9 HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES

29.1 INTRODUCTION . 29-1

29.2 EROSION AND SCOUR PROTECTION . 29-1

29.3 ENERGY DISSIPATORS 29-2

29.3.1 Riprap Basins for Conduit Outlets ... 29-3

29.3.2 Stilling Basins ...... 29-3

29.3.3 Simple Energy-Dissipating Headwalls . 29-5

29.3.4 Design Criteria and Practices ... 29-5

29.4 DROP STRUCTURES 29-5

29.5 STORMWATER DRAIN OUTFALLS ... 29-10

29.6 TRANSITIONS AND CONSTRICTIONS . 29-13

29.6.1 Transition Analysis 29-13

29.6.2 Constriction Analysis 29-13

29.7 BENDS AND CONFLUENCES 29-15

29.7.1 Bends 29-15

29.7.2 Confluences .. 29-16

29.8 SIDE-OVERFLOW WEIRS ... 29-17

29.8.1 Design Considerations . 29-17

29.8.2 Design Practices ...29-17

29.9 FLOW SPLITTER . 29-19

29.9.1 Design Consideration ...29-20

29.9.2 Design Criteria .29-20

29.10 FLOW SPREADER ... 29-20

29.10.1 General Design Criteria ... 29-20

29.10.2 Design Criteria for Flow Spreading Options 29-21

29.11 SIPHONS ..... 29-24

29.11.1 Single-Barrel Siphons ... 29-25

29.11.2 Multi-Barrel Siphons 29-25

29.11.3 Design Criteria and Practices ... 29-25

Urban Stormwater Management Manual 29

 Hydraulic Structures
Where there is no well defined channel downstream of
29.1 INTRODUCTION the apron, the width, W, of the outlet and of the
apron (as shown in Figure 29.4) should be as follows:-
Hydraulic structures are used to positively control water
flow velocities, directions and depths, the elevation and

slope of the stream bed, and the general configuration of a W = 3D0+ 0.4La for TW> Do/2 (29.3)
waterway including its stability and maintenance
and
characteristics.

W = 3D0+ 4La for TW < Do/2 (29.4)

Many of these structures appear as specials and are
expensive, which require careful and thorough hydraulic The width of the apron at the culvert outlet should be
engineering judgement. Proper application of hydraulic
at least 3 times the culvert width.
structures can reduce initial and future maintenance costs
by changing the character of the flow to fit the needs of a
On the contrary, where there is a well-defined channel
particular project, and by reducing the size and cost of
downstream of the apron, the bottom width of the
related facilities.
apron should be at least equal to the bottom width of
the channel and the lining should extend at least one
The shape, size, and other features of a hydraulic structure
foot above the tailwater elevation and at least two-
can vary widely for different projects, depending upon the
thirds of the vertical conduit dimension above the
functions to be accomplished. Hydraulic design procedures
invert.
must govern the final design of all structures. This may
The side slopes should be 2:1 or flatter.
include model testing when a proposed design requires a
configuration that differs significantly from known The bottom grade should be level.
documented guidelines. There should be an overfall at the end of the apron or
culvert.
29.2 EROSION AND SCOUR PROTECTION
(ii) Apron Materials
When the flow velocity at a conduit outlet exceeds the
maximum permissible velocity for the local soil or channel The median stone diameter, d50 is determined from
lining, channel protection is required. This protection the following equation:
usually consists of an erosion resistant reach, such as
riprap, between the outlet and the stable downstream 0.066(Q) 4/3 (29.5)
channel to provide a stable reach at the outlet in which the d50 = TW(D0)
exit velocity is reduced to a velocity allowable in the

downstream channel. The design of such protection is

Existing scour holes may be used where flat aprons
normally based on a 20 year design runoff event.
are impractical. Figure 29.5 shows the general design
of a scour hole. The stone diameter is determined
If protection is needed at the outlet, a horizontal (zero
slope) apron must be provided. using the following equatons:
0.041(Q)
d50 = 4/3 for Y = Do/2 (29.6)
(i) Apron Dimensions
TW(D0)

The length of an apron (La) is determined using the

following empirical relationships that were developed also
for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1976):
+ 7D0 for TW < Do/2 (29.1) d50 = 0027(Q)4/3 for Y = Do (29.7)
La = 3.26Q
3/2 TW(D0)
D 0

where Y = depth of scour hole below culvert invert.

and
Other riprap or gabion requirements are as indicated
(29.2) in the previous sections for channel lining.
La = 5.44Q + 70, for TW > Do/2
D03/2

where: Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Do = maximum inside culvert diameter (m)

Q = pipe discharge (cumec)
TW= tailwater depth (m)
Aprons constructed of man made materials are often a
viable alternative. Refer to the above discussion of
man-made materials for design consideration.

29-1

Hydraulic Structures

1on3

Figure 29.1 Configuration of Conduit Outlet Protection (U.S. EPA, 1976)

from supercritical to subcritical, or where the flow is

PLAN
supercritical and the tractive forces or flow velocities are
higher than the maximum allowable values. The basic
hydraulic parameter that identifies the flow regime, and is
used in connection with energy dissipaters in general, and
with hydraulic jump dissipaters in particular, is the Froude

L W
3Do
1 on 3
J number (Chapter 12).
Q2
F2
fsl
3
-5
The Froude number
gd
m
is a ratio of the flow velocity and wave
1on3
celerity. In rectangular channels, the equation may be
rewritten in the following form:
>
(a) 1 (29.8)
1on3 = B
SECTION

Varies
where,
B = width of channel (m)
Q = discharge (mVs)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
they are usually required where the flow regime changes
Figure 29.2 Preformed Scour Hole (ASCE, 1975)

29.3 ENERGY DISSIPATORS

29-2

Energy dissipaters are required in the immediate vicinity of

hydraulic structures where high impact loads, erosive
forces, and severe scour are expected. In other words,
dm = hydraulic mean depth (m) common downstream of hydraulic structures where
common channel protection cannot be used alone because
Energy dissipation structures act as transitions, which of potential damage. If riprap or other protection is used
reduce high flow velocities that may exist under a range of
flows. Energy dissipaters localise hydraulic jumps and act
as stilling basins. The use of energy dissipaters is very
Urban Stormwater Management Manual

for energy dissipation, it should be confined in a basin and
secured in place with grout or mesh.
The primary difference between energy dissipaters in
general and drop structures is that the former are used to
reduce high velocities at critical locations by hydraulic
jumps, while the latter are vertical structures used for
controlling velocities in channel reaches by reducing
channel slopes. Because of various appurtenances such as
sills, baffles, and weirs, and because of variations in the
geometry of stilling basins, a wide variety of energy
dissipaters may be used.
29.3.1 Riprap Basins for Conduit Outlets
The most commonly used energy dissipaters are riprap
basins (Figure 29.3). Their advantages include simplicity,
Hydraulic Structures
The greater the Froude number, the higher is the effect of
tailwater on the jump. Therefore, for a Froude number as
low as 8, the tailwater depth should be greater than the
sequent depth downstream of the jump so that the jump
will stay on the apron. When the Froude number is
greater than 10, the common stilling basin dissipater may
not be as cost-effective as a special bucket type dissipater
(see Peterka, 1958).
(b) Controi ofJumps
Jumps can be controlled by several types of appurtenances
such as sills, chute blocks and baffle piers. The purpose of
a sill located at the end of a stilling basin is to induce jump
formation and to control its position under most probable
operating conditions. Sharp crested or broad crested weirs
can be used to stabilise and control the jump.

low cost, and wide application.

