transmission
human analogy: dont interrupt others!
326
163
CSMA collisions
spatial layout of nodes
collisions can still occur:
propagation delay means
two nodes may not hear
each others transmission
collision:
entire packet transmission
time wasted
note:
role of distance & propagation
delay in determining collision
probability
CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)

CSMA/CD:
collisions detected within short time
colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel
wastage
collision detection:
easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths,
compare transmitted, received signals
difficult in wireless LANs: received signal strength
overwhelmed by local transmission strength
human analogy: the polite conversationalist
328
164
CSMA/CD collision detection
Taking Turns MAC protocols

channel partitioning MAC protocols:
share channel efficiently and fairly at high load
inefficient at low load: delay in channel access,
1/N bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active
node!
Random access MAC protocols
efficient at low load: single node can fully
utilize channel
high load: collision overhead
taking turns protocols
look for best of both worlds!
330
165

Polling:
master node
invites slave nodes data
to transmit in turn poll
typically used with master

dumb slave devices data
concerns:
polling overhead
latency slaves
single point of
failure (master)
331

Token passing:
T
control token passed
from one node to next
sequentially.
token message (nothing
to send)
concerns:
T
token overhead
latency
single point of failure
(token)
data
332
166
Summary of MAC protocols

channel partitioning, by time, frequency or code
Time Division, Frequency Division
random access (dynamic),

ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire), hard in
others (wireless)
CSMA/CD used in Ethernet
CSMA/CA used in 802.11
taking turns
polling from central site, token passing
Bluetooth, FDDI, IBM Token Ring
Bluetooth is a technical specification to standardize wireless transmission between a variety
of devices such as tablets, mobile phones, laptops, printers etc. The system operates at
2.45GHz over distances of ~10m and offers a gross data rate of 1Mbps.
FDDI - Fiber Distributed Data Interface - is a 100Mbps fiber optic LAN (Local Area
Network) technology employing two fiber rings and token passing technology in order to allow
333
hosts to access the network.
MAC addresses
32-bit IP address:
network-layer address
used to get datagram to destination IP subnet
MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet)

address:
function: get frame from one interface to another
physically-connected interface (same network)
48 bit MAC address
burned in NIC ROM, also sometimes software settable
334
167
LAN addresses
Each adapter on LAN has unique LAN address
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD Broadcast address =

FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
LAN
(wired or = adapter
wireless)
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
335
LAN address (more)

MAC address allocation administered by IEEE
manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space
(to assure uniqueness)
analogy:
(a) MAC address: like Social Security Number
(b) IP address: like postal address
MAC flat address portability
can move LAN card from one LAN to another
IP hierarchical address NOT portable
address depends on IP subnet to which node is attached
336
168
ARP: Address Resolution Protocol
Question: how to determine Each IP node (host,

MAC address of B router) on LAN has
knowing Bs IP address? ARP table
ARP table: IP/MAC
137.196.7.78
address mappings for
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
some LAN nodes
137.196.7.23
137.196.7.14 < IP address; MAC address; TTL>
TTL (Time To Live): time
LAN after which address
71-65-F7-2B-08-53 mapping will be forgotten
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
(typically 20 min)
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
137.196.7.88
337
ARP protocol: Same LAN (network)

A wants to send datagram
to B, and Bs MAC address A caches (saves) IP-to-
not in As ARP table. MAC address pair in its
A broadcasts ARP query ARP table until information
packet, containing B's IP becomes old (times out)
address soft state: information
dest MAC address = FF- that times out (goes
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF away) unless refreshed
all machines on LAN ARP is plug-and-play:
receive ARP query nodes create their ARP
B receives ARP packet, tables without
replies to A with its (B's) intervention from net
MAC address administrator
frame sent to As MAC
address (unicast)
338
169
Addressing: Routing to another LAN

walkthrough: send datagram from A to B via R
assume A knows Bs IP address
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F
A E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
222.222.222.221
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.220 222.222.222.222
111.111.111.110
B
111.111.111.112
R 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D
two ARP tables in router R, one for each IP

network (LAN)
339
A creates IP datagram with source A, destination B

A uses ARP to get Rs MAC address for 111.111.111.110
A creates link-layer frame with R's MAC address as dest,
frame contains A-to-B IP datagram
As NIC sends frame
Rs NIC receives frame
R removes IP datagram from Ethernet frame, sees its
destined to B
R uses ARP to get Bs MAC address
R creates frame containing A-to-B IP datagram sends to B
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F
A
E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
222.222.222.221
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.220 222.222.222.222
111.111.111.110 B
111.111.111.112
R 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D
340
170
Ethernet
dominant wired LAN technology:
cheap $20 for NIC
first widely used LAN technology
simpler, cheaper than token LANs and ATM
kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps 10 Gbps
341
Star topology
bus topology popular through mid 90s
all nodes in same collision domain (can collide with each
other)
today: star topology prevails
active switch in center
each spoke runs a (separate) Ethernet protocol (nodes
do not collide with each other)
switch
bus: coaxial cable star

342
171
Ethernet frame structure

Sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
Preamble:
7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one
byte with pattern 10101011
used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates
343
Ethernet frame structure

Addresses: 6 bytes
if adapter receives frame with matching destination
address, or with broadcast address (eg ARP packet), it
passes data in frame to network layer protocol
otherwise, adapter discards frame
Type: indicates higher layer protocol (mostly IP

but others possible, e.g., Novell IPX, AppleTalk)
CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected,
frame is dropped
344
172
Ethernet: Unreliable, connectionless
connectionless: No handshaking between sending and

receiving NICs
unreliable: receiving NIC doesnt send acks or nacks
to sending NIC
stream of datagrams passed to network layer can have gaps
(missing datagrams)
gaps will be filled if app is using TCP
otherwise, app will see gaps
Ethernets MAC protocol: unslotted CSMA/CD
345
Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm

1. NIC receives datagram 4. If NIC detects another
from network layer, transmission while
creates frame transmitting, aborts and
2. If NIC senses channel idle, sends jam signal
starts frame transmission 5. After aborting, NIC
If NIC senses channel enters exponential
busy, waits until channel backoff: after mth
idle, then transmits collision, NIC chooses K at
3. If NIC transmits entire random from
frame without detecting {0,1,2,,2m-1}. NIC waits
another transmission, NIC K512 bit times, returns to
is done with frame ! Step 2
346
173
Ethernets CSMA/CD
Jam Signal: make sure all Exponential Backoff:
other transmitters are Goal: adapt retransmission
aware of collision; 48 bits attempts to estimated
Bit time: .1 microsec for 10 current load
Mbps Ethernet ; heavy load: random wait
for K=1023, wait time is will be longer
about 50 msec first collision: choose K from
{0,1}; delay is K 512 bit
transmission times
after second collision: choose
K from {0,1,2,3}
after ten collisions, choose K
from {0,1,2,3,4,,1023}
347
CSMA/CD efficiency
Tprop = max prop delay between 2 nodes in LAN
ttrans = time to transmit max-size frame
1
efficiency
1 5t prop /ttrans
efficiency goes to 1
as tprop goes to 0
as ttrans goes to infinity
better performance than ALOHA: and simple,

cheap, decentralized!
A derivation of the efficiency of Ethernet: see S. Lam, A Carrier Sense Multiple Access
348
Protocol for Local Networks, vol. 4 (1980)
174
802.3 Ethernet Standards: Link & physical layers
many different Ethernet standards

common MAC protocol and frame format
different speeds: 2 Mbps, 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps,
1Gbps, 10Gbps
different physical layer media: fiber, cable
MAC protocol
application and frame format
transport
network 100BASE-TX 100BASE-T2 100BASE-FX
link 100BASE-T4 100BASE-SX 100BASE-BX
physical
copper (twisted fiber physical layer

pair) physical layer 349
Manchester encoding
used in 10BaseT
each bit has a transition
allows clocks in sending and receiving nodes to
synchronize to each other
no need for a centralized, global clock among nodes!
350
175
Hubs
physical-layer (dumb) repeaters:
bits coming in one link go out all other links at
same rate
all nodes connected to hub can collide with one
another
no frame buffering
no CSMA/CD at hub: host NICs detect
collisions
twisted pair
hub
351
Switch
link-layer device: smarter than hubs, take
active role
store, forward Ethernet frames
examine incoming frames MAC address,
selectively forward frame to one-or-more
outgoing links when frame is to be forwarded on
segment, uses CSMA/CD to access segment
transparent
hosts are unaware of presence of switches
plug-and-play, self-learning
switches do not need to be configured
352
176
Switch allows multiple simultaneous

transmissions
A
hosts have dedicated, C B

direct connection to switch
switches buffer packets 1 2
6 3
Ethernet protocol used on
4
each incoming link, but no 5
collisions; full duplex
C
each link is its own collision
domain
B A
switching: A-to-A and B-
to-B simultaneously, switch with six interfaces
without collisions (1,2,3,4,5,6)
not possible with dumb hub
353
Switch table
A
Q: how does switch know that
C
A reachable via interface 4, B
B reachable via interface 5?
1 2
A: each switch has a switch 6 3
table, each entry: 5 4
(MAC address of host, interface
to reach host, time stamp) C
looks like a routing table!

B A
Q: how are entries created,
maintained in switch table? switch with six interfaces
something like a routing (1,2,3,4,5,6)
protocol?
354
177
Switch: Self-learning Source: A

Dest: A
A A A
switch learns which hosts
C
can be reached through B
which interfaces
1 2
when frame received, 6 3
switch learns location of
5 4
sender: incoming LAN
segment
C
records sender/location
pair in switch table B A
MAC addr interface TTL

A 1 60 Switch table
(initially empty)
355
Switch: Frame filtering/forwarding

When frame received:
1. record link associated with sending host

2. index switch table using MAC dest address
3. if entry found for destination
then {
if dest on segment from which frame arrived
then drop the frame
else forward the frame on interface indicated
}
else flood forward on all but the interface
on which the frame arrived
356
178
Source: A
Example: Self-learning, Dest: A
forwarding A A A
C B
frame destination 1 2
unknown: flood A6A 3
5 4
destination A
location known: C
A A
selective send
B A
MAC addr interface TTL

A 1 60 Switch table
A 4 60 (initially empty)
357
Interconnecting switches
switches can be connected together
S4
S1
S3
A S2
F
C D I
B
E G H
Q: sending from A to G - how does S1 know to

forward frame destined to F via S4 and S2?
A: self learning! (works exactly the same as in
single-switch case!)
358
179
Example: Self-learning multi-switch

Suppose C sends frame to I, I responds to C
1 S4
S1 2 S3
A S2
F
D I
B C
G H
E
Q: show switch tables and packet forwarding in S 1,

S2, S3, S4
359
Institutional network
mail server
to external
network
router web server
IP subnet
360
180
Switches vs. Routers

both store-and-forward devices
routers: network layer devices (examine network layer
headers)
switches are link layer devices
routers maintain routing tables, implement routing

algorithms
switches maintain switch tables, implement
filtering, learning algorithms
361
Point to Point Data Link Control

one sender, one receiver, one link: easier than
broadcast link:
no Media Access Control
no need for explicit MAC addressing
e.g., dialup link, ISDN line
popular point-to-point DLC protocols:
PPP (point-to-point protocol)
HDLC: High level data link control
362
181
PPP design requirements [RFC 1557]
packet framing: encapsulation of network-layer

datagram in data link frame
carry network layer data of any network layer
protocol (not just IP) at same time
ability to demultiplex upwards
bit transparency: must carry any bit pattern in the
data field
error detection (no correction)
connection liveness: detect, signal link failure to
network layer
network layer address negotiation: endpoint can
learn/configure each others network address
PPP non-requirements
no error correction/recovery
no flow control
out of order delivery OK
no need to support multipoint links (e.g., polling)
Error recovery, flow control, data re-ordering

all relegated to higher layers!
182
PPP data frame

Flag: delimiter (framing)
Address: does nothing (only one option)
Control: does nothing; in the future possible
multiple control fields
Protocol: upper layer protocol to which frame
delivered (eg, PPP-LCP, IP, IPCP, etc)
PPP data frame

info: upper layer data being carried
check: cyclic redundancy check for error
detection
183
Byte stuffing
data transparency requirement: data field must
be allowed to include flag pattern <01111110>
Q: is received <01111110> data or flag?
Sender: adds (stuffs) extra < 01111110> byte

after each < 01111110> data byte
Receiver:
two 01111110 bytes in a row: discard first byte,
continue data reception
single 01111110: flag byte
367
Byte stuffing
flag byte
pattern
in data
to send
flag byte pattern plus

stuffed byte in
transmitted data
368
184
PPP data control protocol

Before exchanging network-
layer data, data link peers
must
configure PPP link (max.
frame length,
authentication)
learn/configure network
layer information
for IP: carry IP Control
Protocol (IPCP) msgs
(protocol field: 8021) to
configure/learn IP
address
Virtualization of networks
Virtualization of resources: powerful abstraction in

systems engineering:
computing examples: virtual memory, virtual
devices
Virtual machines: e.g., java
IBM VM os from 1960s/70s
layering of abstractions: dont sweat the details of
the lower layer, only deal with lower layers
abstractly
370
185
Internet: Virtualizing networks

1974: multiple unconnected differing in:
nets addressing conventions
ARPAnet packet formats
data-over-cable networks error recovery
packet satellite network (Aloha) routing
packet radio network
ARPAnet
satellite net
"A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication",
V. Cerf, R. Kahn, IEEE Transactions on Communications,
371
May, 1974, pp. 637-648.
Internet: Virtualizing networks

Internetwork layer (IP): Gateway:
addressing: internetwork embed internetwork packets in
appears as single, uniform local packet format or extract
entity, despite underlying local them
network heterogeneity route (at internetwork level) to
network of networks next gateway
gateway
ARPAnet satellite net
372
186
Cerf & Kahns internetwork architecture

What is virtualized?
two layers of addressing: internetwork and local
network
new layer (IP) makes everything homogeneous at
internetwork layer
underlying local network technology
cable
satellite
56K telephone modem
today: ATM, MPLS
is invisible at internetwork layer. Looks like a link
layer technology to IP!
373
ATM and MPLS

ATM, MPLS separate networks in their own
right
different service models, addressing, routing
from Internet
viewed by Internet as logical link connecting
IP routers
just like dialup link is really part of separate
network (telephone network)
187
Asynchronous Transfer Mode: ATM

1990s/00 standard for high-speed (155Mbps to
622 Mbps and higher) Broadband Integrated
Service Digital Network architecture
Goal: integrated, end-end transport of carry voice,
video, data
meeting timing/QoS requirements of voice, video
(versus Internet best-effort model)
next generation telephony: technical roots in
telephone world
packet-switching (fixed length packets, called
cells) using virtual circuits
375
ATM architecture
AAL AAL
ATM ATM ATM ATM
physical physical physical physical
end system switch switch end system
adaptation layer: only at edge of ATM network

data segmentation/reassembly
roughly analagous to Internet transport layer
ATM layer: network layer
cell switching, routing
physical layer
376
188
ATM: Network or link layer?

Vision: end-to-end
transport: ATM from
IP
desktop to desktop network
ATM is a network ATM
technology network
Reality: used to connect
IP backbone routers
IP over ATM
ATM as switched
link layer,
connecting IP
routers
377
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)

ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL): adapts upper
layers (IP or native ATM applications) to ATM
layer below
AAL present only in end systems, not in switches
AAL layer segment (header/trailer fields, data)
fragmented across multiple ATM cells
analogy: TCP segment in many IP packets
AAL AAL
ATM ATM ATM ATM
physical physical physical physical

end system switch switch end system
378
189
ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
Different versions of AAL layers, depending on

ATM service class:
AAL1: for CBR (Constant Bit Rate) services, e.g.
circuit emulation
AAL2: for VBR (Variable Bit Rate) services,
e.g., MPEG video
AAL5: for data (eg, IP datagrams)
ATM layer
Service: transport cells across ATM network
analogous to IP network layer
very different services than IP network layer
Guarantees ?
Network Service Congestion
Architecture Model Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback
Internet best effort none no no no no (inferred

via loss)
ATM CBR constant yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM VBR guaranteed yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM ABR guaranteed no yes no yes
minimum
ATM UBR none no yes no no
ABR (Available Bit Rate) is QoS (Quality of Service) class used for connections that do not require
timing relationships between source and destination. ABR provides no guarantees in terms of cell loss
380or
delay, providing only best-effort service. Unspecified Bit Rate - (UBR)
190
ATM layer: Virtual Circuits

VC transport: cells carried on VC from source to dest
call setup for each call before data can flow, and then teardown
each packet carries VC identifier (not destination ID)
every switch on source-dest path maintain state for each
passing connection
link,switch resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be allocated to
VC: to get circuit-like performance.
Permanent VCs (PVCs)
long lasting connections

typically: permanent route between to IP routers
Switched VCs (SVC):
dynamically set up on per-call basis
381
ATM VCs
Advantages of ATM VC approach:
QoS performance guarantee for connection
mapped to VC (bandwidth, delay, delay jitter)
Drawbacks of ATM VC approach:
Inefficient support of datagram traffic
one PVC between each source/dest pair) does
not scale (N*2 connections needed)
SVC introduces call setup latency, processing
overhead for short lived connections
Jitter can be described as small or random variations in time or phase of a

382
transmitted signal which can result in errors or loss of synchronization.
191
ATM layer: ATM cell

5-byte ATM cell header
48-byte payload
Why?: small payload -> short cell-creation delay
for digitized voice
halfway between 32 and 64 (compromise!)
Cell header
Cell format
383
ATM cell header

VCI: virtual channel ID
will change from link to link thru net
PT: Payload type (e.g. RM cell versus data cell)
CLP: Cell Loss Priority bit
CLP = 1 implies low priority cell, can be
discarded if congestion
HEC: Header Error Checksum
cyclic redundancy check
384
Resource Management records (RM-cells)
192
ATM physical layer

Two pieces (sublayers) of physical layer:
Transmission Convergence Sublayer (TCS): adapts
ATM layer above to PMD sublayer below
Physical Medium Dependent: depends on physical
medium being used
TCS Functions:
Header checksum generation: 8 bits CRC
Cell delineation
With unstructured PMD sublayer, transmission
of idle cells when no data cells to send
385
ATM physical layer

