17/02/2012

Chapter 25
Capacitors and Capacitance
In this chapter we will cover the following topics:
-Capacitance C of a system of two isolated conductors.
-Calculation of the capacitance for some simple geometries.
-Methods of connecting capacitors (in series , in parallel).
-Equivalent capacitance.
-Energy stored in a capacitor.
-Behavior of an insulator (a.k.a. dielectric) when placed in the
electric
l t i field
fi ld created
t d in
i the
th space between
b t the
th plates
l t off a capacitor.
it
-Gauss law in the presence of dielectrics.

(25 - 1)

(25 - 2) Capacitance
A system of two isolated conductors separated by
V-
an insulator (this can be vacuum or air) one with a
V+
charge q and the other - q is known as a "capacitor"
The symbol used to indicate a capacitor is two
parallel lines. We refer to the conductors as "plates"
We refer to the "charge" of the capacitor
q
C as the absolute value of the charge on either plate
V
As shown in the figure the charges on the capacitor plates create
q q = CV an electric field in the surrounding space. The electric potential
of the the positive and negative plate is V and V , respectively.
V We use the symbol
y V for the ppotential difference V V between
O
the plates (V would be more appropriate).
If we plot the charge q as function of V we get the straight line shown in the figure.
The capacitance C is defined as the ratio q / V .
SI Unit : Farad (symbol F) We define a capacitor of C 1 F as one which
acquires a charge q = 1 C if we apply a voltage difference V 1 V between its plates

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Parallel Plate Capacitor

A parallel plate capacitor is defined as made up from two parallel plane plates
of area A separated by a distance d . The electric field between the plates
and away from the plate edges is uniform. Close to the plates edges the electric
field (known as "fringing field") becomes non-uniform.
Batteries
V
A battery is a device that maintains a constant potential difference V
+ -
_ between its two terminals. These are indicated in the battery symbol
using two parallel lines unequal in length. The longer line indicates
the terminal at higher potential while the shorter line denotes
the lower potential terminal.
(25 - 3)

Charging a Capacitor
-q
+q One method to charge a capacitor is shown in
the figure. When the switch S is closed, the electric
field of the battery drives electrons from the battery
negative terminal to the capacitor plate connected to
it ((labeled "" for low).
) The battery
y ppositive
terminal removes an equal number of electrons from
+q -q the plate connected to it (labeled "h" for high).
Initially the potential difference V between the
capacitor plates is zero. The charge on the plates
as well as the potential difference between the plates
increase, and the charge movement from the battery
terminals to and from the plates decreases.
All charge movement stops when the potential
difference between the plates becomes equal
to the potential difference between the
(25 - 4)
battery terminals.

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Calculating the capacitance

The capacitance depends on the geometry of the plates
(shape, size, and relative position of one with respect
V-
to the other). Below we give a procedure for
V+
calculating C
Recipe :
1. Assume that the plates have charges q and - q
2. Use Gauss' law to determine the electric field



E between the plates o E dA q enc
3. Determine the potential difference V between
the plates using the equation:


V E ds Along any path that connects the

negative with the positive plate.

4. The capacitance C is given by the equation:
(25 - 5) q
C
V

P
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
S
The plates have area A and are separated
by a distance d . The upper plate has a
n
charge q and the lower plate a charge - q
N

We apply Gauss' law using the Gaussian surface S shown in the figure.
The electric flux EA cos 0 EA.
q q q
From Gauss' law we have: EA E
o o A o
The potential difference V between the positive and the negative plate is

qd
given by: V Eds cos 0 E ds Ed

A o
q q A
The capacitance C
V qd / A o
o A o
d C (25 - 6)
d

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Cylindrical Capacitor
It consists of two cylinders of radii a and b
with a common axis. The two cylinders have
S n a height L. We choose a Gaussian surface S
that is also a cylinder with radius r and height L
The flux of the electric field through S is:
2 rLE cos 0 2 rLE
q
Using Gauss' law we have:
o
If we combine these equations we have:
q
E
o 2 rL

The potential difference V between the positive and the negative plate is
a
q dr q q b
given by: V Edr cos180 ln r b
o 2 L b r
a

o 2 L a
ln

o 2 L
q q 2 L o
The capacitance C
V q / 2 L o ln b / a ln b / a (25 - 7)

Spherical Capacitor
It consists of two cocentric spheres of radii a and b
S n We choose a Gaussian surface S that is also a
sphere with radius r
The flux of the electric field through S is:
4 r 2 E cos 0 4 r 2 E
q
Using Gauss' law we have:
o
If we combine these equations we have:
q
E
4 o r
2

The potential difference V between the positive and the negative plate is
a a
dr q q 1 q 1 1
given by: V Edr cos180 r 4 a b

4 o b r 2
4 o b o

q q 4 o ab
The capacitance C 4 o
V q 1 1 1 1 ba

4 o a b a b (25 - 8)

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Equivalent Capacitor
Consider the combination of capacitors
shown in the figure to the left and to the
right (upper part). We will substitute
these combinations of capacitor with a
single capacitor Ceqq that is
"electrically equivalent"
to the capacitor group it substitutes.