The riprap placed in the basin must be inspected and
repaired, if necessary, after major storms. The median
stone diameter can be estimated based on the exit velocity
of the pipe or culvert as shown in McLaughlin Water
Engineers (1986) and the AASHTO Drainage Handbook
(1987). The length of the basin is estimated based on the
width or diameter of the conduit. The depth of the basin is
based on the median stone diameter.
29.3.2 Stilling Basins
If a hydraulic jump is used for energy dissipation, it should
be confined to a heavily-armoured channel reach, the
bottom of which is protected by a solid surface such as
concrete to resist scouring. Since the cost of concrete
structures is relatively high, the length of the hydraulic
jump is usually controlled by accessories that not only
stabilise the jump action and increase the factor of safety,
but also reduce the cost of the structure.
(a) Design Considerations
Chute blocks are used at the entrance to the stilling basin.
Their function is to furrow the incoming jet and lift a
portion of it from the floor, producing a shorter length of
jump than would occur without them.
Baffle piers are blocks placed in intermediate positions
across the basin floor for dissipating energy mostly by
direct impact action. They are useful for small structures
with low flow velocities. High flow velocities may result in
cavitation action on the piers and basin floor downstream.
(c) Stiiiing Basin Categories
jumps in a Froude number range of 2.5 to 4.5 ar
e best
avoided unless specially designed wave sup
pressers
are used to reduce wave impact.
Urban Stormwater Management Manual

There are several considerations that should be included in

designing hydraulic jumps and stilling basins (Chow, 1959;
US DOT, 1983):
1. Jump Position-. There are three positions or
alternative patterns that allow a hydraulic jump to
form downstream of the transition in the channel.
These positions are controlled by tailwater.
2. Tailwater Conditions'. Tailwater fluctuations due to
changes in discharge complicate the design procedure.
They should be taken into account by classification of
tailwater conditions using tailwater and hydraulic jump
rating curves.
3. Jump Types: Various types of hydraulic jumps that
may occur are summarised in Figure 29.4. Oscillating
The following three major categories of basins are used for safety.
a range of hydraulic conditions. Design details can be
found in the AASHTO Drainage Handbook (1987), Chow The UBSR Stiiiing Basin //: This basin, shown in
(1959), and US DOT (1983). Figure 29.6, is recommended for use with jumps with
Froude numbers greater than 4.5 at large spillways
Tiie SAF ("St Anthony Faiis" Stiiiing Basin) ( Chow and channels. This basin may reduce the length of
1959) : This basin, shown in Figure 29.5, is the jump by a third and is used for high-dam and
recommended for use on small structures such as Note A earth-dam spillways. Appurtenances used in this basin
spillways and outlet works where the Froude number include chute blocks at the upstream end of the basin
varies between 1.7 and 17. The appurtenances used and a dentated still at the downstream end. No baffle
for this dissipater can reduce the length of the basin piers are used in this basin because of the cavitation
by approximately 80%. This design has great potential.
potential in urban stormwater systems because of its
applicability to small structures. Stilling Basin III
developed by the US Bureau of Reclamation (UBSR) is 29-3
similar to the SAF basin, but it has a higher factor of

Hydraulic Structures
Apron
-5hcOr Wn |V|in -
Dissipator Pool
10 Ds or 3 Wo |V|in

300 mm Free Tnn nf Rorm Top of Natural Channel

Board Minimum

3d 50 or 2d Max 2d50 or 2d50 or Thickened or sloping Toe optional -

1.5 iviin Construct if downstream channel
1.5d Max 1.5d Max
degradation is anticipated
(a) Centreline Section

Note B

Symmetrical About
Centre Line
Culvert

(b) Half-plan

Berm as required
Note B to Support Riprap
or l.SdK

Natural Channel Excavate to this Line

Sec C-C
Backfill With Riprap
Sec A-A

2d5o or 1.5d

Berm as required
to Support Riprap
\ Excavate to this line
backfill with Riprap
Sec B-B Sec D-D

Figure 29.3 Typical Riprap Basin: (a) centreline section and (b) half plan: W0 = diameter
 for pipe culvert, barrel width for box culvert, or span of pipe-arch culvert
(US Federal Highway Administration, 1983).

Notes for Figure 29.3:

(1) If a maximum allowable exit velocity, Ve , from the basin is specified, extend the basin as required to obtain sufficient
cross-sectional area at section A-A ( i.e.AA-A = Q/Ve ) for the specified velocity

(2) Warp the basin to conform to the natural stream channel. The top of the riprap in the basin floor should be at the
same elevation or lower than the natural channel bottom at section A-A

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

29-4

Hydraulic Structures

Oscillating Jet
Roller
'

/
/ Fj = 2.5 - 4.5 Oscillating Jump
= 1 - 1.7 Undular Jump Roller L
/ V1 "
'
Fi > 9.0 Strong Jump
/ \/

/ "1
- 1
1 InHiila/wpak n<:rillatin =
Fj 4.5 - 9.0 Steady Jump
1 p jmp Jump Steady Jump Strong Jump
= 1.7 - 2.5 Weak Jump
3 Wavy Best Performance Acceptable Expensive stilling basin and
L r erformance- -
rough surface conditions -
1 1 T 1 1 1 1 1

1 5

Fi = Vi /Tgy

Figure 29.4 Lengths and Types of Hydraulic Jumps in Horizontal Channels (Bradley and Peterka, 1957; Chow, 1959)

preliminary identification of alternative types of energy

The UBSR Stilling Basin IV: This basin, shown in
Figure 29.7, is used where jumps are imperfect or
where oscillating waves occur with Froude numbers
between 2.5 - 4.5. This design reduces excessive
waves by eliminating the wave at its source through
deflection of directional jets using chute blocks. When
a horizontal stilling basin is constructed without
appurtenances, the length of the basin is made equal
dissipaters. Because of the great variety and combination
of types of energy dissipaters and appurtenances, the
designer should review available references in sufficient
detail to arrive at a design that is suitable for specific field
conditions.
29.4 DROP STRUCTURES

to the length of the jump.