Physical Medium Dependent (PMD) sublayer
SONET/SDH: transmission frame structure (like a
container carrying bits);
bit synchronization;
bandwidth partitions (TDM);
several speeds: OC3 = 155.52 Mbps; OC12 = 622.08
Mbps; OC48 = 2.45 Gbps, OC192 = 9.6 Gbps
T1/T3: transmission frame structure (old
telephone hierarchy): 1.5 Mbps/ 45 Mbps
unstructured: just cells (busy/idle)
386
193
IP-over-ATM
IP over ATM
Classic IP only replace network
3 networks (e.g., (e.g., LAN segment)
LAN segments) with ATM network
MAC (802.3) and IP ATM addresses, IP
addresses addresses
ATM
network
Ethernet Ethernet
LANs LANs 387
IP-over-ATM
app
app transport
transport IP IP
IP AAL AAL
Eth Eth ATM
ATM
phy phy phy ATM phy
phy
ATM
phy
388
194
Datagram journey in IP-over-ATM network

at Source Host:
IP layer maps between IP, ATM dest address (using ARP)
passes datagram to AAL5
AAL5 encapsulates data, segments cells, passes to ATM layer
ATM network: moves cell along VC to destination

at Destination Host:
AAL5 reassembles cells into original datagram
if CRC OK, datagram is passed to IP
389
IP-over-ATM
Issues: ATM
IP datagrams into network
ATM AAL5 PDUs
from IP addresses
to ATM addresses
just like IP
addresses to
Ethernet
802.3 MAC LANs
addresses!
390
195
Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS)
initial goal: speed up IP forwarding by using fixed

length label (instead of IP address) to do
forwarding
borrowing ideas from Virtual Circuit (VC) approach
but IP datagram still keeps IP address!
PPP or Ethernet
MPLS header IP header remainder of link-layer frame
header
label Exp S TTL
20 3 1 5
MPLS capable routers

a.k.a. label-switched router
forwards packets to outgoing interface based only on label value
(dont inspect IP address)
MPLS forwarding table distinct from IP forwarding tables
signaling protocol needed to set up forwarding
RSVP-TE
forwarding possible along paths that IP alone would not allow
(e.g., source-specific routing) !!
use MPLS for traffic engineering
must co-exist with IP-only routers
RSVP - Resource Reservation Protocol is a set of communication rules that allows
connections or resources on the Internet to be reserved. RSVP is part of the Internet
IntServ (Integrated Service) model, which ensures best effort service, real time service,
and controlled link sharing.
TE - Traffic Engineering refers to the practice of engineering routes through typically IP
based networks which are designed to cater for particular types of traffic. For example, real
time traffic will require a route through a network which utilizes low latency links, therefore
TE would allow that route to be pre-established prior to the traffic passing through the 392
network.
196
MPLS forwarding tables

in out out
label label dest interface
10 A 0 in out out
12 D 0 label label dest interface
8 A 1 10 6 A 1
12 9 D 0
R6
0 0
D
1 1
R4 R3
R5
0 0
A
R2 in outR1 out
label label dest interface
in out out
label label dest interface 6 - A 0
8 6 A 0
393
Transmission Media and

Physical Layer
394
197
Physical layer
Function: Transmission of raw bit stream
between devices.
Services: Physical connection, modulation
Issues: # pins/wires, duplex, serial/parallel,
modulation
Media:
copper wire: e.g. coax, twisted pair
fibre optics
free air optics
microwave, satellite,
infra-red
395
Transmission medium and physical layer
396
198
Classes of transmission media
397
Guided media
Guided media, which are those that provide
a conduit from one device to another,
include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable,
and fiber-optic cable.
Twisted-Pair Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fiber-Optic Cable
398
199
Twisted-pair cable
399
UTP and STP cables
400
200
Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables
401
UTP connector
402
201
UTP performance
403
Note: Gauge is a measure of the thickness of the wire.
Coaxial cable
404
202
Categories of coaxial cables
405
BNC connectors
406
203
Coaxial cable performance
407
Bending of light ray
408
204
Optical fiber
409
Propagation modes
410
205
Modes
411
Fiber types
412
206
Fiber construction
413
Fiber-optic cable connectors
414
207
Optical fiber performance
415
Unguided media: Wireless

Unguided media transport electromagnetic
waves without using a physical conductor.
This type of communication is often
referred to as wireless communication.
Radio Waves
Microwaves
Infrared
416
208
Electromagnetic spectrum for wireless communication
417
Propagation methods
418
209
Bands
419
Wireless transmission waves
420
210
Omnidirectional antenna
421
Note
Radio waves are used for multicast

communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems.
422
211
Unidirectional antennas
423
Note
Microwaves are used for unicast

communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks,
and wireless LANs.
424
212
Note
Infrared signals can be used for short-

range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation.
425
Data and Signals
426
213
Note
To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals.
427
Analog and digital

Data can be analog or digital.
The term analog data refers to information
that is continuous; digital data refers to
information that has discrete states.
Analog data take on continuous values.
Digital data take on discrete values.
428
214
Note
Data can be analog or digital.

Analog data are continuous and take
continuous values.
Digital data have discrete states and
take discrete values.
429
Note
Signals can be analog or digital.

Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital
signals can have only a limited
number of values.
430
215
Comparison of analog and digital signals
431
Note
In data communications, we commonly use

periodic analog signals and non-periodic
digital signals.
432
216
Periodic analog signals

Periodic analog signals can be classified as
simple or composite.
A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave,
cannot be decomposed into simpler signals.
A composite periodic analog signal is
composed of multiple sine waves.
433
A sine wave
434
217
RMS and peak value

When the signal is squared and then
averaged we get the rms value .
For sine signals the peak value is equal to
2 rms value and the rms value is the
peak value divided by 2 .
435
Two signals with the same phase and

frequency, but different amplitudes
436
218
Note
Frequency and period are the inverse of

each other.
437
Two signals with the same amplitude and phase, but

different frequencies
438
219
Units of period and frequency
439
Note
Frequency is the rate of change with

respect to time.
Change in a short span of time

means high frequency.
Change over a long span of

time means low frequency.
440
220
Note
If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero.
If a signal changes instantaneously, its
frequency is infinite.
441
Note
Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time 0.
442
221
Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency,

but different phases
443
Example
A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to
time 0. What is its phase in degrees and radians?
Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360.
Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
444
222
Wavelength and period
445
The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
446
223
Note
A complete sine wave in the time domain

can be represented by one single spike in
the frequency domain.
447
Example
The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we
are dealing with more than one sine wave.
For example, Figure shows three sine waves, each with
different amplitude and frequency.
All can be represented by three spikes in the frequency
domain.
448
224
Note
A single-frequency sine wave is not

useful in data communications;
we need to send a composite signal, a
signal made of many simple sine waves.
449
Note
According to Fourier analysis, any

composite signal is a combination of
simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
450
225
Note
If the composite signal is periodic, the

decomposition gives a series of signals
with discrete frequencies;
if the composite signal is non-periodic,
the decomposition gives a combination of
sine waves with continuous frequencies.
451
Example
Figure shows a periodic composite signal with
frequency f.
452
226
Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the

time and frequency domains
453
Time and frequency domains of a

nonperiodic signal
Figure shows a nonperiodic composite signal.
It can be the signal created by a microphone or a telephone
set when a word or two is pronounced.
In this case, the composite signal cannot be periodic,
because that implies that we are repeating the same word or
words with exactly the same tone.
454
227
Note
The bandwidth of a composite signal is

the difference between the
highest and the lowest frequencies
contained in that signal.
455
The bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic

composite signals
456
228
Example
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine
waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the
spectrum, assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest
frequency, and B the bandwidth. Then
457
Bandwidth
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300,

500, 700, and 900 Hz
458
229
Example
A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200
kHz, with a middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak
amplitude of 20 V. The two extreme frequencies have an
amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency domain of the signal.
Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest
at 240 kHz. Figure 3.15 shows the frequency domain and
the bandwidth.
459
AM signal
An example of a nonperiodic composite
signal is the signal propagated by an AM
radio station.
Each AM radio station is assigned a 10-kHz
bandwidth.
The total bandwidth dedicated to AM radio
ranges from 530 to 1700 kHz.
460
230
FM signal
Another example of a nonperiodic
composite signal is the signal propagated
by an FM radio station.
Each FM radio station is assigned a 200-
kHz bandwidth.
The total bandwidth dedicated to FM radio
ranges from 88 to 108 MHz.
461
Analog TV bandwidth
Another example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the
signal received by an old-fashioned analog black-and-white
TV.
A TV screen is made up of pixels.
If we assume a resolution of 525 700, we have 367,500
pixels per screen.
If we scan the screen 30 times per second, this is 367,500
30 = 11,025,000 pixels per second.
The worst-case scenario is alternating black and white
pixels.
We can send 2 pixels per cycle.
Therefore, we need 11,025,000 / 2 = 5,512,500 cycles per
second, or Hz.
The bandwidth needed is about 5.5 MHz.
462
231
Digital signals
In addition to being represented by an
analog signal, information can also be
represented by a digital signal.
For example, a 1 can be encoded as a
positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage.
A digital signal can have more than two
levels.
In this case, we can send more than 1 bit
for each level.
463
Two digital signals: one with two signal levels and the other
with four signal levels
464
232
Example
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits
are needed per level? We calculate the number of
bits from the formula
Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.
465
Example
Assume we need to download text documents at
the rate of 100 pages per second. What is the
required bit rate of the channel?
Solution
A page is an average of 24 lines with 80
characters in each line. If we assume that one
character requires 8 bits, the bit rate is
10024808=1.536 Mbps
466
233
Example
A digitized voice channel, is made by digitizing a
4-kHz bandwidth analog voice signal. We need to
sample the signal at twice the highest frequency
(two samples per hertz). We assume that each
sample requires 8 bits. What is the required bit
rate?
Solution
The bit rate can be calculated as
467
Example
What is the bit rate for high-definition TV
(HDTV)?
Solution
HDTV uses digital signals to broadcast high
quality video signals. The HDTV screen is normally
a ratio of 16 : 9. There are 1920 by 1080 pixels
per screen, and the screen is renewed 30 times
per second. Twenty-four bits represents one
color pixel.
The TV stations reduce this rate to 20 to 40

Mbps through compression.
468
234
The time and frequency domains of periodic and

nonperiodic digital signals
469
Baseband transmission
470
235
Note
An ideal digital signal is a composite

analog signal with an infinite bandwidth.
471
Bandwidths of two low-pass channels
472
236
Baseband transmission using a dedicated medium
473
Note
Baseband transmission of a digital signal

that preserves the shape of the digital
signal is possible only if we have a low-
pass channel with an infinite or very wide
bandwidth.
474
237
Example
An example of a dedicated channel where the
entire bandwidth of the medium is used as one
single channel is a LAN.
Almost every wired LAN today uses a dedicated
channel for two stations communicating with each
other.
In a bus topology LAN with multipoint connections,
only two stations can communicate with each other
at each moment in time (timesharing); the other
stations need to refrain from sending data.
In a star topology LAN, the entire channel
between each station and the hub is used for
communication between these two entities.
475
Simulating a digital signal with first three harmonics
476
238
Note
In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is
In baseband transmission,
proportional the required
to the bit rate;
bandwidth is proportional
if we need to send tomore
bits faster, we need thebandwidth.
bit rate;
if we need to send bits faster, we need
more bandwidth.
477
Bandwidth requirements
478
239
Example
What is the required bandwidth of a low-pass channel if we
need to send 1 Mbps by using baseband transmission?
Solution
The answer depends on the accuracy desired.
a. The minimum bandwidth, is B = bit rate /2, or 500 kHz.
b. A better solution is to use the first and the third

harmonics with B = 3 500 kHz = 1.5 MHz.
c. Still a better solution is to use the first, third, and fifth

harmonics with B = 5 500 kHz = 2.5 MHz.
479
Example
We have a low-pass channel with bandwidth 100

kHz. What is the maximum bit rate of this
channel?
Solution
The maximum bit rate can be achieved if we use
the first harmonic. The bit rate is 2 times the
available bandwidth, or 200 kbps.
480
240
Bandwidth of a bandpass channel
481
Note
If the available channel is a bandpass

channel, we cannot send the digital signal
directly to the channel;
we need to convert the digital signal to
an analog signal before transmission.
482
241
Modulation of a digital signal for transmission

on a bandpass channel
483
Example
An example of transmission using modulation is the
sending of computer data through a telephone
subscriber line, the line connecting a resident to
the central telephone office.
These lines are designed to carry voice with a
limited bandwidth.
The channel is considered a bandpass channel.
We convert the digital signal from the computer
to an analog signal, and send the analog signal.
We can install two converters to change the
digital signal to analog and vice versa at the
receiving end.
The converter, in this case, is called a modem.
484
242
Transmission impairment
Signals travel through transmission media,
which are not perfect.
The imperfection causes signal impairment.
This means that the signal at the beginning
of the medium is not the same as the signal
at the end of the medium.
What is sent is not what is received.
Three causes of impairment are
attenuation, distortion, and noise.
485
Causes of impairment
486
243
Attenuation
487
Example
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission
medium and its power is reduced to one-half. This
means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In this case, the
attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated as
A loss of 3 dB (3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-

half the power.
488
244
Example
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its
power is increased 10 times. This means that P2 =
10P1 . In this case, the amplification (gain of
power) can be calculated as
489
Example
One reason that engineers use the decibel to measure the
changes in the strength of a signal is that decibel numbers
can be added (or subtracted) when we are measuring
several points (cascading) instead of just two. In Figure a
signal travels from point 1 to point 4. In this case, the
decibel value can be calculated as
490
245
Example
Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal
power in milliwatts. In this case, it is referred to
as dBm and is calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm ,
where Pm is the power in milliwatts. Calculate the
power of a signal with dBm = 30.
Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as
491
Example
The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels
per kilometer (dB/km). If the signal at the
beginning of a cable with 0.3 dB/km has a power
of 2 mW, what is the power of the signal at 5 km?
Solution
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 (0.3) =
1.5 dB. We can calculate the power as
492
246
Distortion
493
Noise
494
247
Example
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of
the noise is 1 W; what are the values of SNR and
SNRdB ?
Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as
follows:
495
Example
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless
channel are
We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is

an ideal.
496
248
Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR
497
Data rate limits

A very important consideration in data
communications is how fast we can send
data, in bits per second, over a channel.
Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of
noise)
498
249
Note
Increasing the levels of a signal may

reduce the reliability of the system.
499
Example
Does the Nyquist theorem bit rate agree with the
intuitive bit rate described in baseband transmission?
Solution
They match when we have only two levels. We said, in
baseband transmission, the bit rate is 2 times the
bandwidth if we use only the first harmonic in the worst
case. However, the Nyquist formula is more general than
what we derived intuitively; it can be applied to baseband
transmission and modulation. Also, it can be applied when
we have two or more levels of signals.
500
250
Example
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of
3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal
levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated as
501
Example
Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting
a signal with four signal levels (for each level, we
send 2 bits). The maximum bit rate can be
calculated as
502
251
Example
We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a
bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:
Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either

increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If
we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64
levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.
503
Example
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the
value of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero.
In other words, the noise is so strong that the
signal is faint. For this channel the capacity C is
calculated as
This means that the capacity of this channel is

zero regardless of the bandwidth. In other
words, we cannot receive any data through this
channel.
504
252
Example
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a
regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually
3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as
This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line
is 34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this,
we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or
improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
505
Example
The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in
decibels. Assume that SNRdB = 36 and the channel
bandwidth is 2 MHz. The theoretical channel
capacity can be calculated as
506
253
Example
For practical purposes, when the SNR is very
high, we can assume that SNR + 1 is almost the
same as SNR. In these cases, the theoretical
channel capacity can be simplified to
For example, we can calculate the theoretical

capacity of the previous example as
507
Example
We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The
SNR for this channel is 63. What are the
appropriate bit rate and signal level?
Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the
upper limit.
508
254
Example
The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper
limit. For better performance we choose
something lower, 4 Mbps, for example. Then we
use the Nyquist formula to find the number of
signal levels.
509
Note
The Shannon capacity gives us the upper

limit; the Nyquist formula tells us how
many signal levels we need.
510
255
Performance
One important issue in networking is the
performance of the network how good is
it?
We can discuss quality of service, an
overall measurement of network
performance.
In this section, we only introduce terms.
511
Note
In networking, we use the term bandwidth in
two contexts.
The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to
the range of frequencies in a
composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.
The second, bandwidth in bits per

second, refers to the speed of bit
transmission in a channel or link.
512
256
Example
The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for
voice or data. The bandwidth of this line for data
transmission can be up to 56,000 bps using a
sophisticated modem to change the digital signal
to analog.
513
Example
If the telephone company improved the quality of
the line and increases the bandwidth to 8 kHz, we
can send 112,000 bps by using the same
technology as in the previous case.
514
257
Example
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass
only an average of 12,000 frames per minute with
each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits.
What is the throughput of this network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as
The throughput is almost one-fifth of the

bandwidth in this case.
515
Example
What is the propagation time if the distance
between the two points is 12,000 km? Assume the
propagation speed to be 2.4 108 m/s in cable.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as
The example shows that a bit can go over the

Pacific Ocean in only 50 ms if there is a direct
cable between the source and the destination.
516
258
Example
What are the propagation time and the
transmission time for a 2.5-kbyte message (an e-
mail) if the bandwidth of the network is 1 Gbps?
Assume that the distance between the sender
and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light
travels at 2.4 108 m/s.
Solution
The propagation and transmission times are:
517
Example (cont.)
Note that in this case, because the message is

short and the bandwidth is high, the dominant
factor is the propagation time, not the
transmission time. The transmission time can be
ignored.
518
259
Example
What are the propagation time and the
transmission time for a 5-Mbyte message (an
image) if the bandwidth of the network is 1
Mbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that
light travels at 2.4 108 m/s.
Solution
The propagation and transmission times are:
519
Example (cont.)
Note that in this case, because the message is

very long and the bandwidth is not very high, the
dominant factor is the transmission time, not the
propagation time. The propagation time can be
ignored.
520
260
Filling the link with bits
521
Bandwidth-delay product
We can think about the link between two
points as a pipe.
The cross section of the pipe represents
the bandwidth, and the length of the pipe
represents the delay.
We can say the volume of the pipe defines
the bandwidth-delay product.
522
261
Filling the link with bits
523
Note
The bandwidth-delay product defines the

number of bits that can fill the link.
524
262
Concept of bandwidth-delay product
525
Analog Transmission
526
263
Digital-to-analog conversion
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process

of changing one of the characteristics of
an analog signal based on the information in
digital data.
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Amplitude Shift Keying
Frequency Shift Keying
Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
527
Digital-to-analog conversion
528
264
Types of digital-to-analog conversion
529
Note
Bit rate is the number of bits per

second. Baud rate is the number of signal
elements per second.
In the analog transmission of digital

data, the baud rate is less than
or equal to the bit rate.
530
265
Example
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal
element. If 1000 signal elements are sent per
second, find the bit rate N.
Solution
In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is unknown. We
can find the value of N from
S is the signal rate (baud). N is the data rate (bps) and r is the number of data
531
elements carried in one signal element.
Example
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and
a baud rate of 1000 baud. How many data
elements are carried by each signal element?
How many signal elements do we need?
Solution
In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r and L
are unknown. We find first the value of r and then
the value of L.
532
266
Binary amplitude shift keying
Note: The value of parameter d is between 0 and 1. It depens on the

modulation and filtering process. 533
Implementation of binary ASK
534
267
Example
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz
which spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are
the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we
modulated our data by using ASK with d = 1?
Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250
kHz. This means that our carrier frequency can be
at fc = 250 kHz. We can use the formula for
bandwidth to find the bit rate (with d = 1 and r =
1).
535
Bandwidth of full-duplex ASK used

in the previous example
In data communications, we normally use full-duplex
links with communication in both directions. We need to
divide the bandwidth into two with two carrier
frequencies, as shown in Figure below. The figure shows
the positions of two carrier frequencies and the
bandwidths. The available bandwidth for each direction
is now 50 kHz, which leaves us with a data rate of 25
kbps in each direction.
536
268
Binary frequency shift keying
537
Example
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz
which spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should
be the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we
modulated our data by using FSK with d = 1?
Solution
This problem is similar to BASK-example, but we
are modulating by using FSK. The midpoint of the
band is at 250 kHz. We choose 2f to be 50 kHz;
this means
538
269
Example
We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3
Mbps. The carrier frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the
number of levels (different frequencies), the baud rate,
and the bandwidth.
Solution
We can have L = 23 = 8. The baud rate is S = 3 MHz/3 = 1
Mbaud. This means that the carrier frequencies must be 1
MHz apart (2f = 1 MHz). The bandwidth is B = 8 1MHz =
8MHz. Figure 5.8 shows the allocation of frequencies and
bandwidth.
539
Binary phase shift keying
540
270
Example
Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at