29.3.3 Simple Energy-Dissipating Headwails
Another simple type of energy dissipater that can be used
at culvert outlets is an energy dissipating headwall. Three
typical headwails are shown in Figures 29.8 to 29.10.
29.3.4 Design Criteria and Practices
Most of the design criteria for stilling basin dissipaters are
included in the previous paragraphs. Table 29.1 provides a
summary of selected parameters, and may be used for
Urban Stormwater Management Manual
Hydraulic Structures
(a) Rectangular Stilling Basin Half-plan
Vertical drop structures are controlled transitions for
energy dissipation in steep channels where riprap or other
energy dissipation structures are not as cost effective.
Drop structures used for stormwater drainage can be
categorised primarily as either open channel transitions
(drop spillways) or transitions between open channels and
closed conduits (drop shafts).
Drop structures should be constructed of concrete because
of the forces involved; however, riprap or gabion stilling
basins may be used where physical, economic, and other
conditions permit.
29-5
 Trapezoidal Stilling Basin Rectangular Stilling Basin
Downstream Section

(c) Centreline Section

Figure 29.5 Proportions of the SAF Basin (Chow, 1959).

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

29-6

Hydraulic Structures

Dentated Sill

Slope = 2:1

Figure 29.6 Proportions of the USBR Basin II (Chow, 1959)

Fractional Space

w = Maximum Tooth Width

Space = 2.5w

Top Surface on 5-deg slope

2D

Sill Optional

Figure 29.7 Proportions of the USBR Basin IV (Chow, 1959)

 750600600'
(b) Side Elevation
(a) Plan

Figure 29.8 Standard Energy Dissipating Headwall Type I (Chow, 1959)

29-7
Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Hydraulic Structures

Figure 29.9 Standard Energy Dissipating Headwall, Type II (ASCE, 1992)

 (b) Side Elevation

Figure 29.10 Standard Energy Dissipating Headwall, Type III (ASCE, 1992)
Allowable Debris
Froude Number Tailwater Special
Dissipater Type
F Silt and Boulders Urban Stormwater Management Manual
Floating
29-8 Sand

Free Hydraulic Jump > 1 H H H Required

CSU Rigid Boundary < 3 M L M

Tumbling Flow > 1 M L L Hydraulic Structures

4% < 5o< 25%
Increased Resistance M L L Check Outlet
Control HW
USBR Type II Table 429.1
to 14 Dissipater Criteria
M (U.S. Department
L of Transportation,
M 1983)Required
USBR Type III 4.5 to 17 M L M Required
UBSR Type IV 2.5 to 4.5 M L M Required
SAF 1.7 to 17 M L M Required
Contra Cost <3 H M M <0.5Z?
Hook 1.8 to 3 H M M

USBR Type VI M L L Desirable Q< 11 m3/s,

V< 15 m/s
Forest Service M L L Desirable y< 900 mm
Drop Structure < 1 H L M Required Drop < 5 m
Manifold M N N Desirable
Corps Stilling Well M L N Desirable

Riprap <3 H H H

Note: N = none, L = low, M = moderate, H = heavy

q = discharge per unit width of crest overfall (m3/s/m)

Drop structures in open channels change the channel slope g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
from steep to mild by combining a series of gentle slopes =
h height of drop (m)
and vertical drops. Flow velocities are reduced to non-
erosive velocities, while the kinetic energy or flow velocity
The drop functions are:
gained by the water as it drops over the crest of each
spillway is dissipated by an apron or stilling basin.

Figure 29.11 shows the flow geo

Open channel drop structures generally require aerated metry and important
nappes and subcritical flow conditions at both the variables at a vertical (straight) drop
upstream and downstream section of the drop. The stilling structure.The flow
basin can vary from a simple concrete apron to baffle geometry at such drops can be
blocks or sills as described previously. described by the drop
 number, Dfj, which is defined (Chow 1959) as: = 4.30 (29.10a)

= 1.00 (29.10b)

= 0.54Z? (29.10c)

= 1.66Z?/= (29.10d)

where,

(29.9)
gh' Ld = drop length (m)

Yp = pool depth under the nappe (m)

where,

29-9
Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Hydraulic Structures
(b) Box Iniet Drop Structure
Yi = the depth of the toe of nappe (m)

Y2 = tailwater depth sequent to /i (m)

The box inlet drop structure is a rectangular box open at
For a given drop height, h, and discharge, q, the drop the top and downstream end as shown in Figure 29.13.
length, Ld, and the sequent depth, y2, can be estimated Water is directed to the crest of the box inlet by earth
by Equations 29.10(a) and 29.10(d), respectively. The dikes and a headwall. Flow enters over the upstream end
length of the jump can be estimated by techniques and two sides. The long crest of the box inlet permits
discussed in Section 29.3. If the tailwater is less than /2, large flows to pass at relatively low heads. The width of
the hydraulic jump will recede downstream. Conversely, if the structure should not be greater than the downstream
the tailwater is greater than Y2, the jump will be channel. Box inlet drop structures are applicable to drops
from 0.6 to 3.6 m.
submerged. If the tailwater is equal to Y2, no supercritical
flow exists on the apron and the distance Ld is minimum.
Design data and criteria for these structures, based on
When the tailwater depth is less than y2, it is necessary US Soil Conservation Services and St. Anthony Falls
(according to the US Department of Transportation 1983) Hydraulic Laboratory, are available (US Department of
to provide either (1) an apron at the bed level and a sill or Transportation 1983; Blaisdell and Donnely 1956). The
baffles, or (2) an apron below the downstream bed level parameters to consider for the hydraulic design of the drop
and an end sill. are:

section (length) of the crease of the box inlet

The choice of a design type and dimensions depends on
opening of the headwalls
the unit discharge, q, drop height, h, and tailwater depth,
TW. The design should take into consideration the discharge, discharge coefficients, and flow regime
geometry of the undisturbed flow. If the spillway changes
(overflow crest) length is less than the width of the box inlet length and depth
approach channel, the approach channel must be designed minimum length and width of stilling basin
properly to reduce the effect of the end contractions to
avoid scour. 29.5 STORMWATER DRAIN OUTFALLS

The two most common vertical open channel drops are the All stormwater drains of a locality have an outlet where
straight drop structure and the box inlet drop structure. flow from the nlocal drainage system is discharged. The
discharge point, or outfall, can be either a natural river or
(a) Straight Drop Structure stream, or an existing or proposed stormwater drain or
channel. The procedure for calculating the hydraulic grade
Figure 29.12 shows the layout of a typical straight drop line through a storm drainage system begins at the outfall.
structure and hydraulic design criteria developed by US Soil Therefore, consideration of the outfall conditions is an
Conservation Service. McLaughlin Water Engineers (1983) important part of storm drain design.
provides specific criteria and reviews design considerations
related to the hydraulic, geotechnical, and structural
design of drop structures.
 \/
Sidewall
\

\' V
Figure 29.11 Flow Geometry of a Straight Drop Spillway (Chow, 1959)

f hj / N V

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

29-10

Hydraulic Structures

Wing Wall
F+S
(b) Downstream Elevation
_s=h/3
S + 300 mm
C (1200 mm Minimum)
(1200 mm Minimum) T
-J--k-

150 mm Fillets-
(a) Section on Centreline

150 mm

Level Area
 (c) Plan

E = Minimum length of headwall extension = [3h+0.61] or [1.5F] whichever is greater

J = Height of wing wall and sidewall at junction = [2h] or Lb+ 0.13"1 or [t+1]
whichever is greater L V 2 '-I

Lb= Length of basin = F 2.28 + 0.

52 j
M = [2 (F+ 1.3 h-J)]

K = [(Lb+0.13)- M]

(d) Criteria

Figure 29.12 Typical Drop Spillway and Some Hydraulic Design Criteria (US Soil Conservation Service, 1954).

29-11
Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Hydraulic Structures

Figure 29.13 Box Inlet Drop Structure (US Dept. of Transportation, 1983)
pump or otherwise lift the water to the elevation of the
outfall (see Chapter 46).
Several aspects of outfall design must be given serious
consideration. These include the flowline or invert (inside
The tailwater depth or elevation in the storm drain outfall
bottom) elevation of the proposed stormwater drain outlet,
must be considered carefully. Evaluation of the hydraulic
tailwater elevations, the need for energy dissipation, and
grade line for a storm drainage system begins at the
the orientation of the outlet structure.
system outfall with the tailwater elevation. For most
design applications, the tailwater will either be above the
The flowline or invert elevation of the proposed outlet
crown of the outlet or can be considered to be between
should be equal to or higher than the flowline of the
the crown and critical depth of the outlet. The tailwater
outfall. If this is not the case, there may be a need to
 may also occur between the critical depth and the invert of An exception to the above rule would be for a very large
the outlet; however, the starting point for the hydraulic
outfall with low tailwater where a water surface profile
grade line determination should be either the design
calculation would be required to determine the location
tailwater elevation, or {dc + Z?)/2, whichever is higher.
where the water surface will intersect the top of the barrel
and full flow calculations can begin. In this case, the
downstream water surface elevation would be based on
critical depth or the design tailwater elevation, whichever
was higher.
29-12

If the outfall channel is a river or stream, it may be

necessary to consider the joint or coincidental probability
of two hydrologic events occurring at the same time to
adequately determine the elevation of the tailwater in the
receiving stream (see chapter 46.7.2 for details).

Energy dissipation may be required to Contraction Expansion

protect the storm
drain outlet. This is to prevent erosion of the outfall bed
Less than 100 mm between
and banks. Riprap aprons or energy dissipaters0.00 should be0.00
centreline and tangent lines
provided if high velocities are expected.
Less than 12.5 between 0 to 0.10 0 to 0.10
centreline
There may and tangent lines
be instances in which an excessive tailwater
causes flow to Type
Warped back up the storm 0.10 and out 0.20
drainage system
of inlets and manholes, creating unexpected and perhaps
Cylindrical Quadrant Type 0.15 0.25
hazardous flooding conditions. The potential for this to
Modest Transitions
occur should be considered. 0.30placed at 0.50
Flap gates the

Straight Line Type 0.30 0.50

Square Ended Type Urban Stormwater 0.30-1- 0.75

Management Manual

Hydraulic Structures

outlet can sometimes alleviate this condition (see chapter The purpose of this section is to briefly outline ty
pical
46); otherwise, it may be necessary to isolate the storm
design procedures for transition and constriction structures
drain from the outfall by use of a pump station (see
that may be required for engineered waterways.
Chapter 46).

29.6.1 Transition Analysis

The orientation of the outfall is another important design
consideration. Where practical, the outlet of the storm
drain should be positioned in the outfall channel so that it
(a) Subcritica! Transitions
is pointed in a downstream direction. This will reduce
Transitions for subcritical flow frequently involve localise
turbulence and the potential for excessive erosion. If the
d
outfall structure cannot be oriented in a downstream
or bank lining configurations which allow change in t
direction, the potential for outlet scour must be considered.
he
For example, where a storm drain outfall discharges
cross section and produce a water surface profile based on
perpendicular to the direction of flow of the receiving
gradually varied flow. The energy lost through a transition
channel, care must be taken to avoid erosion on the
is a function of the friction, eddy currents, and turbulence.
opposite channel bank. If erosion potential exists, a
The intent is often to minimise friction losses and/or Th
channel bank lining of riprap or other suitable material
e
should be installed on the bank. Alternatively, an energy
intent is often to minimise friction lossess and/or erosion
dissipater structure could be used at the storm drain
tendencies. Examples include transitions
outlet.
between
trapezoidal and rectangular sections, modest transitions at
29.6 TRANSITIONS AND CONSTRICTIONS bridges where little change takes place in cross section,
or
Channel transitions (Figure 29.17) are typically used to slight encroachments into a channel to allow for utilities.
alter the cross-sectional geometry, to allow the waterway
to fit within a more confined right-of-way, or to purposely Standard water surface profile analysis is applied, with t
accelerate the flow to be carried by a specialised high he
velocity conveyance. Constrictions can appreciably restrict addition of an energy loss at the transition. The
and reduce the conveyance in a manner which is either loss is
detrimental or beneficial. For example, a bridge, box
culvert, or other constriction may increase upstream
flooding by encroaching too far into the floodplain
conveyance, whereas in another situation, a hydraulic Urban Stormwater Management Manual
control structure can be employed to purposely induce an
upstream spill into a storage facility.
 Energy Loss (m) = Coefficient ~ (29.11)
expressed as a function of the change in velocity head
occurring across the contraction or expansion transition
(from upstream to downstream locations). Figure 29.14 where,
illustrates some of these transitions. Loss coefficients
shown in Table 29.7 are applied to the difference in the
velocity head, as shown is Equation 29.11.
l/i = flow velocity upstream of transition
Table 29.2 Subcritical Transition Energy Loss Coefficients 14 = flow velocity downstream of transition

(b) Supercritical Transition Analysis

Supercritical transitions are beyond the scope of this

manual and require special analysis when used. The
configuration of a supercritical transition is entirely
different from subcritical transitions. Improperly designed
and configured supercritical transitions can produce shock
wave patterns which result in channel overtopping and
other hydraulic and structural problems.

29.6.2 Constriction Analysis

(a) Constriction with Upstream Subcritical Flow

There are a variety of structures that are constrictions.