12 Mbps for QPSK. The value of d = 0.
Solution
For QPSK, 2 bits is carried by one signal element.
This means that r = 2. So the signal rate (baud
rate) is S = N (1/r) = 6 Mbaud. With a value of d
= 0, we have B = S = 6 MHz.
541
Concept of a constellation diagram
542
271
Example
Show the constellation diagrams for an ASK
(OOK), BPSK, and QPSK signals.
Solution
Figure shows the three constellation diagrams.
543
Note
Quadrature amplitude modulation is a

combination of ASK and PSK.
544
272
Constellation diagrams for some QAMs
545
Analog and digital

Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation
of analog information by an analog signal.
One may ask why we need to modulate an analog
signal; it is already analog.
Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass in
nature or if only a bandpass channel is available to
us.
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation
546
273
Types of analog-to-analog modulation
547
Amplitude modulation
548
274
Note
The total bandwidth required for AM

can be determined
from the bandwidth of the audio
signal: BAM = 2B.
549
AM band allocation
550
275
Note
The total bandwidth required for FM can

be determined from the bandwidth
of the audio signal: BFM = 2(1 + )B.
551
Frequency modulation
552
276
FM band allocation
553
Phase modulation
554
277
Note
The total bandwidth required for PM can

be determined from the bandwidth
and maximum amplitude of the
modulating signal:
BPM = 2(1 + )B.
555
Digital Transmission
556
278
Digital-to-digital conversion
In this section, we see how we can

represent digital data by using digital
signals.
The conversion involves three techniques:
line coding, block coding, and scrambling.
Line coding is always needed; block coding
and scrambling may or may not be needed.
557
Line coding and decoding
558
279
Signal element versus data element
559
Example
A signal is carrying data in which one data element
is encoded as one signal element ( r = 1). If the bit
rate is 100 kbps, what is the average value of the
baud rate if c (case factor) is between 0 and 1?
Solution
We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The
baud rate is then
560
280
Note
Although the actual bandwidth of a ideal

digital signal is infinite, the effective
bandwidth is finite.
561
Example
The maximum data rate of a channel (see Chapter
3) is Nmax = 2 B log2 L (defined by the Nyquist
formula). Does this agree with the previous
formula for Nmax?
Solution
A signal with L levels actually can carry log2L bits
per level. If each level corresponds to one signal
element and we assume the average case (c = 1/2),
then we have
562
281
Effect of lack of synchronization
563
Example
In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent
faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per
second does the receiver receive if the data rate is 1 kbps?
How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?
Solution
At 1 kbps, the receiver receives 1001 bps instead of 1000
bps.
At 1 Mbps, the receiver receives 1,001,000 bps instead of

1,000,000 bps.
564
282
Line coding schemes
565
Unipolar NRZ scheme
566
Normalized power = power needed to send 1 bit per unit line resistance
283
Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes
567
L Level, I - Inverted
Note
In NRZ-L the level of the voltage

determines the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion
or the lack of inversion
determines the value of the bit.
568
284
Note
NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average

signal rate of N/2 Bd.
569
Note
NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC

component problem.
570
285
Example
A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 10-Mbps data. What
are the average signal rate and minimum bandwidth?
Solution
The average signal rate is S = N/2 = 500 kbaud. The
minimum bandwidth for this average baud rate is Bmin = S =
500 kHz.
571
Polar RZ scheme
572
286
Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes
573
Note
In Manchester and differential

Manchester encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization.
574
287
Note
The minimum bandwidth of Manchester

and differential Manchester is 2 times
that of NRZ.
575
Note
In bipolar encoding, we use three levels:

positive, zero, and negative.
576
288
Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary
577
Note
In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data

elements is encoded as a pattern of n
signal elements in which 2m Ln.
578
289
Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme
579
Multilevel: 8B6T scheme
580
290
Multilevel: 4D-PAM5 scheme
581
Multitransition: MLT-3 scheme
582
291
Summary of line coding schemes
583
Note
Block coding is normally referred to as

mB/nB coding;
it replaces each m-bit group with an
n-bit group.
584
292
Block coding concept
585
Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding scheme
586
293
4B/5B mapping codes
587
Substitution in 4B/5B block coding
588
294
Example
We need to send data at a 1-Mbps rate. What is the
minimum required bandwidth, using a combination of 4B/5B
and NRZ-I or Manchester coding?
Solution
First 4B/5B block coding increases the bit rate to 1.25
Mbps. The minimum bandwidth using NRZ-I is N/2 or 625
kHz. The Manchester scheme needs a minimum bandwidth
of 1 MHz. The first choice needs a lower bandwidth, but
has a DC component problem; the second choice needs a
higher bandwidth, but does not have a DC component
problem.
589
8B/10B block encoding
590
295
AMI used with scrambling
591
Different situations in HDB3 scrambling technique
592
296
Note
HDB3 substitutes four consecutive zeros

with 000V or B00V depending
on the number of nonzero pulses after
the last substitution.
593
Analog-to-digital conversion
We have seen in Chapter 3 that a digital

signal is superior to an analog signal.
The tendency today is to change an analog
signal to digital data.
In this section we describe two techniques,
pulse code modulation and
delta modulation.
594
297
Components of PCM encoder
595
Three different sampling methods for PCM
596
298
Note
According to the Nyquist theorem, the

sampling rate must be
at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal.
597
Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals
598
299
Example
For an intuitive example of the Nyquist theorem, let us
sample a simple sine wave at three sampling rates: fs = 4f (2
times the Nyquist rate), fs = 2f (Nyquist rate), and
fs = f (one-half the Nyquist rate). Next figure shows the
sampling and the subsequent recovery of the signal.
It can be seen that sampling at the Nyquist rate can create a

good approximation of the original sine wave (part a).
Oversampling in part b can also create the same
approximation, but it is redundant and unnecessary. Sampling
below the Nyquist rate (part c) does not produce a signal
that looks like the original sine wave.
599
Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates
600
300
Example
The seemingly backward rotation of the wheels of a
forward-moving wagon in a western movie can be explained
by under-sampling. A movie is filmed at 24 frames per
second. If a wheel is rotating more than 12 times per
second, the under-sampling creates the impression of a
backward rotation.
601
Example
Telephone companies digitize voice by assuming a
maximum frequency of 4000 Hz. The sampling rate
therefore is 8000 samples per second.
602
301
Example
A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200
kHz. What is the minimum sampling rate for this
signal?
Solution
The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0
and f, where f is the maximum frequency in the
signal. Therefore, we can sample this signal at 2
times the highest frequency (200 kHz). The
sampling rate is therefore 400,000 samples per
second.
603
Example
A complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 200
kHz. What is the minimum sampling rate for this
signal?
Solution
We cannot find the minimum sampling rate in this
case because we do not know where the bandwidth
starts or ends. We do not know the maximum
frequency in the signal.
604
302
Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal
605
Example
What is the SNRdB in the example of Figure 4.26?
Solution
We can use the formula to find the quantization.
We have eight levels and 3 bits per sample, so
SNRdB = 6.023 + 1.76 = 19.82 dB
Increasing the number of levels increases the

SNR. 606
303
Example
A telephone subscriber line must have an SNRdB
above 40. What is the minimum number of bits per
sample?
Solution
We can calculate the number of bits as
Telephone companies usually assign 7 or 8 bits per

sample.
607
Example
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the
bit rate, assuming 8 bits per sample?
Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies
from 0 to 4000 Hz. So the sampling rate and bit
rate are calculated as follows:
608
304
Components of a PCM decoder
609
Example
We have a low-pass analog signal of 4 kHz. If we
send the analog signal, we need a channel with a
minimum bandwidth of 4 kHz. If we digitize the
signal and send 8 bits per sample, we need a
channel with a minimum bandwidth of 8 4 kHz =
32 kHz.
610
305
Delta modulation process
611
Delta modulation components
612
306
Delta demodulation components
613
Transmission modes
The transmission of binary data across a link can
be accomplished in either parallel or serial mode.
In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each
clock tick.
In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
While there is only one way to send parallel data,
there are three subclasses of serial transmission:
asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.
614
307
Data transmission and modes
615
Parallel transmission
616
308
Serial transmission
617
Note
In asynchronous transmission, we send 1

start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or
more stop bits (1s) at the end of each
byte. There may be a gap between
each byte.
618
309
Note
Asynchronous here means asynchronous

at the byte level,
but the bits are still synchronized;
their durations are the same.
619
Asynchronous transmission
620
310
Note
In synchronous transmission, we send

bits one after another without start or
stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility
of the receiver to group the bits.
621
Synchronous transmission
622
311
Multiplexing and Spreading
623
Note
Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of

available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.
Efficiency can be achieved by

multiplexing; privacy and anti-jamming
can be achieved by spreading.
624
312
Multiplexing
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of
the devices, the link can be shared.
Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows
the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link.
Topics:
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
625
Dividing a link into channels
626
313
Categories of multiplexing
627
Frequency-division multiplexing
628
314
Note
FDM is an analog multiplexing technique

that combines analog signals.
629
FDM process
630
315
FDM demultiplexing example
631
Example
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz.
We need to combine three voice channels into a link with a
bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.
Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a
different bandwidth, as shown in the following figure. We
use the 20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the
24- to 28-kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the
28- to 32-kHz bandwidth for the third one. Then we
combine them.
632
316
Example
633
Example
Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be
multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of
the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?
Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This
means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 100 + 4 10 = 540 kHz
634
317
Example
Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1
Mbps, use a satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design an
appropriate configuration, using FDM.
Solution
The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four
channels, each channel having a 250-kHz bandwidth. Each
digital channel of 1 Mbps is modulated such that each 4
bits is modulated to 1 Hz. One solution is 16-QAM
modulation. Next figure shows one possible configuration.
635
Example
636
318
Analog hierarchy
637
Example
The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) uses two
bands. The first band of 824 to 849 MHz is used for
sending, and 869 to 894 MHz is used for receiving. Each
user has a bandwidth of 30 kHz in each direction. How
many people can use their cellular phones simultaneously?
Solution
Each band is 25 MHz. If we divide 25 MHz by 30 kHz, we
get 833.33. In reality, the band is divided into 832
channels. Of these, 42 channels are used for control, which
means only 790 channels are available for cellular phone
users.
638
319
Wavelength-division multiplexing
639
Note
WDM is an analog multiplexing technique

to combine optical signals.
640
320
Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing
641
TDM
642
321
Note
TDM is a digital multiplexing technique

for combining several low-rate
channels into one high-rate one.
643
Synchronous time-division multiplexing
644
322
Note
In synchronous TDM, the data rate

of the link is n times faster, and the unit
duration is n times shorter.
645
Example
In figure, the data rate for each input connection is 3 kbps. If 1 bit at
a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is the duration of (a) each
input slot, (b) each output slot, and (c) each frame?
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This means that
the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The duration of the input time
slot is 1 ms (same as bit duration). 646
323
Example (cont.)
b. The duration of each output time slot is one-

third of the input time slot. This means that
the duration of the output time slot is 1/3 ms.
c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So

the duration of a frame is 3 1/3 ms, or 1 ms.
The duration of a frame is the same as the
duration of an input unit.
647
Example
Next figure shows synchronous TDM with a data
stream for each input and one data stream for the
output. The unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input
bit duration, (b) the output bit duration, (c) the
output bit rate, and (d) the output frame rate.
648
324
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:
1/1 Mbps = 1 s.
b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit duration, or

s.
c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit duration or
1/(4s) or 4 Mbps. This can also be deduced from the fact that the
output rate is 4 times as fast as any input rate; so the output rate
= 4 1 Mbps = 4 Mbps.
d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So the frame
rate is 1,000,000 frames per second. Because we are sending 4 bits
in each frame, we can verify the result of the previous question by
multiplying the frame rate by the number of bits per frame.
649
Interleaving
650
325
Example
Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each channel sends 100
bytes /s and we multiplex 1 byte per channel, show the frame traveling
on the link, the size of the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame
rate, and the bit rate for the link.
Solution
The multiplexer is shown below. Each frame carries 1 byte from each
channel; the size of each frame, therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits.
Because each channel is sending 100 bytes/s and a frame carries 1 byte
from each channel, the frame rate must be 100 frames per second. The
bit rate is 100 32, or 3200 bps.
651
Example
A multiplexer combines four 100-kbps channels using a time slot of 2
bits. Show the output with four arbitrary inputs. What is the frame
rate? What is the frame duration? What is the bit rate? What is the
bit duration?
Solution
Figure below shows the output for four arbitrary inputs. The link
carries 50,000 frames per second. The frame duration is therefore
1/50,000 s or 20 s. The frame rate is 50,000 frames per second, and
each frame carries 8 bits; the bit rate is 50,000 8 = 400,000 bits or
400 kbps. The bit duration is 1/400,000 s, or 2.5 s.
652
326
Empty slots
653
Multilevel multiplexing
654
327
Multiple-slot multiplexing
655
Pulse stuffing
656
328
Framing bits
657
Digital hierarchy
658
329
DS and T line rates
659
T-1 line for multiplexing telephone lines
660
330
T-1 frame structure
661
E line rates
662
331
TDM slot comparison
663
Spread spectrum
In spread spectrum (SS), we combine
signals from different sources to fit into a
larger bandwidth, but our goals are to
prevent eavesdropping and jamming.
To achieve these goals, spread spectrum
techniques add redundancy.
Topics:
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
Synchronous (DSSS)
664
332
Spread spectrum
665
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
666
333
Frequency selection in FHSS
667
FHSS cycles
668
334
Bandwidth sharing
669
DSSS
670
335
DSSS example
671
Introduction to Radar
336
RADAR
Radar observables:
Target range
Target angles (azimuth & elevation)
Target size (radar cross section)
Target speed (Doppler)
Target features (imaging)
673
Basic principle of operation

Radar measurement of range, or distance, is made
possible because of the properties of radiated
electromagnetic energy:
This energy travels through free-space in a straight line,
at a constant speed, and will vary only slightly because of
atmospheric and weather conditions.
Electromagnetic energy travels through air at
approximately the speed of light,
300,000 kilometers per second.
Reflection of electromagnetic waves
The electromagnetic waves are reflected if they meet a
surface.
If these reflected waves are received again at the place
of their origin, then that means an obstacle is in the
propagation direction.
337
Description
Radar stands for RAdio Detection And Ranging,
based upon the echo from a target located across
the trajectory of an electromagnetic wave.
Usually the transmitter and the receiver are
connected to a common antenna.
The time required for the wave to go from the
emitter to the target and back to the receiver is
measured, and yields the distance R.
The frequency variation of the signal is related to
the radial velocity of the target with respect to the
source (Doppler shift).
The direction of the target is determined by
pointing a narrow beam in the direction from which
the reflected signal is the largest.
RADAR = Radio Detection And Ranging
Detection of targets (primary skin

reflection)
Range (time delay)
Velocity (differential time delay or
Doppler)
Angle (azimuth)
Target Characteristics (echo properties)
Ground mapping (under, above, space)
338
Radar principle of operation

Transmit a very short (~ 1s) burst of radio waves
(usually at microwave frequencies)
Wait for reflected radiowaves (the echo) to
come back to the radar
Process the returned signal (the echo) using radar
parameters
Echo Strength
This is proportional to the Radar Cross Section (RCS) of
the target, and it tells us about the size of the target in
radar terms
Delay Time
This is proportional to the range from the radar to the
target (and back!)
Radar application
Surveillance
Tracking
Fire control
Target ID/ discrimination
Ground surveillance/ reconnaissance
Ground mapping
Moving target detection
Air traffic control
Missile seekers
678
339
Radar Cross Section (RCS)
Radar Cross Section (RCS) is the effective cross-sectional

area of the target as seen by the radar measured in m2
679
340
Signal flow through radar system
scatterer
t1
Time delay = t2 t1 = td
t2
341
First radar
First radar was Chain Home in England
HF (four spot frequencies, 20 to 55 MHz)
Tall transmit towers
Dipole detectors
A-scan display
Chain Home The radar did not

track it merely
illuminate the area
to be investigated.
Curtain
Array
Receive
crossed
360 240
dipoles
Transmit Receive
342
Early displays
Detection of targets relied on visual displays

on cathode ray tubes (CRTs)
Two types of displays
An A-Scan
Gives only range with no good directional information
PPI Display
Gives both range and bearing
Displays
Possible Movement of
targets radar trace
Amplitude
Possible
Clutter
targets
?
Clutter
Distance
A-Scan PPI display

display
343
Primary radar Secondary radar
Chain Home and all subsequent surveillance

radars are primary radars
Primary radars use skin echo to detect
targets
Most airports and controlled airspaces use
both primary and secondary radars
Secondary radars relies on a cooperative
target to relay information from a
transponder
Secondary radars
Secondary radars transmit an encoded
signal to the targets transponder
The transponder replies with an encoded
message with information about the
airplane
A typical transponder can be set to any of
identifying codes
Military transponders are called IFF
(Identification, Friend or Foe)
344
Radar frequencies
Specific radar bands
Band Nominal based on ITU assignments
designation frequency range for Region 2
HF 3 30 MHz
VHF 30 300 MHz 138 144; 216 225 MHz
UHF 300 1000 MHz 420 450; 890 942 MHz
L 1000 2000 MHz 1215 1400 MHz
S 2000 4000 MHz 2300 2500; 2700 3700 MHz
C 4000 8000 MHz 5250 5925 MHz
X 8000 12,000 MHz 8500 10680 MHz
Ku 12 18 GHz 13.4 14.0; 15.7 17.7 GHz
K 18 27 GHz 24.05 24.25 GHz
Ka 27 40 GHz 33.4 36.0 GHz
mm 40 300 GHz
Microwave radar applications
345
Low-frequency radar applications
Frequency and wavelength

c = f , where c = velocity of light in vacuum 3 108 m/s,
f = frequency, in Hz
and = wavelength, in meters
Example:
What is the wavelength for a frequency of 3 GHz?
Answer:
Wavelength = = c/f = (3 108)/(3 109)
= 10-1
= 0.1m = 10 cm
346
Units
A wide mix of units is used in radar engineering
Miles, yards, meters, nautical miles, knots, hours, etc.
Calculations are easier if a standard set of units
are used
The international standards for electrical
engineers is the SI system
meters, kilograms, seconds,
Scaling in SI units
1,000 or 103 kilo k