Analysis of transitions requires careful water surface profile
They can include bridges, culverts, drop structures, and
analysis including verification of effective channel hydraulic
flow measurement devices. Constrictions of various types
controls. It is not uncommon to have a transition which is
are used intentionally to control bed stability and upstream
first thought to be performing in a subcritical mode, but
subsequently found to produce a supercritical profile with a
hydraulic jump.
29-13

Hydraulic Structures
at that location, the upstream water surface profile may be
water surface profiles. For example, a constriction may be computed.
used to cause water to back up or overflow into a

detention basin.
In certain cases, the flow regime will remain subcritical
The hydraulic distinction of constrictions is that they can
cause rapidly varied flow. The upstream transition loss
coefficients in Table 27.9 apply, but other factors come
into play. Significant eddies can form upstream and
downstream of the constriction depending upon the
geometry. Flow separation will start at the upstream edge
of the constriction, then the flow contracts to be narrower
than the opening width. Typically, the width of contraction
is 10% of the depth at the constriction for each side
boundary. For example, at a typical drop with an abrupt
Warped
crest contraction and assuming critical depth of 1.0 m, the
constriction on each side would be 100 mm, or 200 mm
total contraction from the opening width. Based on this
contracted width and an assumption of critical conditions

Wedge
Cylindrical Quardrant
through the constriction. Chow, 1959, presents guidelines
developed by the USGS for constrictions where the Froude
number in the contracted section does not exceed 0.8.
These cases are generally mild constrictions.

A phenomenon of abrupt contractions (and abrupt

expansions) is that the velocities can be much higher in
the centre and change significantly across the constriction
throat section. This results in a large energy coefficient
and a further drop in water surface over what is first
anticipated. This condition can produce strong eddy
currents with a high erosion potential. A constriction in an
Abrupt
open channel needs to be carefully evaluated for velocity,
scour, water surface, and related problems.

Straight Line
Abrupt

Figure 29.14 Transition Types (UDFCD, 1969)

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

29-14

Constrictions used for flow deptli control
measurement devices require a high degree of accuracy.
The design information available that can be used for
ensuring a high degree of accuracy is limited. It is
advisable to use models tested or proven prototype
layouts. As a secondary option, adjustable edge plates or
other components can be provided to allow later changes
at minimal cost if the constructed facilities should need
refinement.
(b) Constriction witti Upstream Supercritical Flow
Hydraulic Structures
upstream and in accelerated velocity zones, with high
or flow possibility of erosion on the outside of the bend and other
locations. Significant eddy currents, scour, sedimentation,
and loss of effective conveyance can occur on the inside of
the bend.
Concrete lined channels can be significantly affected by
superelevation of the water surface. The designer should
always add superelevation to the design freeboard of the
channel. The equation for the amount of superelevation of
the water surface. A/, that takes place is given as:

A/ = C (29.12)
This situation is highly complex and beyond the scope of gr
this manual. Possible shock waves or choked flow causing

high upstream backwater or a hydraulic jump are major

concerns. The situation is to be avoided in urban drainage
where,
because of inherent instabilities.

C coefficient, generally 0.5 for subcritical flow

29.7 BENDS AND CONFLUENCES
1/ mean channel velocity (m/s)
General considerations for lined channels and conduits are T width of water surface in channel (m)
discussed in Chapters 26 and 25. Additional emphasis is 9 acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s)
added herein for certain situations. Channels and conduits
r channel centreline radius (m)
that produce supercritical flow may require special
structural or design considerations. This discussion is be required for these situations.
limited since these types of structures are associated with
hydraulic performance that generally exceeds the Channel confluences are commonly encountered in d
recommended criteria for most engineered waterways. esign.
Extensive study, specialised modelling, and/or analysis may
 Flow rates can vary disproportionately with time so that
(b) Supercritical Bends
high flows from upstream channel can discharge into
downstream channel when it is at high or low level.
As with supercritical transitions, the hydraulics for
Depending on the geometry of the confluence, either
supercritical bends are completely different from the
condition can have important consequences, such as
hydraulics for subcritical bends. Supercritical channels are
supercritical flow and hydraulic jump conditions, and result
in the need for structures. generally not desirable in urban drainage. However,
special situations may occur where supercritical flows enter
a curved channel, for example:
The main emphasis in this section is on subcritical flow
conditions. Since supercritical conditions can occur in at confluences where one channel is largely empty,
various situations, some conditions are generally reviewed; and the entering flow expands and becomes
however, supercritical flow analysis is not described in supercritical
detail. at a sharp bend in a conduit whose slope inherently
leads to supercritical conditions
29.7.1 Bends
at a channel drop that unavoidably ends up on a curve

(a) Subcritical Bends

The key phenomenon to be aware of is shock waves, of
which there are two types, positive and negative. On the
Subcritical bends are required to have certain minimum
outside of an angular bend, a positive shock wave will
curvatures described in Chapters 25 and 26. It is
occur which results in a rise in the water surface. The
important that the designer recognise the consequences of
wave is stationary and crosses to the inside of the channel,
approaching and exceeding these criteria. Chow, 1959,
and then can continue to reflect back and forth. Where
Rouse, 1949, and others illustrate flow patterns,
the flow passes the inside angular bend, a separation will
superelevation, and backwater or flow resistance
occur and a negative shock wave or drop in the water
characteristics. Superelevation refers to a rise in the water
surface will occur. This stationary negative shock wave will
surface on the outer side of the bend. Effectively, the
cross to the outside of the channel. Both shock waves will
bend can behave like a contraction, causing backwater
continue to reflect off the walls, resulting in a very
disturbed flow pattern.

Urban Stormwater [Management Manual A basic control technique is to set up bend geometry to
cause the positive shock wave to intersect the point where
the negative wave is propagated. A bend usually requires
two deflections on the outside and one bend on the inside.
A beneficial aspect of the shock wave is that it turns the

29-15

Hydraulic Structures
2. The bottom slopes are equal for the main channel and
flow in a predictable pattern, and thus the channel walls side channel
have no more force imposed on them other than that 3. Flows are parallel to the channel walls immediately
caused by the increased (or decreased) depths. This
above and below the junction
technique is described by Ippen (Rouse, 1949 and Corps of
Engineers, 1970) and is also reported by Chow, 1959. 4. The depths are equal immediately above the junction
in both the side and main channel
Other control techniques include very gradual bends, super 5. The velocity is uniform over the cross-sections
elevated floors, and controls sills, but these methods are
immediately above and below the junction
generally less efficient. There is limited data on channels
with sloping side banks, but it is clear there is a great
Assumption No. 3 implies that hydrostatic pressure
tendency for shock waves to propagate up side slopes and
distributions can be assumed, and assumption No. 5
divert flow out of the channel.
suggests that the momentum correction factors be equal
to each other at the reference sections.
Chow, 1959 shows several good photographs of these
problems. SCS, 1976 presents a documental report of a
The equation governing flow conditions for a vertical
curved spillway on a modest flood control storage. During
walled channel, with the main channel width being
an overflow event, a shock wave pattern was produced
constant, is (Figure 29.15(a)):
that resulted in no flow on one side of the spillway and
great depths on the opposite.

+ COS ( (29.13a)
gA-i gA byl
A special problem with long conduits used for flood control,
particularly large box culverts, is that they will have an

inherent tendency towards supercritical flow conditions at

less than full capacity. When the flow encounters bends, shock waves can occur which hit the ceiling and can lead
to either pressurised conditions and/or unstable conditions Or for a vertical walled channel; main channel width varies
(Figure 29.15(b)):
+ cos (
where the flow fluctuates between supercritical and gA, + biVl
b-yl gAy gAj (29.13b)
pressure conditions, often exacerbated by surging, air flow,

and other problems. Very gradual bends and air vent

provisions are desirable and the designer should use
Or for a trapezoidal channel; main channel width constant
caution anytime should supercritical flow encounter a
bend. (Figure 29.15(a)):

29.7.2 Confluences
gA-i 1,2 3 ) gA gA 1,2 3
One of the most difficult problems to deal with is (29.13c)
confluences where the difference in flow characteristics
Or for a trapezoidal channel; main channel width varies
may be great. When entering the combined channel, the
(Figure 29.15(b)):
flow can diverge and drop in level if the flow capacity is
suddenly increased. This can result in high velocity or
unstable supercritical flow conditions with a high erosion
potential. When significant sediment flows exist, gA 1, 2 3 ) gA gA 1, 2 3
aggradation can occur at the confluence, resulting in the (29.13d)
loss of capacity in one or both upstream channels. where,
b = bottom width of the trapezoidal cross-section
(a) Subcritica! Flow Confluence Design
Z = side slope, Z(H):1(V)
The design of channel junctions is complicated by many
variables such as the angle of intersection, shape and Momentum computations for a confluence involve a trial
width of the channels, flow rates, and type of flow. The and error process. Starting with a known depth above or
design of large complex junctions should be verified by below the confluence, one iterates with an assumed depth
model tests. on the unknown side of the confluence until the
momentum has been balanced upstream to downstream
Figure 29.15 illustrates two types of junctions. The
following assumptions are made for combining subcritical (b) Supercritical Flow In Confluences
flows:
In contrast with subcritical flows at junctions, supercritical
1. The side channel cross-section is the same shape as
flows with changes in boundary alignments are generally
the main channel cross-section
complicated by standing waves (Ippen, 1951, Rouse,

29-16 Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Hydraulic Structures
laboratory tests which indicate that wave pileup
1949). In subcritical flow, backwater effects are against
the channel walls can be up to seven times the initial
propagated upstream thereby tending to equalise the flow
depth
depths in the main and side channels. However,
for a flow Froude number of four. The design of
backwater cannot be propagated upstream in supercritical
walls to
flow and flow depths in the main and side channels cannot
contain these wave heights over long channel dista
generally be expected to be equal. Junctions for rapid
nces is
flows and very small junction angles are designed
usually not economical. The practical remedy is to
assuming equal water surface elevations in the side and
reduce
main channels.
or minimise standing waves.

Standing waves (Ippen, 1951) in supercritical flow at open

Peak flows from the side channel may not
channel junctions complicate flow conditions. These waves
occur
may necessitate increased wall heights in the vicinity of the
simultaneously with peak flows in the main
junction. The studies by Bowers, 1950 indicate that a
channel.
hydraulic jump may form in one or both of the inlet
Laboratory tests by Behike, 1966 indicate
channels, depending on the flow conditions. Behike, 1966
that the
completed a model study and presented design guidelines
occurrence of design flow in one of the channels wit
to address these problems.
h zero
flow in the other can result in a very high wave
Wave conditions that may be produced by rapid flow in
pileup on
and downstream of a typical junction are shown in
the junction walls.
Figure 29.19. One area of maximum wave height can
occur on the side channel wall opposite the junction point
Supercritical flow may unavoidably occur in
and another on the main channel right wall downstream
certain
from the junction. Behike, 1966 has conducted a series of
 confluences. The designer
geometry and channel sections
the condition remains, a more
model study must be initiated to
should try to correct the discharge over the weir and geometric parameters at the
to avoid the situation. If
weir, including the length of the weir and head (Hager,
detailed hydraulic study or
1987). Figure 29.18 (Metcalf and Eddy, 1972) shows three
address the problem.
head or water surface profile conditions that can prevail at
a side-overflow weir:

(a) Condition 1: The channel bed slopes steeply,

producing supercritical flow. Under this condition, the weir
has no effect upstream and along the weir there is a
gradual reduction in depth. Downstream of the weir, the
flow depth in the original channel increases, tending
asymptotically to the normal depth corresponding to the
remaining discharge.
(b) Condition 2: The channel bed slopes mildly. Under
this condition, subcritical flow prevails and the weir impact
is noticed upstream of the weir only. The water surface
profile downstream of the weir corresponds to the normal
depth of the remaining discharge. Along the weir there is
a gradual increase in depth and, upstream of the weir the
flow depth tends asymptotically to the normal depth for
the initial discharge.
(c) Condition 3: The channel bed slopes mildly, but the
weir crest is below the critical depth corresponding to the
initial flow, and the flow at the weir is supercritical. Recent
studies (Frazer 1957) indicate that conditions 1 and 3 may
result in the development of a hydraulic jump at the weir.

The most common condition that a designer will encounter

is Condition 3, where the weir elevation is below the critical
depth. When only a relatively small amount of the flow is
diverted, a rising water surface profile occurs. According
to Metcalf and Eddy Inc. (1972), the falling profile results if
the ratio of the height of the weir, c, to the channel
specific energy, E, referenced to the top of the weir, is
less than 0.6.

29.8.2 Design Practices

(a) Faiiing Water Surface

The equations and procedures for computing weir length

for the falling water surface profile were developed by
Ackers (Chow 1959). These equations combine Bernoulli's
theorem with a weir discharge formula. Metcalf and Eddy
Inc. (1972) suggests using:
29.8 SIDE-OVERFLOW WEIRS

Side-overflow weirs facilitate overflow and diversion of Z. = 2.03 (29.14)

15.28-2.63
stormwater by directing the discharge away from the
original channel. Such structures are commonly used to where,
direct channel discharges above predetermined levels into =
L length of weir (m)
off-line stormwater detention facilities. Flow diversions
B = channel width (m)
occur only during storms (Figure 29.17).
c = height of weir (m)
29.8.1 Design Considerations Ew = channel specific energy (m)

The design of side-overflow weirs is based on empirical and,

equations which quantify the relationship between the

Urban Stormwater Management Manual 29-17

Hydraulic Structures
 Figure 29.15 Channel Junction Definition Sketches

Figure 29.16 Open Channel Confluence, Standing Waves - Supercritical Flow

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

29-18

Hydraulic Structures
L = length of weir (m)
(29.15)
B = channel width (m)
Ew = a + a'{y - c)
T-g
 C = constant (0.35 for a free nappe)
where,
= varied flow function (Figure 3, Collinge 1957)
a velocity coefficient
V normal velocity in the approach channel (m/s) = depth in channel (m)
/2
9 acceleration due to gravity(9.81 m/s) E = specific energy (m)
a' pressure-head correction
Yn normal depth of flow in approach channel (m) Equation 29.16 is recommended for use only in the case of
c a rising water surface profile. Metcalf and Eddy Inc.
height of the weir above the channel bottom (m)
(1972) indicates that this equation works best when the
Froude number is between + 0.3 - 0.92.
Values for a and a' of 1.2 and 1.0 respectively can be
used in the approach channel, while at the lower end of
the weir values of 1.4 and 0.95 can be used for a and a' 29.9 FLOW SPLITTER
respectively.
A flow splitter is a special structure designed to divide a
(b) Rising Water Surface single flow and divert the parts into two or more
downstream channels. A flow splitter can serve three
The analysis for estimating the weir length for the rising functions.
water surface profile is based on the theoretical equations
(a) Reduction in water surface elevation - By dividing the
developed by DeMarchi (Collinge 1957):
flow from a large pipe into multiple conduits, the
(29.16) height of flow (measured from the flow line to the
L- water surface (or for pipes flowing full, the inside
C
diameter) can be reduced. This may be necessary to

route flows under immovable obstructions.