1,000,000 or 106 Mega M
1,000,000,000 or 109 Giga G
1,000,000,000,000 or 1012 Tera T
1,000 (or 10-3) milli m

1,000,000 (or 10-6) micro
1,000,000,000 (or 10 )
-9 nano n
1,000,000,000,000 (or 10 )
-12 pico p
1,000,000,000,000,000 (or 10-15) femto f
347
Polarization
All radio waves are polarized
The direction of the E field defines the
polarization
Direction
E = Electric field of travel
This is a H = Magnetic field (z-axis)
linearly
polarized E
wave E, H, and z-axes are
H mutually orthogonal
Polarization
The E vector may rotate leading to
another special case: Circular polarization
This is a E = Electric field

right hand
circularly Direction
polarized of travel
E
wave (z-axis)
348
Polarization
The E and H fields vary sinusoidally at the frequency of the

wave and with distance from the source (and reflector)
This is a Direction
linearly of travel
polarized (z-axis)
wave E
Reflection of EM wave
Radio waves are reflected by smooth

conducting surfaces; e.g. a metal sheet, water
Treat reflection using ray theory, as in
optics.
Normal to surface
Incident ray Reflected ray

349
Partial reflection
Non-conductive materials allow radio waves to
pass through, but .
If dielectric constant at the surface is
different, partial reflection will occur
Medium 1 Medium 2
Incident
ray
Partially Partially
reflected transmitted
ray ray
Reflection coefficient
Can take the real part of the dielectric
constant = refractive index = n
reflection coefficient can be found from the
two refractive indices of media 1 and 2
(n1 - n2)2
ref.coeff. = 1 -
(n1 + n2)2
350
Power of radio wave

How to measure the strength of a radio
wave?
Difficult to measure volts and amps above about
100 MHz
Can measure power (watts)
All radar calculations are carried out in

watts
but more likely in W, nW, pW, or
in decibels dBW, dBm.
dBW, dBm are preferred units for link budget calculations
Bandwidth and spectrum

All radio signals have a defined bandwidth
Many definitions of bandwidth
null-to-null, 3 dB, absolute, noise, etc.
In general, bandwidth = amount of
frequency space occupied by the signal
(a.k.a spectrum occupancy)
Some examples are

FM radio (200 kHz)
Analog TV (video + sound = 6 MHz)
351
Time frequency
Bandwidth (spectrum) is related to the time

waveform through the Fourier transform, V(f)
Rectangular pulse {(sin x)/(x)} spectrum
V(f)
V(t) This is a two-
sided spectrum
t (s) f (Hz)
0 T -2/T -1/T +1/T +2/T
0
Time frequency
V(f)
V(t)
0 T
t (s) f (Hz)
fc -2/T fc -1/T fc +1/T fc +2/T
fc
Radar pulse at a
carrier frequency of fc
352
Receiver bandwidth
Radio receiver bandwidth is defined by
filters (usually at IF)
Noise bandwidth = B Hz
Baseband Passband
Ideal
V(f) V(f)
Real
f f
0 B fc - B/2 fc fc + B/2
Radar waveforms
Waves, modulated
by on-off action
of pulse envelope
Pulse at single
frequency
Pulse with changing

frequency
Linear frequency-modulated waveform

706
353
Radar system
707
Basic pulse radar

T/R cell or
switch
Transmitter (=duplexer) Antenna
TX
Receiver RX
Controller
C
Display unit
354
Pulse
Average power = Peak power * Duty cycle = 100 kW

Pulse repetition frequency (PRF) = 1/(PRI) = 1 kHz
Note: Continuous wave (CW) radar: Duty cycle = 100% (always on) 709
Pulse radar
The radars most often utilized to measure distances
emit short microwave pulses of duration , with a
pulse repetition frequency prf = fr = 1/r .
In this manner, a high pulse power is obtained, with
only a moderate average power: the ratio of average
to pulse power is the product fr.
Typical values are = 1 s and fr = 1 kHz, for which
the power ratio is 1/1000.
The transmitted wave propagate the distance R
between the transmitter and the target, then it
returns towards the radar with a time delay tar.
As it is an electromagnetic wave propagating at the
velocity of light c0, the distance R is obtained with
355
Range calculation
Velocity, v = distance/time
We can assume v = 3 108 m/s = 300 m/s
Round trip distance = 150 m/s
Example: if the delay is 1500 s, the range to the
target is 225 km
Some useful numbers
Time delay = 1 s per 150 m of target range
Time delay for a target at 1 km = 6.67 s
Principle of pulse radar

The scale factor is 150 m/s.
356
Radar range measurement
Target range = c0tar/2

where c0 = speed of light
tar = round trip time
713
Range calculation
Range, R = (c0tar)/2
taris the time taken for the round trip of the
pulse from the radar to the target and back
again, in seconds.
The factor 2 appears in the denominator because
of the two-way (round-trip) propagation.
With the range in kilometers (km) and tar in

microseconds (s), the previous equation becomes
R(km) = 0.15tar(s)
357
Example
What is the range in kilometers to a target

with a time delay of 27 s?
R(km) = 0.15tar(s)
= 0.15 27
= 4.05 km
Range ambiguities
The previous calculation is for a single
pulse.
Most radars send more than one pulse to
provide for sample averaging and updates
on target position in the required time
interval for tracking resolution.
Echoes from a distant target can arrive
after the second pulse in the pulse train,
leading to range ambiguities
358
Example
Target #2,
range 18 km
Target #1,
range 6
km
Primary radar
prf = fr = 10 kHz
Time,
seconds
prf = pulse repetition frequency = fr
Example
A prf of 10 kHz gives Target #2,

one pulse every range 18 km
0.0001 s = 0.1 ms
Target #1,
range 6
km
Primary radar
prf = fr = 10 kHz Range in km = 0.15tar(s), lets
look at the A-scan display
Time,
seconds
359
A-scan display of the example

A range of 6 km gives a delay time of 40 s and a range of 18 km
gives a delay time of 120 s
Target #2 is so far away that the echo does not reach the
radar until after the next pulse, giving an incorrect range of 3
km
Amplitude
Transmit pulse Transmit pulse
Target #1 Target #2
Target #1
Time t,
0 0.04 0.1 0.12 0.14 in ms
Unambiguous range
Unambiguous range = Runamb=c/(2fr)
fr = the pulse repetition frequency (prf)
Note: Keep the units the same! If the

velocity of light is in m/s, the range will be
in meters
Example: fr = 1 kHz = 1,000 Hz
Runamb = c0/(2fr) = (3 108)/(2 1,000)

= 1.5 105 = 150 km
360
Example
An unambiguous range of at least 200 km is required.
What is the maximum prf to meet this requirement?
Round trip time = tar = (2 range)/c seconds

= (2 2 105)/(3 108) seconds
= 1.33 10-3 seconds
= 1.33 ms
Thus max. prf = fr = 1/tar = 1/(1.33 10-3) = 751.8797 750 Hz
Alternatively, since Runamb= c0/(2fr), fr = c0/(2 200 103)

= (3 108)/(2 200 103) = 750 Hz
Pulse repetition frequency (pfr)
Typical prf values

300 Hz long range radar 500 km max. range
S- and C-band radars
(strategic defense and airport facilities)
8000 Hz very short range radar 18.75 km

max. range Ku-, K- and Ka-band radars (local
defense against missiles)
300 1700 Hz are widely used values of prf
361
Radar frequencies
Specific radar bands
Band Nominal based on ITU assignments
designation frequency range for Region 2
HF 3 30 MHz
VHF 30 300 MHz 138 144; 216 225 MHz
UHF 300 1000 MHz 420 450; 890 942 MHz
L 1000 2000 MHz 1215 1400 MHz
S 2000 4000 MHz 2300 2500; 2700 3700 MHz
C 4000 8000 MHz 5250 5925 MHz
X 8000 12,000 MHz 8500 10680 MHz
Ku 12 18 GHz 13.4 14.0; 15.7 17.7 GHz
K 18 27 GHz 24.05 24.25 GHz
Ka 27 40 GHz 33.4 36.0 GHz
mm 40 300 GHz
Low radar frequencies (<6 GHz)
Little rain attenuation, hence

Long(er) range, which requires
High(er) power and
Low prf
Large dead zone possible
Simpler T/R cell design
Best for large area defense
362
High radar frequencies (>8 GHz)
Rain attenuation becoming significant,

hence
Short(er) range, which can use
Low(er) power and
High prf
Large dead zone not possible
More complicated T/R cell design
Best for local defense
Radar frequencies
High frequencies and
elevation angles, very
Plane
directive
wavefront
launched by As frequencies/elevation angles
radar reduce, energy forms strong ground
wave and can also produce some
scattered energy over the horizon
(OTH)
363
Radar equation
The emitter feeds the antenna with a power Pf; the antenna
radiates it into space, concentrating it along one or several
privileged directions, where the antenna gain G is the
largest.
The power density decreases as 1/(4r2), where r is the
distance from the antenna.
Part of the signal reaches the target, which reflects it
partially towards the antenna.
The target is represented by its effective scattering cross
section .
The density of the reflected power decreases in turn
inversely as the square of the distance.
The antenna picks up a part of the reflected signal; its
receiving properties are represented by the effective
reception area Ae, which is itself related to the antenna gain
by the relation Ae = G2/4 , where is the wavelength.
Radar equation
The ratio of the received power Pr to the
power Pf supplied by the source is given by the
radar equation:
The received power is fed to the receiver, also

connected to the antenna.
The attenuation produced by atmospheric
losses is neglected here.
The target is supposed to be located beyond
the near field of the antenna
The overall antenna
dimension is d.
364
Signal analysis
In the receiver, the amplified signal is fed to a data
processing unit, which compares the received signal
with the transmitted one.
However, the presence of noise complicates the
detection process: the signal-to-noise ratio must be
large enough to permit a correct operation.
As noise is a random process, its amplitude can take
large values, well above its average value, over short
periods of time.
A noise spike might well be interpreted as an echo by
the system.
To avoid false alarms, the evolution with respect to
time of the received signal is also carefully monitored.
In this manner, true echoes can be distinguished from
spurious noise spikes.
Signal processing: Coherent integration
Signal buried
in Noise
(SNR < 0 dB)
Signal integrated
out of Noise
(SNR increases by N)
Signals are same each time; add coherently (N2). Noise is different each
time; doesnt add coherently (N). 730
365
Pulsed CW radar: Range resolution
Range Resolution (r)

Proportional to pulse width (T)
Inversely proportional to bandwidth (B = 1/T)
1 MHz Bandwidth 150 m of range resolution 731
Resolution
Pulse length is larger than target length
Cannot resolve features along the target
Pulse length is smaller than target length

Can resolve features along the target
Shorter Pulses have higher bandwidth and

better resolution
732
366
Why pulse compression?

Hard to get good average power and resolution
at the same time using a pulsed CW system
Higher average power is proportional to pulse width
Better resolution is inversely proportional to pulse width
A long pulse can have the same bandwidth

(resolution) as a short pulse if the long pulse is
modulated in frequency or phase
These pulse compression techniques allow a radar
to simultaneously achieve the energy of a long
pulse and the resolution of a short pulse.
733
Matched filter
Matched filter maximizes the peak-signal to mean noise ratio.

For rectangular pulse, matched filter is a simple passband filter.
734
367
Implementation of matched filter
Matched filter is implemented by convolving the reflected

echo with the time reversed transmit pulse
Convolution process:
Move digitized pulses by each other, in steps
When data overlaps, multiply samples and sum them up
735
Example
Matched filter is implemented by convolving the reflected

echo with the time reversed transmit pulse
Convolution process:
Move digitized pulses by each other, in steps
When data overlaps, multiply samples and sum them up
736
368
Example
737
Example
738
369
Example
Use of matched filter maximizes SNR 739
Frequency and phase modulation of pulses
Resolution of a short pulse can be achieved by

modulating a long pulse, increasing the time-
bandwidth product
Signal must be processed on return to pulse
compress
740
370
Linear FM pulse compression
Because range is measured by a

shift in Doppler frequency, there
is a coupling of the range and
Doppler velocity measurement
741
Pulse compression
Pulse compression offers a means to simultaneous
have high average power and good resolution
A long pulse can have the same bandwidth
(resolution) as a short pulse, if it is modulated in
frequency or phase
Phase-encoded pulse compression divides long
pulses into binary encoded sub-pulses
With frequency-encoded pulse compression, the
radar frequency is increased linearly as the pulse
is transmitted
742
371
Detection of targets in noise

Target properties and radar design
features affect the ability to detect
signals in noise
Coherent and non-coherent pulse
integration can improve target detection
Adaptive thresholding (CFAR) techniques
are needed in realistic environments
743
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
744
372
Radar system
Power flux
Isotropic
antenna radiating
Ever equally in every
expanding direction
spheres of
flux
373
Free-space path loss

Free-space path loss is the loss in signal
strength of an electromagnetic wave that
would result from a line-of-sight path
through free space, with no obstacles
nearby to cause reflection or diffraction.
The power loss is proportional to the
square of the distance between the radars
transmitter and the reflecting obstacle.
The free-space path loss caused by the
spreading out of electromagnetic energy in
free space is determined by the inverse
square law.
Beam spreading
Power density diminishes as geometric spreading of the beam
374
Power flux density

If the isotropic antenna has a transmit
power of Pf watts, what is the flux
density at any given distance, R (range),
from the isotropic antenna?
Since the isotropic antenna radiates
equally in every direction, we need to find
the surface area of the sphere at distance,
R
Surface area of the sphere = 4R2
Power flux density
The power flux density (pfd) at a distance

R from the isotropic antenna is given by:
pfd = Pf / 4R2 W/m2
375
Example
If an isotropic antenna radiates 10 watts of
power, what is the power flux density at a
distance of 1 km?
pfd = Pf / 4R2 = 10 / 4(1,000)2
= 10 / 12,566,370.62 0.7958 10-6W/m2
= 0.7957747 W/m2
= 795.8 nW/m2
Power flux density and non-

isotropic antenna
The power flux density (pfd) at a distance R

from the isotropic antenna is given by:
pfd = Pf / 4R2 W/m2
A non-isotropic antenna will have a preferred

direction in which more energy is transmitted
376
Antenna gain
Most radar antennas are not isotropic
Additional power in the required direction
is the gain of the antenna over that of an
isotropic antenna
Define antenna gain, G, as
G= Flux density with Test Antenna at range R

Flux density with Isotropic Antenna at range R
Antenna gain
The antenna gain of the radar is a known
value.
This is a measure of the antennas ability to
focus outgoing energy into the directed beam.
maximum radiation intensity
G
average radiation intensity
The antenna gain increases the transmitted power

in one desired direction.
The reference is an isotropic antenna, which
equally transmits in any arbitrary direction.
377
Radiation pattern
360o Contour, 0o Maximum

referred to as an power in this
antenna pattern, direction
showing the power
radiated in the
given directions
270o 90o
The difference in
Minimum power can be
power in this described by the
direction gain in these
directions
180o
Radiation pattern
756
378
Example
If the focused beam has 25 times the
power of an omnidirectional antenna with
the same transmitter power, the
directional antenna has a gain of 25 (or 14
dB).
A highly directional antenna pattern compared

with a ball-shaped isotropic pattern
Directional antennas
Antennas that radiate in a preferred

direction are called directional antennas
The Gain, G() over the preferred angular
range , is given by
Total power transmitted by
G() = (P()) / (Po / 4) the antenna in all directions
Power transmitted per unit 4 is the total solid angle

solid angle by the antenna from the center of a sphere
379
Directivity and power gain

There are two different measures for
describing the power distribution around an
antenna
The directivity of the antenna; and
The gain of the antenna (sometimes more correctly
called the power gain)
Directivity is referenced to the mean power
radiated
Gain is referenced to an isotropic antenna
This is the more important descriptor.
We will look at how it increase the flux density
Power flux density and directive

antenna
Antenna Gain = G
1 m2
Power = Pf watts
surface
Power flux density, pfd = F, for a directive antenna with gain, G, is
G Pf
F=
4 R2
380
Gain and maximum gain
When the gain, G, of an antenna is

referred to, it is usually the maximum gain
that is being spoken of
The maximum Gain, G, is usually achieved on
Bore Sight, i.e. on the principal axis of
the antenna
Antenna patterns are reference to 0 dB
(the gain of an isotropic antenna) most
calculations are carried out in dB
Main lobe
Radiation pattern
Second side lobe
Third side lobe

First side lobe
Boresight
direction
381
Radiation pattern
Gain (dB)
0
-3
-10 3 dB down from 3 dB

peak gain beamwidth
-20
Main lobe
Side lobes
-30
-40

Rectangular (or Cartesian) plot of the angle off bore sight
Gain of the parabolic antenna

Parabolic antennas are the most common
form of directive antennas in microwave
communications
The gain of a parabolic antenna is given by
gain = G = 4A/2 = (D/)2
A = Aperture area = (radius)2 = (diameter/2)2

Therefore, 4A/2 = 4 ((diameter/2)2)/2 = 4 2D2/42 = (D/)2
382
Example
A parabolic antenna has an aperture
diameter, D, of 2m. It will operate at 12
GHz. What is the gain, both as a ratio and
dB value?
Answer: First find the wavelength