where,

LONGITUDINAL SECTION

Energy Grade Line

SECTION A-A

l\ =

Figure 29.17 Typical Cross-sections at a Side-Overflow Weir (Metcalf & Eddy, 1972)

29-19
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Hydraulic Structures

29.9.1 Design Consideration

P Q
Two major considerations exist for the design of flow-
 splitting devices:

(a) Head Loss - Hydraulic disturbances at the point of

(a) Condition 1 flow division result in unavoidable head losses. These
losses, however, may be reduced by the inclusion of
P Q proper flow deflectors in the design of the structure.
Deflectors minimise flow separation by providing a
gradual transition for the flow, rather than by forcing
abrupt changes inflow direction.

(b) Debris - In all transitions from large to smaller pipes,

(b) Condition 2 debris accumulation is a potential problem. Tree
limbs and other debris that flow freely in the larger
P Q pipe may not fit in the smaller pipe(s) and may restrict
flow. In addition, flow splitters cause major flow
disturbances resulting in the regions of decreased
velocity. This reduction causes material suspended in
the stormwater flow to settle in the splitter box.
Although the deflector design should minimise velocity
(c) Condition 3 reduction as much as possible, total elimination of the
problem is unlikely. Therefore, positive maintenance
access must be Because flow splitting
provided.
Figure 29.18 Possible Types of Water Surface Profiles
devices are maintenance-intensive, their use should
at a Side-overflow Weir
be judiciously controlled by the engineer.
(ivjetcalf & Eddy, 1972).

29.9.2 Design Criteria

(b) Dividing flows wherever necessary - Examples of this
include division of existing large special-design
conduits, such as arches or horseshoes, into less
expensive multiple-pipe continuations and division of
flow between low and high-flow conduits at the
intake of an inverted siphon.
(c) To restrict flows to water quality treatment facilities
and bypass the remaining higher flows around the
facilities (off-line). This can be accomplished by
splitting flows in excess of the water quality design
flow upstream of the facility and diverting higher
flows to a bypass pipe or channel. The bypass
typically enters a detention pond or the downstream
receiving drainage system. A crucial factor in
designing flow splitters is to ensure that low flows are
delivered to the treatment facility up to the water
quality design flow rate. Above this rate, additional
flows are diverted to the bypass system with minimal
increase in head at the flow splitting structure to
avoid surcharging the water quality facility under high
flow conditions.
The flow splitter shall be designed to cater for 6
month ARI storm.
The top of the weir shall be located at the water
surface for the 3-month ARI water quality design
storm.
The maximum head over the weir shall be minimised
for flow in excess of the water quality design flows.
29.10 FLOW SPREADER
Flow spreaders are used to uniformly spread flows across
the inflow portion of water quality facility (e.g. sand filter,
biofiltration swale, or filter strip). Options A through C
(see Section 29.10.2) can be used for spreading flows that
have already concentrated. Option D is only for flows that
are already unconcentrated and enter a filter strip or
biofiltration swale.
29.10.1 General Design Criteria

Figure 29.19 shows a typical flow splitter made of

Where flow enters the spreader through a pipe, it is
manholes with concrete baffles. Figure 29.20 shows a recommended that the pipe be submerged to
typical diversion/isolation structure.
practically dissipate energy.
Rock protection is required at outfalls.

29-20 Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Hydraulic Structures

Anchored plate (Option A)

29.10.2 Design Criteria for Flow Spreading
Options Concrete sump box (Option B)
Flat-topped notched curb spreader (Option C)
The following presents the design criteria for each of the Through-curb ports (Option D)
following spreading options:
 (a) Option A - Anchored Piate The spreader shall be preceded by a sump having a
minimum depth of 200 mm and minimum width of 600
mm. The sump area shall be lined with steps to
reduce erosion and to provide energy dissipation.
The top of the flow spreader plate shall be level,
projecting a minimum of 50 mm above the final grade
of the invert of the water quality facility.
The plate shall extend horizontally beyond the bottom
width of the facility to prevent water from eroding the
side slope.
The plate shall be securely fixed in place.
The level spreader plate may be either wood, metal,
fibreglass reinforced plastic, or other durable material.
Figure 29.21 shows the details of the spreader.

To Bypass Conveyance
PLAN Type 2 M.H No Base
Channel Required System or Detention Pond

Reinforced Baffle Wall Grouted

to M.H Structure (both ends)

Inflow To Water Quality Facility

SECTION A-A
Round Solid Lid

1220 mm or Provide Separate

Access to Either Side of Baffle Wall
100 mm Thick Reinforced Concrete
Water Quality Design _ Baffle Wall or Other Suitable Material
Water Surface Elevation

Bypass Pipe
Hands Holds (typ.)

To Water Quality Facility

Inflow

Sump (Optional)

NOTE:
The water quality discharge Pipe may require an orifice plate
be installed on the Outlet to control the height of the design water
surface (weir height). The design water surface should be set to
provide a minimum headwater/diameter ratio of 2.0 on the outlet Pipe.

Figure 29.19 Typical Flow Splitter Device

29-21
Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Hydraulic Structures
 Open Channel

Figure 29.20 Typical Isolation/Diversion Structure

per 1.25 m section provide good spacing. The space

(b) Option B - Concrete Sump Box

between adjacent "teeth" forms a v-notch.

This alternative uses a rectangular concrete sump (see
Figure 29.22 for details) (d) Option D - Througii Curb

The wall of the downstream side of the concrete sump
shall extend a minimum 50 mm above the invert of
the treatment bed.
The downstream wall of the box shall have "returns"
at both ends. Side walls and returns shall be slightly
higher than the weir so that erosion of the side slope
is minimised.
(c) Option C - Fiat- Topped Notched Curb Spreader
Flat-topped notched curb spreader is shown
Figure 29.23. The spreader sections are made of extruded
concrete laid side by side and level. Typically four "teeth"
Details of the spreader are shown in Figure 29.24.
Unconcentrated flows from paved areas entering filter
strips or continuous flow biofiltration swales can use curb
ports to allow flows to enter the strip or swale. Curb ports
use prefabricated openings that allow concrete curbing to
be poured or extruded continuously while still providing an
opening through the curb to admit water to the water
quality facility.
Openings in the curbing shall be at regular intervals but at
in least every 3.6 (minimum). The width of each curb port
opening shall be 275 mm minimum. Approximately 15
percent or more of the curb section length shall be in open
ports, and no port should discharge more than about 10
percent of flow.