Velocity of radio wave = frequency wavelength,
i.e. c = f
Thus 3 108 = 12 109 , and so
= 3 108 / 12 109 m
= 0.025 m
Example
Now we can find the gain G from
gain = 4A/2 = (D/)2 and so the gain, G,

of the parabolic antenna is
G = ( 2 / 0.025)2 = 63,165.46817 = 63,165

or, in dB, G = 10 log (63,165.46817) = 48 dB
But this is only the theoretical answer!
383
Antenna efficiency
Antennas are never perfect
The actual gain achieved is therefore less
than the theoretical gain calculated
The difference can be thought of as the
efficiency of the antenna,
Actual gain = Theoretical gain
value is between 1 (perfect) and 0
Example
Large dish antennas like radar antennas
have an aperture nearly equal to their
physical area, and have got a gain of
normally 32 up to 40 dB.
Changes of the quality of the antenna
(antenna- irregularities, like deformations
or ice) have a big influence.
384
Example
Example:
The calculated gain of an antenna is 50 dB. The
efficiency of the antenna is 75%. What is the
real gain of the antenna?
Answer:
First: change 50 dB to a ratio 100,000
Second: Multiply by 0.75 gain of 75,000
Third: convert back to dB 48.8 dB
The real gain of the antenna is 48.8 dB
Antenna aperture
Note generally the same antenna is used during
transmission and reception.
In case of transmission the whole energy will be
processed by the antenna.
In case of receiving, the antenna has got the same
gain, but the antenna receives a part of the
incoming energy only.
But it is the antennas aperture, which describes
how well an antenna can catch power from an
incoming electromagnetic wave.
Thus incoming power density (watts per square
meter) aperture (square meters) = available
power from antenna (watts).
385
Gain vs. Aperture

Antenna gain is directly proportional to aperture.
An isotropic antenna has an aperture of 2/4.
A directive antenna with a gain of G has an
aperture of G2/4.
The dimensions of an antenna depend of their gain
G and/or of the used wavelength .
The higher the frequency, the smaller the
antenna, or the higher its gain by equal dimensions.
Effective aperture
Sometimes, the real gain is calculated from
a knowledge of the effective aperture
The effective aperture of an antenna is
the physical aperture , that is:
Ae = A
This is the same efficiency used earlier
386
Example
A 2m diameter antenna has an efficiency
of 75%. What are the real and effective
apertures?
Real aperture, A = (radius)2 = (1)2 =
= 3.14 m2
Effective aperture = Ae = A = 3.14
= 0.75 3.14
= 2.36 m2
Example
The target radar cross sectional area
depends of:
the targets physical geometry,
the direction of the illuminating radar,
the radar transmitters frequency,
the used material types of the reflecting
surface.
387
Effective scattering cross section

A target is characterized by its effective scattering cross
section , defined by the ratio of the power reflected back
towards the radar to the incident power density.
The reflection produced by the target may, in principle, be
calculated by solving Maxwells equations and applying the
boundary conditions on the scatterers surface.
The treatment of the equations obtained in this manner is,
however, most complicated; the problem could only be solved
for some simple geometries.
One such geometry is a perfectly reflecting metal (pec =
perfect conductor) sphere of radius a.
When the radius a is very small with respect to the
wavelength , the effective scattering cross section is much
smaller than the geometrical one.
One obtains roughly
Effective cross section of a metal

sphere
The ratio of the effective scattering cross section to the geometrical

cross section a2 is sketched in terms of the normalized size a/.
388
Apparent target size

The apparent size of the target, as seen by
the radar, decreases quite fast when the
target is smaller than the wavelength.
At larger values of a/, resonances are
observed, the two cross sections becoming
equal at the upper limit (optical region).
This behavior remains valid for targets having
different shapes.
The limiting values, given in the following Table
for several geometries, can be used for
elements having a large size in terms of
wavelengths.
Table: Approximation for the effective

scattering cross section of a metallic target
Note: Targets are

assumed to be
much larger than
the wavelength
.
389
Dielectric targets
All the values in the previous table are for metallic
scatterers.
For dielectric targets, the reflection and, consequently, the
effective scattering cross section will be smaller.
This can be accounted for by introducing the reflection
factor for a uniform plane wave at normal incidence.
With a lossy dielectric, the reflection factor is complex.

To first order, the effective scattering cross section of the
metallic target is multiplied by | |2.
This yields a rough estimate for a dielectric target.
The latter could however be a resonator: its reflection
properties would then exhibit large variations close to the
resonances.
Effective scattering cross section

of a man
Some radars are designed to

detect the presence of
humans.
Effective scattering cross
sections of a man have
therefore been studied as a
function of frequency.
These measured effective
scattering cross section
values vary widely.
390
Special case: Short-circuited

antenna
When the target is an antenna having its
output short-circuited, the effective
scattering cross section is given by:
It is possible to measure with a radar the

gain and the radiation pattern of an
antenna, without the need to feed it.
Radar design notes

The main problem encountered in radar design is
the selection of the parameters.
One must take into account:
1. the feeding power Pf provided by the generator,
2. the antenna gain G,
3. the frequency f or the wavelength ,
4. the range Rmax, which is the farthest distance for
detection,
5. the effective scattering cross section of the target ,
6. the lowest signal-to-noise ratio (Pr/N) required at the
input of the receiver, quantity defined by the data
processing unit,
7. the receivers noise bandwidth B,
8. the global noise temperature referred to the
receivers input (Ta + Tr) in Kelvin.
Note: Equivalent noise temperatures (Ta + Tr) for an antenna and a receiver system.
391
System noise temperature

Equivalent system noise temperature Ts = Ta +Tr,
consists of the components
Ta is the contribution from the antenna
Apparent temperature of sky (from graph)
Loss within antenna
Tr = TRF+LRFTe is the contribution from the RF
components between the antenna and the receiver,
including receiver temperature multiplied by the loss of
input RF components
TRF is temperature of RF components
LRF is the loss of input RF components
Te is the temperature of the receiver
Noise factor of receiver
783
Noise sources
Noise competes with the target echo
The noise power at the

receiver is given by:
N = kB B Ts
kB = Boltzmans constant = 1.38 x 10-23J/K

Ts = ekvivalent system noise temperature
784
B = Noise bandwidth of receiver
392
Radar design notes

The first three terms are set by the emitter, the last three
by the receiving and processing system.
The range and the effective scattering cross section define
the target, they are the geometrical parameters which specify
the whole system.
For the radar to operate correctly, these eight quantities
must meet the following requirement,
obtained from the radar equation and from the equivalent

noise power expression.
Particularly worth noting is the term Rmax4 in the denominator.
If one wishes to double the range of a radar by changing only the
emitted power, the latter must be increased by a factor 24 = 16.
Note
The radar equation provides a simple
connection between radar performance
parameters and radar design parameters.
There are different radar equations for
different radar functions.
Combination of the radar equation with
cost or other constraints permits quick
identification of critical radar design
issues.
786
393
Theoretical maximum range

The radar equation relates the important parameters
affecting the received signal of a radar.
Pf is the power transmitted by the radar.
This is a known value of the radar.
It is important to know because the power returned is
directly related to the transmitted power.
Pr is the power returned to the radar from a target.
This is an unknown value of the radar, but it is one that is
directly calculated.
To detect a target, this power must be greater than the
minimum detectable signal of the receiver.
Minimum detectable signal

The minimum detectable signal is defined as the
useful echo power at the reception antenna, which
gives on the screen a discernible blip.
The minimum detectable signal at the receiver
input-jack leads to the maximum range of the
radar, all other nominal variables are considered
as constant.
A reduction of the minimal received power of the
receiver gets an increase of the maximum range.
394
MDS and SNR

For every receiver there is a certain receiving power as of which
the receiver can work at all.
This smallest workable received power is frequently often called
MDS - Minimum Detectable Signal in radar technology.
Typical radar values of the MDS echo lie in the range of -104
dBm to -113 dBm.
The value of the MDS echo depends on the Signal-to-Noise-
Ratio (SNR).
Noise
All radars, as with all electronic equipment,
must operate in the presence of noise.
The main source of noise is termed thermal
noise and is due to agitation of electrons
caused by heat.
The noise can arise from
received atmospheric or cosmic noise
receiver noise - generated internally in the
radar receiver
Noise competes with the target echo
395
Noise figure
The overall receiver sensitivity is directly
related to the noise figure of the radar
receiver.
A very low noise figure receiver is achieved
through minimizing the noise factor of the
very first block.
This component usual is characterized by a
low noise figure with high gain Low Noise
Amplifier (LNA).
Example
Sensitivity time control (STC) is used to attenuate the very strong signals
returned from nearby ground clutter targets. STC is used by adjusting the
attenuation of the receiver as a function of distance. More attenuation is applied
to close returns and attenuation is reduced as the range increases..
396
External and internal losses (Ls)

The sum of all loss factors of the radar is called
external and internal losses (Ls).
Ls is a value that is calculated to compensate for
attenuation by precipitation, atmospheric gases, and
receiver detection limitations.
The attenuation by precipitation is a function of
precipitation intensity and wavelength.
For atmospheric gases, the attenuation is a function
of elevation angle, range, and wavelength.
False alarm
A false alarm is an erroneous radar target
detection decision caused by noise or other
interfering signals exceeding the detection
threshold.
In general, it is an indication of the presence of a
radar target when there is no valid target.
False alarms are generated by noise which exceeds
a pre-set threshold level, by the presence of
spurious signals (either internal to the radar
receiver or from sources external to the radar),
or by equipment malfunction.
A false alarm may be manifested as a momentary
blip on a display, a digital signal processor output,
an audio signal, or by all of these means.
397
Detection of signals in noise
795
Probability of detection
The received and demodulated echo signal is
processed by a threshold logic.
If the detection threshold is set too high, there
will be very few false alarms, but the signal-to-
noise ratio required will inhibit detection of valid
targets.
If the threshold is set too low, the large number
of false alarms will mask detection of valid
targets.
Since in the mixed signal exist high noise peaks
which lie in the range of small wanted signals the
optimized threshold level shall be a balanced
compromise used by some cost function depending
on the application.
398
Radar equation and detection process
797
Example: Radar range equation

parameters
399
Problem
One of the important uses of the radar range equation
is in the determination of detection range, or the
maximum range at which a target has a high
probability of being detected by the radar.
Substitute the metric values from the previous
table into the radar range equation
and calculate R.
Propagation effects on radar performance
Radar beams can be attenuated, reflected and bent

(diffracted and refracted) by the environment
Atmospheric attenuation
Reflection off of Earths

surface
Over-the-horizon
diffraction
Atmospheric refraction
800
400
Propagation medium parameters

Atmospheric Earths surface
parameters vary Surface material
with altitude (water vs land)
Air density and Surface roughness
humidity (waves, mountains)
Rain rate Earths curvature
Fog/cloud water
content
Index of refraction
801
Distance and direction errors due to

the troposphere
An inhomogeneous troposphere cause a range and
bearing error.
The range error is mainly due to changes in
refraction index, but also the curvature of rays
contribute a bit.
The bearing error is due to bending of the ray
path.
In general the errors are the largest for
horizontal observations.
The effect of the ionosphere can be neglected if
the used frequency is high enough (at 100MHz the
effect of ionosphere to bearing is only few
arcminutes).
401
Radar power absorbed by water vapor
and oxygen at sea level
Attenuation is a
loss of power
High frequencies are not characterized by
well suited for long-range Ls in radar range
low-altitude surveillance equation
803
Rain and fog attenuation

Radar performance at high frequencies is highly weather dependent
804
402
Types of radar
Type Application
Pulse (incoherent) Target detection
Range measurement
Surveillance
Doppler (coherent) Velocity measurements
MTI Separates moving targets from clutter
Pulse Doppler Range and velocity
Types of radar
Type Application
Tracking Range and Angle measurement
Fire control, Guidance
Synthetic Aperture High spatial resolution
Very rapid tracking
AEW (AWACS) Airborne pulse Doppler:
separates moving targets from clutter
using a moving radar
(Highly complicated space-time
adaptive processing)
403
Doppler frequency
Doppler
Frequency
When f = 3 GHz
fd =1 kHz / 50 m/s
807
Radar parameter estimation

Location
Azimuth angle
Elevation angle
Range
Size
Amplitude (RCS)
Radial extent (length)
Cross range extent (width)
Motion
Radial velocity
Radial acceleration
Rotation, precession 808
404
Primary parameters
Primary metric parameters are range,
angle, and Doppler velocity
Parameter Resolution
Range 1/BW(=Bandwidth)
Angle /D(=Antenna size)
Velocity (Doppler) /t (=Coherent integration time)
809
Introduction to
Communication Satellite
Systems
405
History of satellite communication

1945 Arthur C. Clarke publishes an essay about Extra Terrestrial
Relays in Wireless World.
1957 First satellite SPUTNIK
1960 First reflecting communication satellite ECHO
1963 First geostationary satellite SYNCOM
1965 First commercial geostationary satellite Early Bird
(INTELSAT I): 240 duplex telephone channels or 1 TV channel, 1.5
years lifetime
1976 Three MARISAT satellites for maritime communication
1982 First mobile satellite telephone system INMARSAT-A
1988 First satellite system for mobile phones and data
communication INMARSAT-C
1993 First digital satellite telephone system
1998 Global satellite systems for small mobile phones
811
Motivation to use satellites
406
Satellite microwave transmission
Satellites can relay signals over a long

distance
E.g., geostationary satellites
Remain above the equator at a height of about
36000 km (geosynchronous orbits)
Travel around the earth in exactly the same
time, the earth takes to rotate
Communication satellite
A communication satellite can be looked
upon as a microwave repeater
It contains several transponders which
listens to some portion of spectrum,
amplifies the incoming signal and
broadcasts it in another frequency to avoid
interference with incoming signals.
407
Satellite system elements
Lifespan of space segment

Satellite Launching Phase
Transfer Orbit Phase
Deployment
Operation
TT&C - Tracking Telemetry and Command Station
SCC - Satellite Control Center, a.k.a.:
OCC - Operations Control Center
SCF - Satellite Control Facility
Retirement Phase
408
Ground segment
Collection of facilities, Users and Applications
Earth Station = Satellite Communication Station

(Fixed or Mobile)
Applications
Traditionally
weather satellites
radio and TV broadcast satellites
military satellites
satellites for navigation and localization (e.g., GPS)
Telecommunication
global telephone connections replaced by fiber optics
backbone for global networks
connections for communication in remote places or
underdeveloped areas
global mobile communication
satellite systems extend cellular phone systems
(e.g., GSM )
818
409
Classical satellite systems

Inter Satellite Link
(ISL)
Mobile User
Link (MUL) MUL
Gateway Link
(GWL) GWL
small cells
(spotbeams)
base station
or gateway
footprint
ISDN PSTN GSM
PSTN: Public Switched User data

Telephone Network
819
Satellite communication
When using a satellite for long distance
communications, the satellite acts as a repeater.
An earth station transmits the signal up to the
satellite (uplink), which in turn retransmits it to the
receiving earth station (downlink).
Different frequencies are used for uplink/downlink.
410
Satellite uplink and downlink

Downlink
The link from a satellite down to one or more
ground stations or receivers
Uplink
The link from a ground station up to a satellite.
Some companies sell uplink and downlink

services to
television stations, corporations, and to other
telecommunication carriers.
Advantages of satellite
communication
Can reach over large geographical area
Flexible (if transparent transponders)
Easy to install new circuits
Circuit costs independent of distance
Broadcast possibilities
Mobile applications
Terrestrial network "by-pass" , temporary
applications (restoration)
Provision of service to remote areas
User has control over own network
1-for-N multipoint standby possibilities
411
Transparent transponders
Transponders are microwave repeaters carried by

communications satellites.
Transparent transponders can handle any signal
whose format can fit in the transponder
bandwidth.
No signal processing occurs other than that of
heterodyning (frequency changing) the uplink frequency
bands to those of the downlinks.
Such a satellite communications system is referred to as
a bent-pipe system.
Connectivity among earth stations is reduced when
multiple narrow beams are used.
Hence, the evolution proceeded from the transparent
transponder to transponders that can perform signal
switching and format processing.
Disadvantages of satellite
communication
Large up front capital costs (space
segment and launch)
Terrestrial break even distance expanding
(approx. size of Europe)
Interference and propagation delay
Congestion of frequencies and orbits
412
Breakeven distance
The cost of satellite circuit is independent of
distance on the Earth between the two ends,
whilst the cost of a terrestrial circuit is
approximately directly proportional to that
distance.
The concept of a "breakeven" distance where the
costs are equal has been used to determine where
services should be routed via satellite.
This breakeven distance varies according to the
size of the route, growth rate, and any special
networking requirements.
When to use satellites

When the unique features of satellite
communications make it attractive
When the costs are lower than terrestrial
routing
When it is the only solution
Examples:
Communications to ships and aircraft
TV services - contribution links, direct to cable head,
direct to home
Data services - private networks
Overload traffic
Delaying terrestrial investments
Temporary needs for special events
1 for N diversity; If a route fails, the traffic is
switched to a stand-by section (diversity protection)
413
Satellite transmission links

Earth stations communicate by sending
signals to the satellite on an uplink
The satellite then repeats those signals on
a downlink
The broadcast nature of downlink makes it
attractive for services such as the
distribution of TV programs
User services
One way Service Two way Service

(Broadcasting) (Communication)
414
Satellite signals
Use to transmit signals and data over long
distances
Weather forecasting
Television broadcasting
Internet communication
Global Positioning Systems
Satellite phone
Why satellites remain in orbits
415
Basics
Satellites in circular orbits
attractive force Fg = m g (R/r)
centrifugal force Fc = m r
m: mass of the satellite
R: radius of the earth (R = 6370 km)
r: distance to the center of the earth
g: acceleration of gravity (g = 9.81 m/s)
: angular velocity ( = 2 f, f: rotation frequency)
Stable orbit
gR 2
r3
Fg = Fc ( 2 f ) 2
831
Basics
elliptical or circular orbits
complete rotation time depends on distance satellite-earth
inclination: angle between orbit and equator
elevation: angle between satellite and horizon
LOS (Line of Sight) to the satellite necessary for
connection
high elevation needed, less absorption due to e.g. buildings
Uplink: connection base station - satellite
Downlink: connection satellite - base station
typically separated frequencies for uplink and downlink
transponder used for sending/receiving and shifting of
frequencies
transparent transponder: only shift of frequencies
regenerative transponder: additionally signal regeneration
832
416
Satellite period and orbits

24 satellite
velocity [ x1000 km/h] period [h]
20
16
12
4 synchronous distance
35,786 km
10 20 30 40 x106 m
radius
833
Types of satellite orbits

Based on the inclination, i, over the equatorial plane:
Equatorial orbits above Earths equator (i=0)
Polar orbits pass over both poles (i=90)
Other orbits called inclined orbits (0<i<90)
Based on eccentricity
Circular with centre at the earths centre
Elliptical with one foci at earths centre
417
Inclination
plane of satellite orbit
satellite orbit
perigee
i
inclination i
equatorial plane
835
Elevation
Elevation:
angle e between center of satellite beam
and surface
Minimal elevation:
elevation needed at least e
to communicate with the satellite
836
418
Link budget of satellites

Parameters like attenuation or received power determined by
four parameters: L: Loss
sending power f: carrier frequency
gain of sending antenna r: distance
c: speed of light
distance between sender
and receiver 2
4 r f
gain of receiving antenna L
Problems c
varying strength of received signal due to multipath propagation
interruptions due to shadowing of signal (no LOS = NLOS)
Possible solutions
Link Margin to eliminate variations in signal strength
satellite diversity (usage of several visible satellites at the same
time) helps to use less sending power
837
Types of satellite based networks
GEO Geostationary Orbits

36000 km = 22300 Miles, equatorial, High latency
MEO Medium Earth Orbits
High bandwidth, High power, High latency
LEO Low Earth Orbits
Low power, Low latency, More Satellites, Small Footprint
VSAT
Very Small Aperture Satellites
Private WANs
419
Satellite orbits
Four different types of satellite orbits can
be identified depending on the shape and
diameter of the orbit:
GEO: geostationary orbit, ca. 36000 km above
earth surface
LEO (Low Earth Orbit): ca. 500 - 1500 km
MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) or ICO (Intermediate
Circular Orbit): ca. 6000 - 20000 km
HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit) elliptical orbits
839
Examples
Geosynchronous orbit
(GEO): 36,000 km above
Earth, includes commercial
and military
communications satellites,
satellites providing early
warning of ballistic missile
launch.
Medium Earth Orbit
(MEO): from 5000 to
15000 km, they include
navigation satellites (GPS,
Galileo, Glonass).
Low Earth Orbit (LEO):
from 500 to 1000 km above
Earth, includes military
intelligence satellites,
weather satellites.
420
Satellite orbits
Satellite orbits
GEO (Inmarsat)
HEO MEO (ICO)
LEO inner and outer Van
(Globalstar, Allen belts
Irdium)
earth
1000
Van-Allen-Belts: 10000
ionized particles
2000 - 6000 km and 35768
km
15000 - 30000 km
above earth surface
842
421
Geostationary satellites
Orbit 35,786 km distance to earth surface, orbit in
equatorial plane (inclination 0)
complete rotation exactly one day, satellite is
synchronous to earth rotation
Fix antenna positions, no adjusting necessary
Satellites typically have a large footprint (up to 34% of
earth surface!), therefore difficult to reuse frequencies
Bad elevations in areas with latitude above 60 due to fixed
position above the equator
High transmit power needed
High latency due to long distance (ca. 275 ms)
not useful for global coverage for small mobile phones and
data transmission, typically used for radio and TV
transmission
Theoretically 3 Satellites can cover the earth (120 apart)
843
NGSO - Non geostationary orbits
Orbit should avoid Van

Allen radiation belts:
Region of charged
particles that can cause
damage to satellite
Occur at
~2000-4000 km and
~13000-25000 km
422
LEO systems
Orbit ca. 500 - 1500 km above earth surface
Visibility of a satellite ca. 10 - 40 minutes
Global radio coverage possible
Latency comparable with terrestrial long distance
connections, ca. 5 - 10 ms
Smaller footprints, better frequency reuse
Now handover necessary from one satellite to
another
Many satellites necessary for global coverage
More complex systems due to moving satellites
845
LEO - Low Earth Orbits

Earth stations must track satellite or have omnidirectional
antennas
Large constellation of satellites is needed for continuous
communication (66 satellites needed to cover earth)
Requires complex architecture
Requires tracking at ground
Examples:
Iridium (start 1998, 66 satellites)
Bankruptcy in 2000, deal with US DoD (free use,
saving from deorbiting)
Globalstar (start 1999, 48 satellites)
Not many customers, low stand-by times for mobiles
423
MEO systems
Orbit ca. 5000 - 12000 km above earth surface
Comparison with LEO systems:
Slower moving satellites
Less satellites needed
Simpler system design
For many connections no hand-over needed
Higher latency, ca. 70 - 80 ms
Higher sending power needed
Special antennas for small footprints needed
Example:
ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit, Inmarsat) start 2000
847
HEO - Highly Elliptical Orbits

HEOs (i = 63.4) are suitable to provide
coverage at high latitudes (including North
Pole in the northern hemisphere)
Depending on selected orbit (e.g. Molniya,
Tundra, etc.) two or three satellites are
sufficient for continuous time coverage of
the service area.
All traffic must be periodically transferred
from the setting satellite to the rising
satellite (Satellite Handover)
424
Satellite transmission bands
Frequency Band Downlink Uplink
C 3,700-4,200 MHz 5,925-6,425 MHz
Ku 11.7-12.2 GHz 14.0-14.5 GHz
Ka 17.7-21.2 GHz 27.5-31.0 GHz
The C band is the most frequently used. The Ka and Ku bands are reserved
exclusively for satellite communication but are subject to rain attenuation.
Note
Satellite communications in the FSS (Fixed Satellite
Services) frequency band were initially developed in
order to provide transmission links between the
public switched telephone networks (PSTNs) of
different countries.
Frequency bands are allocated to different services
at World Radio-communication Conferences (WRCs).
Bands are generally allocated to more than one radio
services.
Bands have traditionally been divided into
commercial" and "government/military" bands,
although this is becoming less clear-cut as
"commercial" operators move to utilize "government"
bands.
425
Earths atmosphere
Atmospheric losses
Different types of atmospheric losses can
disturb radio wave transmission in satellite
systems:
Atmospheric absorption
Random ionospheric disturbances
426
Atmospheric absorption
Energy absorption by atmospheric gases, which
varies with the frequency of the radio waves.
Two absorption peaks are observed (for 90
elevation angle):
22.3 GHz from resonance absorption in water
vapour (H2O)
60 GHz from resonance absorption in oxygen (O2)
For other elevation angles:
[AA] = [AA]90 cosec
Note. cosec(x)sin(x) = 1, csc(x) cosec(x)
Rain is the main cause of atmospheric attenuation
(snow has little effect on attenuation because of its
low water content).
Total attenuation from rain can be determined by:
A = L [dB]
where [dB/km] is called the specific attenuation, and can be
calculated from specific attenuation coefficients in tabular
form that can be found in literature
where L [km] is the effective path length of the signal
through the rain; note that this differs from the geometric
path length due to fluctuations in the rain density.
427
Attenuation of
Example: satellite systems at 4-6 GHz
the signal in %
50
40 rain
absorption
30
fog absorption
e
20
10
atmospheric
absorption
5 10 20 30 40 50
elevation of the satellite
855
Random ionospheric disturbances

Random ionospheric disturbances are travelling
clouds of electrons in the ionosphere that cause
radio signal fluctuations which can only be
determined on a statistical basis.
The disturbances of major concern are
Scintillation
Polarization rotation
Scintillations are variations in the amplitude,
phase, polarization, or angle of arrival of radio
waves, caused by irregularities in the ionosphere
which randomly change over time.
The main effect of scintillations is fading of the
signal.
428
Linear polarization
Electromagnetic waves
consist of an electric and a
magnetic field vibrating at
right angles to each other.
Polarization is the property
of electromagnetic waves
that describes the direction
of the transverse electric
field.
Linear polarization
(horizontal or vertical):
the two orthogonal
components of the electric
field are inphase;
The direction of the line in
the plane depends on the
relative amplitudes of the
two components.
Linear polarization
Circular and elliptical polarization
Circular polarization
The two components
are exactly 90 out of
phase and have exactly
the same amplitude.
Elliptical polarization
All other cases.
Circular polarization Elliptical polarisation
429
Alternating polarizations
Alternating vertical and
horizontal polarization is widely
used on satellite communications
This reduces interference
between programs on the same
frequency band transmitted
from adjacent satellites (One
uses vertical, the next
horizontal, and so on)
Allows for reduced angular
separation between the
satellites.
Routing
One solution: Inter Satellite Links (ISL)
reduced number of gateways needed
forward connections or data packets within the satellite
network as long as possible
only one uplink and one downlink per direction needed for
the connection of two mobile phones
Problems
more complex focusing of antennas between satellites
high system complexity due to moving routers
higher fuel consumption
thus shorter lifetime
Iridium and Teledesic planned with ISL
Other systems use gateways and additionally
terrestrial networks 860
430
Localization of mobile stations

Mechanisms similar to GSM
Gateways maintain registers with user data
HLR (Home Location Register): static user data
VLR (Visitor Location Register): (last known) location of the mobile
station
SUMR (Satellite User Mapping Register):
satellite assigned to a mobile station
positions of all satellites
Registration of mobile stations
Localization of the mobile station via the satellites position
requesting user data from HLR
updating VLR and SUMR
Calling a mobile station
localization using HLR/VLR similar to GSM
connection setup using the appropriate satellite
861
Handover in satellite systems

Several additional situations for handover in satellite
systems compared to cellular terrestrial mobile phone
networks caused by the movement of the satellites
Intra satellite handover
handover from one spot beam to another
mobile station still in the footprint of the satellite, but in another cell
Inter satellite handover
handover from one satellite to another satellite
mobile station leaves the footprint of one satellite
Gateway handover
Handover from one gateway to another
mobile station still in the footprint of a satellite, but gateway leaves the
footprint
Inter system handover
Handover from the satellite network to a terrestrial cellular network
mobile station can reach a terrestrial network again which might be
cheaper, has a lower latency etc.
862
431
Overview of LEO/MEO systems

Iridium Globalstar ICO Teledesic
# satellites 66 + 6 48 + 4 10 + 2 288
altitude 780 1414 10390 ca. 700
(km)
coverage global 70 latitude global global
min. 8 20 20 40
elevation
frequencies 1.6 MS 1.6 MS 2 MS 19
[GHz 29.2 2.5 MS 2.2 MS 28.8
(circa)] 19.5 5.1 5.2 62 ISL
23.3 ISL 6.9 7
access FDMA/TDMA CDMA FDMA/TDMA FDMA/TDMA
method
ISL yes no no yes
bit rate 2.4 kbit/s 9.6 kbit/s 4.8 kbit/s 64 Mbit/s
2/64 Mbit/s
# channels 4000 2700 4500 2500
Lifetime 5-8 7.5 12 10
[years]
cost 4.4 B$ 2.9 B$ 4.5 B$ 9 B$
estimation
863
Inter Satellite Links (ISL)
Summary
Satellite systems can provide a variety of
services including
broadband communications,
audio/video distribution networks,
navigation,
worldwide customer service and
military command and control.
Satellite systems are also expected to play a
role in the 5G global infrastructure providing
the wide area coverage necessary for the
realization of the optimal communication
anywhere and anytime.
432
Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN)
Importance of telephony
Official name: the Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN)
New technologies revolutionizing plain old
telephone service (POTS)
More options are bringing more complex
elements
WANs are based on telephone technology
and regulation
866
433
Main elements of the PSTN

Customer Premises Equipment
Access System
Transport Core
Signaling
867
Elements of the Public Switched Telephone Network

(PSTN)
1. Customer Premises Equipment 1. Customer Premises Equipment
868
434

(PSTN)
2. 2.
Access Line Access Line
(Local Loop) (Local Loop)
2. & 3. End office
Switch (Class 5)
The Access System consists of

the access line to the customer
(called the local loop)
and termination equipment at the end office
(nearest telephone office switch) 869

(PSTN)
3. Transport Core
3.
Switch 3. Trunk
Line
The Transport Core connects end office

switches (5 classes, with 1 being highest).
Trunk lines to connect switches.
870
435

(PSTN)
4. Signaling System
(SS7 in the U.S.)
Signaling is the control of calling

(setup, teardown, billing, etc.)
Transport is the actual transmission of voice

871

(PSTN)
Recap
Customer premises equipment
Access system
Local loop and termination equipment at the end office
switch
Transport Core
Transport is the carriage of voice
Signaling
Signaling is the control of calling
872
436
Circuit switching
A circuit is an
end-to-end connection
between two subscribers.
Capacity is reserved on all trunk lines
and switches along the way.
873
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Time
Frame 1 Frame 2 Frame 3
Used Used Used Used Used
Slot 1 Slot 1 Slot 1

for for for
Slot 2
Circuit A Circuit A Circuit A
for
Circuit B
Slot 3
TDM reserves capacity
for
for each circuit in each frame;
Circuit C
assures speed but is wasteful
874
437
Voice and data traffic
Full-duplex (Two-way) circuit
Voice traffic:
Fairly constant use of capacity;
Circuit switching is fairly efficient
875
Voice and data traffic
Full-duplex (Two-way) circuit
Data traffic:
Short bursts, long silences;
Circuit switching is inefficient for data traffic
876
438
Dial-up circuits vs private line circuits
Dial-up circuits Private line circuits
Point to point? Yes Yes
Operation Dial-up. Circuit only Permanent circuit.

Lasts for duration of Always on
each call
Speed for carrying Up to 56 kbps 56 kbps to gigabit
data Speeds
Number of voice One Several due to
calls per circuit multiplexing
877
Local loop technologies
Technology Use Status
1-Pair Voice-Grade Residences Already installed

UTP
2-Pair Data-Grade Businesses for high- Must be pulled to the
UTP Speed access lines customer premises
(this is expensive)
Optical fiber Businesses for high- Must be pulled to the
Speed access lines customer premises
(this is expensive)
878
439
Analog telephone transmission
Analog
signal
Sound
wave
In digital transmission, state changes abruptly.

In analog transmission, state (loudness) changes smoothly over time,
analogously to the way voice amplitude changes
879
PSTN: Mostly digital with analog local loops
Todays telephone network: Predominantly digital
Local Local
loop loop
(Analog) Switch (Digital)
(Digital)
Residential Trunk line PBX

telephone Switch (Digital) Switch (Digital)
(Analog) (Digital) (Digital)
880
440
Codec at the end office switch

End office
Analog Digital
ADC Digital
signal switch
internal
signal
Codec
Local loop
DAC
Home
telephone
The codec at the end office translates between

analog customer signals and digital internal signals
881
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) in microwave

transmission
Frequency
Channel 1 / Circuit A
Channel 2 / Circuit D
Channel 3 / Circuit C
Channel 4 / unused
Channel 5 / Circuit E
In FDM, each circuit is sent in a separate channel.

If channel bandwidth is large, there will be fewer channels.
Voice uses 4 kHz channels.
882
441
Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC): Bandpass

filtering and Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Bandpass filtering
Analog
Analog electric
voice signal
signal
Subscriber
Filter at end office switch
Bandpass filtering to limit voice to 4 kHz

is carried out at the end office switch.
883

Bandpass filtering
Signal
Energy distribution for

human speech
0 Hz 300 Hz 3,400 Hz 20 kHz
Bandwidth (3.1 kHz)
The human voice can produce sounds up to 20 kHz,

but most sound is between 300 Hz and 3.4 kHz.
The bandpass filter only passes this sound to reduce bandwidth.
884
442

PCM
Analog Duration of Sample

Signal (1/8000 sec.)
Signal
Amplitude
0
Sample Time
In Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), the bandwidth is assumed to be 4

kHz. This adds guard bands to the actual 300 Hz - 3.1 kHz signal
885

PCM
Analog Duration of Sample

Signal (1/8000 sec.)
Signal
Amplitude
0
Sample Time
A signal must be sampled at twice its highest frequency (4 kHz)

for adequate quality. In PCM, there are 8,000 samples per second
886
443

In each 1/8000 second sample, the intensity of the
sound is measured.
255 (maximum)
The intensity is divided by the maximum value (255).
The result is changed into an 8-bit binary number.
Analog
Signal Signal So for 125/255, 125 is expressed as 01111101.
Amplitude
0
Sample Time
Intensity of Sample
(125/255 or 01111101)
887

The signal is assumed to be 0 Hz 4 kHz

It must be sampled 8,000 times per second
(2x4 kHz)
Each sample generates an 8-bit amplitude
level
So voice codecs using PCM generate 64
kbps of data (8,000 x 8)
888
444
Digital-to-Analog Conversion (DAC)

One
Sample
One 8-bit
Sample
00000100 00000011 00000111

Generated Arriving Digital Signal
DAC
Analog Signal (8000 Samples/Second)
For signals going to the customer,

sample bits are converted to amplitude levels for each sample.
With 8,000 samples per second, will sound smooth to the ear.
889
TDM and ATM switch connections in the

PSTN transport core
Transport core
Point-to-Point
SONET/SDH
TDM
Ring
Trunk Line
Traditionally, the transport core used

TDM trunk linesboth point-to-point
and ring trunk lines
890
445
SONET/SDH dual ring

1. Normally, One Ring is Used in Each Ring
Telephone Telephone
switch switch
SONET/SDH Ring
Telephone
switch
2.
Rings can be Break
wrapped if a
Telephone
trunk line
switch
is broken. SONET/SDH Ring
Still a complete
loop.
891
TDM and ATM switch connections in the

PSTN transport core
Transport core
ATM
Network
Increasingly, the transport core is moving to

ATM packet-switched trunking.
ATM offers strong QoS and
strong management capabilities; packet
switching reduces cost, even for voice. 892
446
Signaling System 7
Signaling is the control of transmissions (setup, tear down,
billing, etc.)
SS7 - Signalling System No. 7
A CCS (Common Channel Signalling) system defined by the ITU-
T (International Telecommunications Union -Telecommunication
Standardization Sector). SS7 is used in many modern telecoms
networks and provides a suite of protocols which enables circuit
and non circuit related information to be routed about and
between networks. The main protocols include MTP (Message
Transfer Part), SCCP (Signalling Connection Control Part) and
ISUP (ISDN User Part).
Also known as C7
Packet-Switched Technology
Operates in parallel with the circuit-switched PSTN
Uses the same transmission links as the PSTN
893
Cellular Telephony
447
Cellular telephony
Mobile Telephone
PSTN
Switching Office (MTSO)
Cellsite
G
Channel D K
47
B H N
A E L P
O
C I Handover
F M
J
895
Cellular telephony
Mobile Telephone
PSTN
Switching Office
Cellsite
G
D K
B H N
A E L P
Service area is divided into cells.
C I O
Cellsite in each cell communicates F M
with cellphones.
J
MTSO controls all cellsites,
896
links cellular system to PSTN.
448
Cellular telephony
Mobile Telephone
PSTN
Switching Office
Cellsite
G
Channel D K
47
B H N
A E L P
C I O
F M
Why cells?
So channels can be reused in different cells. J
Channel reuse allows more customers
to be supported. 897
Cellular technology
Handover (handoff)
Moving between cells in a system (city)
Roaming
Moving between systems (cities)
898
449
Channel reuse
Traditional cellular technologies
Used FDMA, sometimes with TDMA within
channels
Could not reuse channels in adjacent cells
Typically, a channel is reused roughly every seven
cells
So if there are 25 cells, each channel will be
reused about three times
B H
A E
Ch 47 Ch 47
C D
899
Channel reuse
Newer cellular systems use CDMA
Code division multiple access
Type of spread spectrum transmission that
allows multiple subscribers to transmit
simultaneously in a single channel
Allows channel reuse in adjacent cells
If there are 25 cells, each channel can be
reused 25 times
CDMA supports many more customers because
of greater channel reuse
900
450
Generations of cellular technology
Generation 1G 2nd 3G 4G
Year 1980 1990 2000 2010
Technology Analog Digital Digital Digital
Data transfer
30 kbps to 5 Mbps to
Data Transfer Rate is difficult; 10 kbps
500 kbps 100 Mbps
~5 kbps
901
Cellular standards families