29-22 Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Hydraulic Structures
 PLAN

Example of anchored plate used with a sand filter*

(May also be used with other water quality facilities)
Extended into slope to protect from the

SECTION A-A

Sand Layer
Rock Rip Rap
Inlet Pipe Gravel Layer

Existing Grade

Level Spreader Plate

bolted to anchor Post

Alternative Design 600 mm Embedded

Into exisltng ground
Example of Catch Basin recommended for higher flow situations
(Generally 140 L/S or greater for 100 year storm)

Figure 29.21 Level Spreader (Option A)

29-23
Urban Stormwater Management Manual

Hydraulic Structures
 PLAN

Example of a Concrete Sump Flow Spreader

used with a biofiltration swale
(May be used with other W.Q. Facilities)

SECTION A-A

Inlet Pipe
Wing Wall Outline
50 mm Clearance

Concrete Sump
(100 mm wall thickness)

NOTE:
Extend sides into slope. Height of side wall and
returns must be sufficient to handle the 100 year flow
or the highest flow entering the Facility

Figure 29.22
Level Spreader (Option B)
Because of the inverted bottom, the siphon stands full
storm water even when there is no flow. Some drainage
29.11 SIPHONS
districts discourage the use of siphons on the basis that
the siphon requires more frequent maintenance including
Any conduit that drops under an obstruction such as
removal of debris that may clog the conduit. Nevertheless,
railroad tracks, depressed roadways or utilities, and regains
siphons have certain advantages in particular settings,
elevation at the downstream side of the obstruction is
usually in urban areas where other solutions such as flow
referred to as an inverted siphon.

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

29-24

Hydraulic Structures

re-routing may result in disruptions to traffic and higher Siphons are normally single-or multi-barrel and consist o
costs. f
 an entrance section, drop, depressed reach, rise, and
outlet structure. Siphons require hydraulic head to operate
properly and the adequacy of available head should be
assessed early in the design process. Siphons can be
simpler or sophisticated, and the related design effort can
be nominal or complex. The following examples apply to
large, sophisticated siphons with multiple appurtenances -
some or which may not always be necessary.
29.11.1 Single-Barrel Siphons
Single-barrel siphons can be used for conveying
stormwater flows where there are periods of no flow
during which maintenance can be provided.
Even though some agencies limit the slope of the rising leg
of the siphon to 15%, steeper slopes and even vertical
drops and risers are acceptable, if maintenance chambers
with debris collection sumps at the bottom are provided at
the drop and riser of the siphon, as shown in Figure 29.25.
Sloping legs of siphons (Figure 29.26) have been designed
without maintenance chambers; however, the chambers
provide maintenance flexibility with direct access to service
the siphon. The steeper the legs of the siphon, the more
difficult it is to clean the siphon from shallow manholes
located near the ground surface, and deep maintenance
chambers reaching to barrel inverts may be required.
Where a vertical drop and riser are provided, they should
serve as maintenance chambers and include access down
to the barrels and sumps. Sumps located at the bottom of
the maintenance chambers trap the debris
accumulates in the siphon.
29.11.2 Multi-Barrel Siphons
In channels or sewers that convey a continuous flow,
where one barrel does not have sufficient capacity and the
flow has to be divided, or where redundancy is required by
local agencies, the multi-barrel siphon is applicable. Plan
and profiles of such siphons are shown in Figure 29.26.
Where redundancy is required for maintenance purposes,
one additional equal capacity barrel is sufficient. To fulfil
its functions, the multi-barrel siphon requires equipment
and structure , including gates that close the barrel to be
maintained while the other barrel is open.
Urban Stormwater Management Manual
Hydraulic Structures
PLAN
1.2m
Special structure may also include a flow distribution
chamber and a flow adapter chamber. These chambers
are used to contract and expand the flows. The
distribution chamber serves to direct the flow from one
sewer to the two barrels of the siphon alternatively used,
while the flow adapter chamber serves to direct the flow
from the two barrels of the siphon to one conduit.
29.11.3 Design Criteria and Practices
One of the critical criteria for the design of siphons is the
maintenance of self-cleansing velocities under widely
varying flow conditions (ASCE 1969). Siphons used for
conveying storm water are usually designed for a velocity
of 0.9 m/s for a 5-year return interval design flow.
Siphons with water containing abrasive suspended
materials should be designed for a flow velocity less than 3
m/s.
The head losses through each of the siphon components
must be estimated for the purpose of plotting the hydraulic
grade line. Upstream surcharging should be avoided, and
therefore one of the main design objectives should be to
minimise the head losses through the siphon. The friction
losses can be estimated by using the combined Darcy-
Weisbach - Manning equation is useful in the following
form (in metric units):
19.5 nLV
hr = (29.17)
_4/3
where,
hf = lead loss (m)
n = Manning's frictions factor
L = length of conduit (m)
2g
that r = hydraulic radius (m)
V = velocity (m/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s)
Minor losses (such as at bend, contraction and expansion,
and entrance and exit losses) can be estimated as
discussed in Chapter 25. It should be noted that head
losses in siphons can be significant, particularly in flat
coastal areas, where the low terrain does not allow for
surcharge and the available project corridor is narrow.
The size of the barrel or conduit can be determined initially
based on the minimum required flow velocity. However,
the barrel can be sized accurately only after he hydraulic
losses are estimated. If the head loss under the design
flow condition is excessive, increases in the size of the
conduit should be considered.
29-25
 300 mm

FRONT

SECTION B-B

2-RlO Rebar or Reinforce

as Necessary

Figure 29.23 V-notch Level Spreader

o.c-

Concrete Curb

Opening 280 mm

Grass Filter Strip

Figure 29.24 Through-Curb Port

Urban Stormwater Management Manual

29-26

Hydraulic Structures

/
 PLAN

J- Inlet Chamber Outlet Chamber

Manhole Frame and Cover

Removable Precast Concrete Slabs

PROFILE

Inlet Chamber Outlet Chamber

Water Level
_V

Concrete Encasement

Figure 29.25 Profile and Plan of Double-Barrel Siphon Vertical Legs (Engineering News, 1916)

1.5 m Circular Reinforced Concrete

400 mm CI (Dry Weather) Pipe

(a) Sectional Plan

Cleanout Manhole cleanout Manhole

Old 1.6 m X 1.2 m Sewer Old 1.6 m X 1. 2 m Sewer

New 600 mm Sewer

400 mm CI (Dry Weather) Pipe

400 mm CI Section B-B

Section A-A

(b) Longitudinal Section

Figure 29.26 Profile and Plan of a Double-Barrel Siphon Sloping Legs (Engineering News, 1916)

29-27
Urban Stormwater Management Manual
 Subject Index

Urban Stormwater Management Manual 33