GSM Family
GSM (Global System for Mobile communications)
Dominates 2G service worldwide

200 kHz channels shared by up to eight users via DM
Data transmission speed of approximately 10 kbps
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)
Upgrade to GSM
Uses GSM channels
Provides several TDM time slots per user in each frame
for greater throughput
2.5G: Typical throughput of 20 kbps to 30 kbps
Comparable to telephone modems 902
451

GSM Family
EDGE
Upgrade to GSM beyond GPRS

Also uses GSM channels with multiple time slots per
user
2.5G: Typical throughput of 80 kbps to 125 kbps
W-CDMA
Wideband CDMA
Full 3G service
Throughput comparable to DSL and cable modems
Developed in Europe and Japan
903

Qualcomm CDMA Family
CDMAone (IS-95)
2G system used widely in the United States

Uses CDMA
125 MHz channel shared by multiple simultaneous users
10 kbps data transmission
CDMA2000 (IS-2000) Upgrades
1x: 30 kbps to 50 kbps throughput in a 1.25 MHz channel
Considered to be 3G because rated speed is 144 kbps
1xEV-DO: 100 kbps to 300 kbps throughput
DSL/Cable modem throughput
904
452
Evolution of mobile standards

from 1G to 4G
905
Evolution to 4G
906
453
Difference between 3G and 4G
907
Connections of networks
908
454
802.11 Hot Spots

Hot Spots
Coffee houses, airport lounges, campus centers,
etc.
Offer Internet access via 802.11 WLANs
Sometimes for free, sometimes for a fee
909
U.S. cellular telephony lag

The U.S. lags behind many other countries in
cellular telephone use.
U.S. wired telephone charges are low, making the
price gap to get a cellular phone high
In the U.S., when someone calls a cellular number,
the receiver pays. In the rest of the world, the
caller pays. This further makes cellular service
expensive in the United States
910
455
IP Telephony (VoIP)
IP telephony (VoIP)
IP telephony is the transmission of digitized
voice over IP
Also called voice over IP (VoIP)
Packet switching should reduce costs
compared to traditional long-distance and
international telephone calling
Can integrate voice with data services,
allowing new applications
912
456
IP telephony
User either has
PC with IP telephony software
Or
IP telephone with built-in
codec and IP functionality;
Plugs directly into an IP network
PC with
IP Telephony
IP
Software
Internet
IP Telephone
with
Codec and
PSTN
IP Functionality
913
IP telephony
Media Gateway
Connects IP telephony system to the PSTN.
Does signaling and transport format
conversion.
IP
Internet Media
Gateway
PSTN
914
457
Speech codecs
Codec Transmission Rate
G.711 64 kbps
G.721 32 kbps Several
different codecs
G.722 48, 56, 64 kbps can be used.
G.722.1 24, 32 kbps
Vary in
G.723 5.33, 6.4 kbps compression
G.723.1A 5.3, 6.3 kbps and sound
G.726 16, 24, 32, 40 kbps Quality.
G.728 16 kbps
G.729AB 8 kbps
915
IP telephony protocols
Signaling: H.323 or SIP
(Call setup, breakdown, etc.)
Codec Data RTP UDP IP

Stream Hdr Hdr Hdr
Transport
(Voice Transmission)
PC with IP IP Telephone
Telephony Software (Can connect
directly to wall jack)
H.323 specifies how real time services may be implemented over IP networks. The 3 steps
include H.225 signaling for agents to request access to the H.323 domain. H.245 signaling is
then employed for call setup, including the media streams to be used. Finally data is
transported using RTP (Real Time Protocol).
SIP - Session Initiation Protocol is an IETF protocol designed to facilitate the
establishment, maintenance and termination of multimedia sessions, which could be as
straightforward as a VoIP call but may be a much more sophisticated multimedia experience,
916
incorporating voice and video.
458
IP telephony transport
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Used at the transport layer instead of TCP
Efficient
No opens, closes, ACKs
So creates less delay, load on the network
Unreliable
No error correction
OK because there is no time to retransmit voice packets
Receiver interpolates between received packets
917
IP telephony transport
RTP (Real Time Protocol)
Contains a sequence number so that voice packets
can be put in order even if unreliable IP and UDP
deliver them out of order
Contains a time stamp so that the spacing of

sounds in adjacent packets can be handled well
Reduces jitter (variability in latency)
918
459
Regulation and Carriers
Regulation and carriers

Regulation
Carriers: carry signals between customer

premises
Rights of Way: government permission to lay

wire
Monopoly: service was originally provided by a

single telephone carrier
Regulation: This monopoly carrier was regulated

to prevent abuse of the monopoly
920
460
Deregulation
Deregulation: remove protections & restrictions
To increase competition, lowering prices
Varies by country
Varies by service within countries
Data, long-distance, and customer premises
deregulation is high.
Local voice service deregulation is low.
921
Carriers
PublicTelephone and Telegraph (PTT)
authority is the traditional domestic
monopoly carrier in most countries.
Domestic transmission: within a country
UK: British Telecoms
Japan: NTT
Ireland: Eircom
922
461
Telephone carriers in the United States
Carriers LATA
In the United States
U.S. is divided into regions called local access
and transport areas (LATAs)
About 200 LATAs nationwide
Small states have just one LATA
Large states have 10 to 20 LATAs
923
LATA LEC
Carriers
ILEC CLEC
Local exchange carriers (LECs) provide
service within a LATA
Incumbent LEC (ILEC) is the traditional monopoly
carrier in the LATA
Competitive LEC (CLEC) is a new competitor
924
462
Carriers
Inter-exchange carriers (IXCs) provide
service between LATAs
LECversus IXC distinction is used by

data carriers as well as voice carriers
IXC
LATA LATA
925
Carriers
Point of Presence (POP) is a place in a LATA
where all carriers interconnect to provide
integrated service to all customers
LATA
POP
ILEC IXC
CLEC IXC
926
463
International common carriers
International Service (Between Pairs of

Countries)
Provided by international common carriers
(ICCs)
Allowed carriers, prices, and conditions of
service are settled through bilateral
negotiation between each pair of countries
Country 1 ICC Country 2

927
Telephone carriers
U.S.
Intra-LATA
LECs
ILEC
CLECs
Inter-LATA
IXCs
Most of the World
PTTsfor domestic service
ICCs for Service Between Countries
928
464
Introduction to GPS
929
What is GPS?
The Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) is a
space-based radionavigation system owned by the
U.S. Government and operated by the U.S. Air
Force.
GPS has provided positioning, navigation, and
timing services to military and civilian users on a
continuous worldwide basis since first launch in
1978.
An unlimited number of users with a civil or
military GPS receiver can determine accurate time
and location, in any weather, day or night,
anywhere in the world.
NAVigation System with Time And Ranging Global Positioning System
NAVSTAR Global Positioning System GPS. 930
465
GPS satellite constellation

GPS - Global Positioning System
A constellation of satellites providing world-
wide accurate position coordinates
Developed and maintained by U.S. Department of
Defense (DoD)
931
GPS signal structure

The satellites broadcast two L-band
carrier waves.
The L1 carrier is broadcast at 1575.42
MHz (10.23 x 154)
The L2 carrier is broadcast at 1227.60
MHz (10.23 x 120).
The L1 carrier then has two codes
modulated upon it.
The C/A (Coarse/Acquisition) Code is
modulated at 1.023MHz (10.23/10) and
the P-Code is modulated at10.23MHz).
The L2 carrier has just one code
modulated upon it.
The L2 P-code is modulated at 10.23
MHz.
P-Code (Precision Code)
L band refers to the operating frequency range of 12 GHz (=30-15 cm) in the radio
spectrum. The L band is one of the chief operating ranges used by various applications such
932 as
radars, global positioning systems (GPS), radio, telecommunications and aircraft surveillance.
466
Standard Positioning Service (SPS)
The GPS Standard Positioning Service

(SPS) is defined as follows:
The SPS is a positioning and timing service
provided by way of ranging signals broadcast at
the GPS L1 frequency.
The L1 frequency, transmitted by all satellites,
contains a coarse/acquisition (C/A) code ranging
signal, with a navigation data message, that is
available for peaceful civil, commercial, and
scientific use.
933
GPS - Global Positioning System
My location is:
500641N,
084050E
934
467
Global Positioning System
Your location is:

24335N,
814814W
935
Applications of GPS
Applications fall into five broad categories:
Location - determining a basic position
Navigation - getting from one location to
another
Tracking - monitoring the movement of people
and things
Mapping - creating maps of the world
Timing - bringing precise timing
936
468
Why use satellites for mapping?
Line of Sight (LOS)
937
Basic concept of GPS

A GPS receiver calculates its position by
precisely timing the signals sent by the
GPS satellites high above the Earth.
Each satellite continually transmits
messages which include
the time the message was sent
precise orbital information (the ephemeris)
the general system health and rough orbits of
all GPS satellites (the almanac).
938
469
Basic concept of GPS

With the help of these messages the receiver
determines the transit time of each message and
computes the distances to each satellite.
These distances along with the satellites'
locations are used with the aid of trilateration to
compute the position of the receiver.
This position is then displayed, e.g. with a map
display or latitude and longitude; elevation
information may be included.
Many GPS units also show derived information
such as direction and speed, calculated from
position changes.
939
Global Positioning System
Space segment
Control segment
User segment
940
470
GPS system
Space Segment
User Segment Monitor Stations

Diego Garcia
Ascension Is.
Kwajalein
Hawaii
Colorado Springs
Control Segment
941
Space segment
>30 satellites (SVs)
20,200 km orbit
one revolution in 12 hours
The orbits are so designed that at least four
satellites are always visible above 15 cut-off
angle everywhere on Earth's surface.
High orbit for:

Accuracy
Coverage
Survivability
942
471
Space segment
Each GPS satellite has several very
accurate atomic clocks on board.
The clocks operate at a fundamental
frequency of 10.23MHz.
This frequency is used to generate the
signals that are broadcasted from the
satellite.
943
Control segment
The Control segment consists of a Master Control
Station in Colorado and 4 monitor stations in Hawaii,
Ascension Island [South Atlantic], Diego Garcia
[Indian Ocean], and Kwajelein [West Pacific].
The Control segment tracks the SVs and sends their
positions to the Master Control Station.
The Master Control Station compiles all of the orbital
data and sends it back to the monitor stations.
The Control segment then sends the orbital data
back to the SVs as a navigation message.
944
472
Control segment
The Control segment tracks the GPS satellites, updates
their orbiting position and calibrates and synchronizes their
clocks.
A further important function is to determine the orbit of
each satellite and predict its path for the following 24
hours.
This information is uploaded to each satellite and
subsequently broadcast from it.
This enables the GPS receiver to know where each satellite
can be expected to be found.
The satellite signals are read at the four monitor stations.
The measurements are then sent to the Master Control
Station in Colorado where they are processed to determine
any errors in each satellite.
The information is then sent back to the four monitor
stations and uploaded to the satellites. 945
Control segment
Receives information
Process information
Transmits information
946
473
User segment
The User segment consists of the GPS
equipment (receiver, antenna, radios, etc.).
The User segment receives signals sent by
the Space segment.
This info is required for the User segment
to determine a position and/or time.
947
User Segment
Multiple Applications:
Aviation
Agriculture
Emergency services
GIS data collection
Navigation
Photogrammetry
Precise positioning
Surveying
Remote sensing
Recreation (hiking etc.)
Vehicle tracking
Many more ...
GIS - Geographical Information System is any system that captures,

stores, analyzes, manages, and presents data that is linked to location.
948
474
949
Trilateration from satellites

By knowing the location and distance of
several satellites, the GPS receiver can
calculate an accurate position
A GPS receiver uses trilateration to
determine its location from satellite data.
Trilateration is a method for determining
the intersections of three sphere surfaces
given the centers and radii of the three
spheres.
950
475
Trilateration
One measurement narrows down our
position to the surface of a sphere
19,000 km We are somewhere

on the surface of
this sphere
951
Trilateration
Second measurement narrows it down
to the intersection of two spheres
19,000
km
20,000
km
Intersection of
two spheres is a
circle
952
476
Trilateration
Third measurement narrows it to just two
points Intersection of three
spheres is only two points
953
Trilateration
Fourth measurement decides between
two points
Fourth measurement
will only go through
one of the two points
954
477
Trilateration
In theory three measurements are
enough
Four measurements required to
collect 3D positions
GPS receiver must track at least four
satellites
Parallel
Sequencing
955
GPS principle
Satellite transmits signal
Record Transmit time TT
Signal only travels distance once

Two different timing devices used
If not synchronised error results
Error E determined and eliminated
Receiver only receives

signal
Record Received time TR
956
478
Minimum 4 satellites
SV1 SV2
SV4
SV3
SVs stands for satellite vehicles = the space segment is composed of the
957
orbiting GPS satellites
4 equations 4 unknowns

RAS 1 t AS 1 E c X S1

2
X A Y S 1 YA Z
2 S1
ZA 2

R AS 2 t AS 2 E c X S2

X A Y S 2 YA Z
2 S2
ZA
2


X A Y S 3 YA Z
2 S3
ZA
2


X A Y S 4 YA Z
2 S4
ZA 2
This is called pseudoranging

to do this just switch the receiver on
if it is receiving signals from 4 satellites a 3-dimensional position
(i.e. X or mE, Y or mN, Z or RL) will be displayed
The estimated distances from the GPS receiver to the satellites are called
pseudoranges. 958
479
Satellite ranging
Measuring the distance from a satellite
Done by measuring travel time of radio signals
959
Speed-of-light measurement
Measure how long it takes the GPS
signal to get to us
Multiply that time by 300,000 km/sec
Time (sec) x 300,000 = kilometers
If we have precise clocks, all we

need to know is exactly when the
signal left the satellite
960
480
How do we know when the signal

left the satellite?
The receiver and satellites use the same code
They are synchronized to generate the code at
the same exact time
Then, the receiver looks at the incoming code
from the satellite and determines how long ago
the receiver generated that code
measure time difference
difference between same part of code
from satellite
from ground receiver
961
Pseudo Random Noise (PRN) codes
Codes have random noise characteristics

but are precisely defined (pseudorandom).
A sequence of zeros and ones, each zero or
one referred to as a chip.
Selected from a set of Gold Codes.
Gold codes use 2 generator polynomials.
Three types are used by GPS

C/A, P and Y
962
481
Why a code?
GPS receivers use the different codes to distinguish
between satellites.
Code lets many satellites operate on the same
frequency.
Code gives us a way to increase the signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR).
Resistant to intentional or unintentional jamming by
other radio signals.
The codes can also be used as a basis for making
pseudorange measurements and therefore calculate a
position.
963
Code correlation
Correlation value
The number of bits between two codes that
have the same value.
Autocorrelation
Correspondence between a code and a
phase shifted replica of itself.
Crosscorrelation
Correspondence between a code and a
phase shifted version of another code (of the
same length).
964
482
Example: PRN code correlation

Autocorrelation
Phase delay
Cross-correlation
965
Phase delay
PRN code properties
High autocorrelation value only at a phase

shift of zero (or integer number of periods).
Minimal cross-correlation to other PRN
codes, noise and interferers.
Allows all satellites to transmit at the same
frequency.
PRN codes carry the navigation message
and are used for acquisition, tracking and
ranging.
966
483
C/A code
C/A code (Coarse Acquisition)
Uses 2 10-bit generator polynomials
1023 bits long
1 ms duration
Clock rate of 1.023MHz
Repeats indefinitely
Only code needed for commercial receivers.
C/A code (Coarse Acquisition) also referred to as Civil Access code. 967
P-code
PRN codes used by the military.
Clock rate of 10.23MHz
Y-Code
Replaces P-Code when anti-spoofing
is enabled (encrypted).
Not necessary for positioning
Anti-spoofing encrypts the P-code into a signal called the Y-code so that it
cannot be mimicked by a transmitter sending false information. Only users
with military GPS receivers (the U.S. and its allies) can de-crypt the Y-
code [encrypted P-code P(Y)]. 968
484
Accurate clocks are necessary to

measure travel time
Receiver and satellite must be synchronized

which requires precise clocks
Satellites have atomic clocks
Accurate but expensive
Ground receivers have consistent clocks
Quartz clocks are relatively inexpensive
969
Example: Accurate clocks (Ideal situation )
In 2 dimensions for the sake of the drawing
This is where we really are
4 ms
6 ms
970
485
Example: Accurate clocks (Ideal situation )
4 ms
6 ms
8 ms
971
Example: Inaccurate clocks (Unideal situation)
7 ms
5 ms
wrong time
wrong time
Bad position
because clock is
off by one second
972
486
Example: Inaccurate clocks (Unideal situation)
5 ms 7 ms
9 ms
973
Precise timing extra

measurement
The fact that every GPS receiver is synchronized
to universal time makes it the most widely
available source of precise time.
This opens up a wide range of applications beyond
positioning.
The secret to perfect timing is to make an extra
satellite measurement.
If three perfect measurements can locate a point
in 3-dimensional space, then four imperfect
measurements can do the same thing.
This idea is so fundamental to the working of GPS.
974
487
Extra measurement removes timing offset

If our receiver's clocks were perfect, then all our satellite ranges
would intersect at a single point (which is our position).
But with imperfect clocks, a fourth measurement, done as a cross-
check, will not intersect with the first three.
So the receiver's clock is not perfectly synced with universal time.
Since any offset from universal time will affect all of our
measurements, the receiver looks for a single correction factor
that it can subtract from all its timing measurements that would
cause them all to intersect at a single point.
That correction brings the receiver's clock back into sync with
universal time, and we have got atomic accuracy time.
Once we have that correction it applies to all the rest of our
measurements and now we have got precise positioning.
One consequence of this principle is that GPS receiver will need to
have at least four channels so that it can make the four
measurements simultaneously. 975
Satellite location
With the pseudo-random code as a timing sync
pulse, and this fourth measurement to get us
perfectly synced to universal time, we have got
everything we need to measure our distance to a
satellite in space.
But for the trilateration work we not only need to
know distance, we also need to know exactly where
the satellites are.
The spacing of the satellites are arranged so that
a minimum of five satellites are in view from every
point on the globe.
On the ground all GPS receivers have an almanac
programmed into their computers that tells them
where each satellite is. 976
488
Knowing satellites location

Satellites are about 20200 km up
Monitored by Department of Defense (DoD)
Four monitoring stations
Sunsynchronous orbit
12 hour revolution
Satellites transmit status information to the GPS
users.
SV location
SV health
977
Satellite's exact position

The basic orbits are quite exact but just to make things perfect
the GPS satellites are constantly monitored by the DoD.
They use very precise radar to check each satellite's exact
altitude, position and speed.
The errors they are checking for are called "ephemeris errors"
because they affect the satellite's orbit or "ephemeris."
These slight errors caused by gravitation from the moon and sun
and by the pressure of solar radiation on the satellites must be
taken into account if we want great accuracy.
Once the DoD has measured a satellite's exact position, they
relay that information back up to the satellite itself.
The satellite then includes this new corrected position
information in the timing signals it is broadcasting.
So a GPS signal is not only pseudo-random code for timing
purposes, but it also contains a navigation message with
ephemeris information as well. 978
489
Almanac message
An Almanac is a set of parameters used
to calculate the rough location of each
satellite
Almanacs are used for:
Rapid satellite acquisition
Pre-mission planning
979
Ephemeris message
An Ephemeris is a set of parameters
used to determine the accurate location
of a satellite.
Ephemeris used for:
Calculating a GPS position.
980
490
Signal structure
L1 carrier
1575.42 MHz, ~19 cm wavelength
Modulated by both the C/A and P(Y) codes.
P(Y) code is 90 degrees out of phase from
the C/A code.
L2 carrier
1227.60 MHz, ~24 cm wavelength
Modulated by the P(Y) code only.
981
Signal composition
Navigation message
Bit stream with data rate of 50bps.
C/A code
Bit stream with a data rate of 1.023 Mchips
per second.
L1 Carrier
Sine wave with a frequency of 1.57542 GHz.
982
491
Navigation message
The navigation message is a bit stream of

ones and zeros with a data rate of 50 Hz.
Message is divided into frames.
Entire message is 25 frames.
Each frame has 1500 bits = 30 seconds.
30 Seconds 1500 bits
Frame #1 Frame #2 Frame #25

983
Navigation frame
Each frame has 5 subframes.

First three subframes contain local data.
Last two subframes contain system data.
30 s
6s
Subframe Subframe Subframe Subframe Subframe

1 2 3 4 5
Satellite Specific Data System Data

984
492
Navigation subframe
First 3 subframes repeat every 30 seconds.
Ephemeris and clock corrections.
Last 2 subframes repeat every 12.5 minutes.

Almanac and ionospheric data.
Each subframe contains 10 words.

Starts with preamble (10001011), ends with a zero.
Each word contains 30 bits = 600 ms

24 data bits and 6 parity bits.
Parity bits are the Hamming code for the word.
985
Subframe data
First subframe contains Satellite clock
correction terms and GPS Week number.
Frames two and three contain precise
ephemeris data
Frame four contains ionospheric and UTC data
as well as almanac for SVs 25-32.
Frame five contains almanac for SVs 1-24 and
almanac reference time.
986
493
Sources of error in GPS
Clock errors Orbit errors
Ionosphere
Satellite
Troposphere
geometry
Receiver noise
Multipath
987
Error sources
Orbit Sat clock errors

errors
Ionospheric refraction
Range measurement
Tropospheric refraction
Receiver clock errors
988
494
Error sources
Selective Availability (S/A)

Obstruction
Multipath
Atmospheric delay
Poor Satellite Geometry (DOP)
Dilution of precision (DOP), is a term used in satellite navigation to specify

the additional multiplicative effect of navigation satellite geometry on
positional measurement precision 989
Selective Availability (S/A)

Government introduced artificial errors to
reduce GPS position accuracy
Discourages hostile forces from using GPS
Largest source of error
The intention of S/A was to deny civilian and hostile
foreign powers the full accuracy of GPS by subjecting
the satellite clocks to dithering process which
alters their time slightly.
Additionally, the ephemeris (or path that the satellite
will follow) is broadcasted as being slightly different
from what it is in reality.
990
495
Environmental errors
The speed of light is only constant in a vacuum.
As a GPS signal passes through the charged particles and
through the water vapor it gets slowed down a bit, and this
creates the same kind of error as bad clocks.
The ionosphere is the layer of the atmosphere ranging in
altitude from 50 to 500 km.
It consists of ionized particles which cause a perturbing effect
on GPS signals.
While much of the error induced by the ionosphere can be
eliminated through mathematical modeling, it is still a significant
error source.
The troposphere is the lowest part of the earth's atmosphere
that encompasses atmospheric water circulation.
Although it's full of water vapor and varies in temperature and
pressure, it causes relatively little error.
991
Error modeling
We can minimize these errors caused by non-constant speed
of light using mathematical models of the atmosphere.
Much of the delay caused by a signal's trip through our
atmosphere can be predicted.
Mathematical models of the atmosphere take into account
the charged particles in the ionosphere and the varying
gaseous content of the troposphere.
Besides, the satellites constantly transmit real-time updates
to the basic ionospheric model.
A GPS receiver must take into consideration the angle each
signal is taking as it enters the atmosphere because that
angle determines the length of the trip through the
perturbing atmosphere.
992
496
Dual frequency measurements

Another way to get a handle on these atmosphere-induced
errors is to compare the relative speeds of two different
signals.
When light moves through a atmospheric medium, low-
frequency signals get "refracted" or slowed more than high-
frequency signals.
By comparing the delays of the two different carrier
frequencies (L1 and L2) of the GPS signal we can correct
these atmosphere-induced errors.
Unfortunately this "dual frequency" measurement requires
an advanced receivers since only the military has access to
the signals on the L2 carrier.
Civilian companies have worked around this problem with
some clever strategies.
993
Atmospheric delay
GPS signals are delayed
as they pass through
the atmosphere
Rover
Base
< 10 km > 10 km
994
497
Ionospheric errors
50 1000 km above the earth
Dispersive medium affects the GPS signals
Delay is dependent on the total electron count

(TEC)
Peaks during day due to solar radiation
Varies with geomagnetic latitude
Varies with satellite elevation
Frequency dependent
Can be eliminated with dual frequency
receivers (L1/L2)
995
Environmental errors on the ground

Multipath
Signals bounce off nearby surfaces before
being received by the antenna
Causes a delay resulting in range error
Obstruction - Signal degradation

Foliage
Buildings
Anything in the line of sight
996
498
Obstruction
997
Multipath
Indirect ray
998
499
Multipath
999
Receiver error sources
Clock stability and accuracy
A/D conversion
Correlation process
Tracking loops and bandwidths
1000
500
xDOP values
Relative position between the user and the
GPS satellites affects the accuracy
Geometric Dilution Of Precision (GDOP)

Position or spherical (PDOP)
Horizontal (HDOP)
Vertical (VDOP)
Time (TDOP)
Lower DOP values result in better accuracy
1001
Intersecting ranges vs. DOP
1002
501
Good geometry (PDOP <10)
SV3
SV1 SV2
SV4
E.g., an antenna on the roof

would have a good DOP
X, Y, Z
1003
PDOP position (3D) dilution of precision
Bad geometry (PDOP >10)

SV2 SV3
SV1
SV4
E.g., an antenna in a window
would have a poor DOP
X, Y, Z
1004
502
How accurate is GPS?

GPS satellites broadcast their signals in space with a certain
accuracy, but what you receive depends on additional
factors, including satellite geometry, signal blockage,
atmospheric conditions, and receiver design
features/quality.
For example, GPS-enabled smartphones are typically
accurate to within a 5.0 m radius under open sky.
However, their accuracy worsens near buildings, bridges, and
trees.
High-end users boost GPS accuracy with dual-frequency
receivers and/or augmentation systems, which can enable
real-time positioning within a few centimeters, and long-
term measurements at the millimeter level.
1005
User Range Error (URE) vs. User Accuracy
To calculate its position, a GPS

device measures its distance
(range) from multiple GPS
satellites.
User Range Error (URE) is a
measure of ranging accuracy.
User accuracy refers to how
close the device's calculated
position is from the truth,
expressed as a radius.
URE is not user accuracy. User accuracy depends on a combination of

satellite geometry, URE, and local factors such as signal blockage,
atmospheric conditions, and receiver design features/quality. 1006
503
Accuracy
Depends on some variables

Time spent at a geographic location
Design of receiver
Relative positions of satellites
Receiver configuration settings
Correction method
1007
Accuracy
10 metres
95% of the time

Minimum 4 Satellites
95%
Good Geometry (DOP)

No multipath
1008
504
Methods and their accuracy

Three major methods of positioning:
Autonomous
No corrections applied
Up to 100 meters
Differential
Corrections applied
<1 meter to 5 meters
Phase Differential
10 - 100 centimeters Phase Processing
(mapping)
5 millimeter Wave Processing (surveying)
1009
Autonomous accuracy of any GPS receiver
95% (100m)
68% (50 m)
50% (40m)
1010
505
Horizontal and vertical accuracy
Horizontal accuracy is about 3 times better

than vertical accuracy
1011
Differential correction
Without correction measures applied any

GPS position will be up to 100 meters from
truth.
<100 m
1012
506
Differential GPS
Two receivers track same signals and errors at same time
1013
Typical GPS error sources
A form of GPS called "Differential GPS" can

significantly reduce these error problems.
To get an idea of the impact of these errors

here is a typical error budget.
Typical Error in Meters Standard GPS Differential GPS
(per satellites)
Satellite Clocks 1.5 0
Orbit Errors 2.5 0
Ionosphere 5.0 0.4
Troposphere 0.5 0.2
Receiver Noise 0.3 0.3
1014
Multipath 0.6 0.6
507
Differential GPS
Differential GPS involves the cooperation of two receivers,
one that's stationary and another that's roving around
making position measurements.
The stationary receiver ties all the satellite measurements
into a solid local reference.
GPS receivers use timing signals from at least four satellites
to establish a position.
Each of those timing signals is going to have some error or
delay depending on what sort of perils have befallen it on its
trip down to us.
Since each of the timing signals has some error, then
position calculation is going to be a compounding of those
errors.
1015
Common errors
The satellites are so far out in space that the little
distances we travel here on earth are insignificant.
So if two receivers are fairly close to each other, say within
a few hundred kilometers, the signals that reach both of
them will have traveled through virtually the same slice of
atmosphere, and so will have virtually the same errors.
Differential GPS can eliminate all errors that are common to
both the reference receiver and the roving receiver.
These include everything except multipath errors (because
they occur right around the receiver) and any receiver
errors (because they are unique to the receiver).
DGPS reference station

broadcasting to users
1016
508
Idea behind DGPS

Put the reference receiver on a point that is been very
accurately surveyed and keep it there.
This reference station receives the same GPS signals as the
roving receiver but instead of working like a normal GPS
receiver it attacks the equations backwards.
Instead of using timing signals to calculate its position, it
uses its known position to calculate timing.
It figures out what the travel time of the GPS signals should
be, and compares it with what they actually are.
The difference is an "error correction factor.
The receiver then transmits this error information to the
roving receiver so it can use it to correct its measurements.
1017
Error transmission
Since the reference receiver has no way of knowing which of the
many available satellites a roving receiver might be using to
calculate its position, the reference receiver quickly runs through
all the visible satellites and computes each of their errors.
Then it encodes this information into a standard format and
transmits it to the roving receivers.
GPS receivers don't actually transmit corrections by themselves.
They are linked to separate radio transmitters.
The roving receivers get the complete list of errors and apply the
corrections for the particular satellites they're using.
Error transmissions not only include the timing error for each
satellite, they also include the rate of change of that error as
well.
That way the roving receiver can interpolate its position between
updates. 1018
509
DGPS principle
1019
DGPS principle
SV2 SV3
SV1 Range corrections
rather than
position correction
Observed X, Y, Z
Known X, Y, Z Y Z
Rover
X
Reference Station
1020
510
DGPS methods
Record data at rover

Download base and rover data to PC
Post process
Transmit corrections in real time from
ground stations
Transmit corrections in real time from a
satellite
1021
System-wide errors - DGPS

Correctable
These errors are errors that are common to all GPS
receivers in the same vicinity, hence system wide
errors.
These errors can be reduced using differential
correction.
Satellite Clocks - Internal clock drift of the satellites
atomic clock.
Ephemeris - Inaccurate satellite location data that is
transmitted from the satellite.
Atmosphere - Errors due to signal interference in the
troposphere and ionosphere.
S/A - Selective Availability is the largest source of error
but can be corrected with differential correction.
S/A is introduced by the U.S. Department of Defense. 1022
511
GPS error types

System-wide errors - DGPS Correctable
Receiver Noise Uncorrectable

Correctable
Ephemeris
Atmospheric
S/A
0 20 40 60 80 100
Meters
1023
Augmentation
Improving the navigation solution is sometimes referred to as
augmentation
A GPS augmentation is any system that aids GPS by providing
accuracy, integrity, availability, or any other improvement to
positioning, navigation, and timing that is not inherently part
of GPS itself.
A wide range of different augmentation systems have been
developed by both the public and private sectors.
Augmentation methods of improving accuracy rely on external
information being integrated into the calculation process
LAAS Local Area Augmentation System
WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System
EGNOS European Geostationary Navigation Overlay System
1024
512
Wanted qualities of GPS
Availability - Everywhere
Reliability - All the time
Timeliness - Real time
Accuracy - ?
1025
GPS accuracy before 2000
100 m
GPS I, GPS II A, & GPS II R

C/A Code on L1
Selective Availability On 1026
513
GPS accuracy - 2007
6-11 m
GPS II R
C/A Code on L1
Selective Availability Off
1027
GPS accuracy by 2009
3-5 m
GPS II R(M)
C/A Code on L1
Civil Code on L2 1028
514
Better
resistance to
interference
1-3 m
GPS II F
C/A Code on L1
Civil Code on L2
New Code on L5
1029
?
GPS III
Full Operational Capability 1030
515
Accuracy by interoperability
GPS III, GLONASS-K, GALILEO

Interoperability
Interoperability can be defined here as: the ability of two or more systems
1031
to exchange such information that has impact to performance
Receivers
Hundreds of different models

Classified according to use:
Marine navigation
Air navigation
Ground navigation
Vehicles location on an electronic
street map
Leisure
Surveying and geodesy
1032
516
Basic types of receivers
1. Handheld C/A Code only 10-15m

2. DGPS C/A Code only 1-2m
3. Survey Grade Code and Phase 1-2cm
1033
GPS for remote sensing

GPS is used by active remote sensing
instruments (radar and lidar) to collect the
position of the instrument
Allows instrument to calculate positions on ground
using speed of light.
Lidar principle:
GPS position of plane
Laser distance to ground
+/-0.5m Horizontal
+/-0.1m Vertical
Radar = Radio Detection and Ranging
Lidar=Light Detection and Ranging 1034
517
GPS data capture - Mapping approach

High tech mapping solutions
GPS positions are translated into
point features
Multiple GPS positions are collected
Average location of all GPS positions becomes the point feature
line features
Joins each GPS position together in TIME SEQUENCE and
area features
Joins each GPS position together in TIME SEQUENCE
Joins last recorded position to first
Attribute values (descriptive information) are tagged

to each feature.
Features and attribute values are imported into a
GIS.
1035
GIS = Geographical Information Systems
How GPS positions translate into graphic

features
Point features
Multiple GPS positions
are collected
Average location of all

GPS positions becomes
the point feature
For point features a number of GPS positions are recorded, while the GPS
receiver is stationary. These positions are then averaged by the PC
software before being output to your GIS so that a single GPS position
1036
is
transferred.
518
How GPS positions translate into graphic

features
11:00.10
11:00.05 11:00.15 11:00.20
Line features
Joins each GPS position
together in TIME
11:00.25
SEQUENCE
Area features 11:30.10
Joins each GPS position 11:30.05

together in TIME
SEQUENCE
Joins last recorded 11:30.15
position to first
11:30.25
11:30.20
1037
For an area (polygon) feature, a number of GPS positions are recorded while the GPS receiver
moves around the area. The GPS positions recorded around the area are treated as vertices.
Summary
GPS Satellites are orbiting clocks

which transmit a time-tagged signal
the receiver compares the incoming signal with
one generated in the receiver from which it
can deduce the travel time of the incoming
signal
this is then multiplied by the speed of light to
obtain the range from the receiver to the
satellite
1038
519
Summary
Ranges to three satellites are enough to provide the

position of the receiver but a fourth range is
required to correct those ranges for any offset
between the satellite clock and the receiver clock
The satellite signal also contains other information

such as the ephemeris data which is needed to carry
out the positioning computations
1039
Summary
To improve on precision/accuracy of
positions requires:
corrections
corrections can be applied after survey
corrections can be applied in real time
real time corrections need to be transmitted in
special formats e.g. NMEA
NMEA is a combined electrical and data specification for communication

between marine electronic devices such as echo sounder, sonars,
anemometer (wind speed and direction), gyrocompass, autopilot, GPS
receivers and many other types of instruments. It has been defined and
controlled by the U.S.-based National Marine Electronics Association.
1040
520

Telecommunication Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

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Lecture notes Telecommunication Systems by Jorma Kekalainen

Here the networking part is based on the excellent books written by

Volta: batteries; Fourier, Laplace, Cauchy: Mathematics

Bell, Edison: Telephony

De Forrest: Triode-tube; 1969 ARPANET

DSP, coding trans-Pacific, Internet,

3. Timeliness. Data delivered late are

Five components of communication

Data flow modes

Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and

Throughput and delay

Reliability and security

Network security issues include

Point-to-point and multipoint

Types of connections: point-to-

A fully connected mesh

Advantages of a mesh topology

Advantages of a star topology

Disadvantage of a star topology

A star topology connecting four

A bus topology connecting

Advantages and disadvantages of a

A ring topology connecting six

A hybrid topology: a star backbone

A LAN connecting computers to a

A switched WAN and a point-to-

A heterogeneous network made of WANs and LANs

Hierarchical organization of the

Layered protocols: OSI model

Standards and standards organizations

Simply definition: Standards are agreed-upon

Standards Bodies (Standardization

Using Internet as example

whats the Internet?

Whats the Internet?

Whats the Internet

networks Regional ISP

Internet: Service view

Access networks and physical media

Uses existing telephony infrastructure

Access Multiplexer (AM)

Also uses existing telephone infrastruture

Residential access: Cable modems

Does not use telephone infrastructure

Residential access: Cable modems

Cable Network Architecture: Overview

Typically 500 to 5,000 homes

Cable Network Architecture: Overview

Cable Network Architecture: Overview

Cable Network Architecture: Overview

Optical Network Terminator (ONT)

Fiber to the home

Optical links from central office to the home

Much higher Internet rates; fiber also carries

Ethernet Internet access

Typically used in companies, universities, etc

Wireless access networks

wider-area wireless access

NAT - Network Address Translation - allows an organization with private addresses to 83

Physical media: Coax, fiber

Physical media: Wireless (radio)

no physical wire LAN (e.g., Wifi)

environment effects: wide-area (e.g., cellular)

Network core: Circuit switching