This means that if we apply the same voltage V across the

capacitors in fig.a and fig.b (either right or left) by connecting
y, the same charge
to a battery, g q is pprovided byy the battery.
y Alternatively,
y,
if we place the same charge q on plates of the capacitors in fig.a
and fig.b (either right or left), the voltage V across them is identical.
This can be stated in the following manner: If we place the capacitor
combination and the equivalent capacitor in separate black boxes,
by doing electrical mesurements we cannot distinguish between the two. (25 - 9)

Capacitors in parallel
The fig.a we show three capacitors
connected in parallel. This means that
the plate of each capacitor is connected
to the terminals of a battery of voltage V .
Ceq C1 C2 C3
We will substitute the pparallel combination
of fig.a with a single equivalent capacitor
shown in fig.b which is also connected
to an identical battery

The three capacitors have the same potential difference V across their plates.
The charge on C1 is: q1 C1V . The charge on C2 is: q2 C2V .
The charge on C3 is: q3 C3V . The net charge q q1 q2 q3 C1 C2 C3 V
q C1 C2 C3 V
The equivalent capacitance Ceq C1 C2 C3
V V
For a parallel combination of n capacitors is given by the expression:
n
Ceq C1 C2 ... Cn C j (25 - 10)
j 1

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Capacitors in series
The fig.a we show three capacitors connected in series.
This means that one capacitor is connected after the other.
The combination is connected to the terminals of a battery
of voltage V . We will substitute the series combination
of fig.a with a single equivalent capacitor shown in fig.b
which is also connected to an identical battery.
The three capacitors have the same charge q on their plates.
The voltage across C1 is: V1 q / C1.
The voltage across C2 is: V2 q / C2 .
The voltage across C3 is: V3 q / C3 .
The net voltage across the combination V V1 V2 V3
1 1 1
Thus we have: V q
C1 C2 C3
q q
The equivalent capacitance Ceq
V 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 q
(25 - 11) C1 C2 C3
Ceq C1 C2 C3

More complex capacitor systems

In general a capacitor system
may consist of smaller capacitor
groups that can be identified as
connected "in parallel" or
"in series"

In the example of the figure C1 and C2 in fig.a are connected in parallel.

They can be substituted by the equivalent capacitor C12 C1 C2 as
shown in fig.b. Capacitors C12 and C3 in fig.b are connected in series.
They can be substituted by a single capacitor C123 as shown in fig.c
1 1 1
C123 is given by the equation:
C123 C12 C3

(25 - 12)

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-q' q' Energy stored an an electric field

- dq'
+ Consider a capacitor C which is has a charge q.
- + We can calculate the work W required to charge
- + the capacitor by assuming that we transfer a charge
- +
dq from the negative plate to the positive plate.
- +
V'
V p
We assume that the capacitor g is q and the
charge
corresponding voltage V . The work dW required
Charge
q
A
for the charge transfer is given by: dW V dq dq
q C
q' We continue this process till the capacitor charge is
B Voltage q
1
equal to q. The total work W V dq
C 0
O qdq
V' V
q
1 q 2 q2 CV 2 qV
W If we substitute q CV we get: W or W
C 2 0 2C 2 2
Work W can also be calculated by determining the area A of triangle OAB which is
Vq
equal to V dq. Area W
2 (25 - 13)

-q E q
- + Potential energy stored in a capacitor
- + The work W spent to charge a capacitor is stored in the form of
-A potential energy U W that can be retrieved when is capacitor is
A +
- + q 2 CV 2 qV
discharged. Thus U
- + 2C 2 2
d Energy density
We can ask the question: where is the potential energy of a charged
q 2 CV 2 capacitor stored? The answer is counter intuitive. The energy is
U
2C 2 stored in the space between the capacitor plates where a uniform
electric field E V / d is generated by the capacitor charges.
oE2
u In other words the electric field can store energy in empty space!
2
U
We define as energy densiry (symbol u ) the potential energy per unit volume. u
V
The volume V between the plates is: V Ad where A is the plate area
V E2
2
U CV 2 V2
Thus the energy density u o o
Ad 2 Ad 2 Ad 2 d 2
This result, derived for the parallel plate capacitor holds in general (25 - 14)

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C Cair
Capacitor with a dielectric
q
In 1837 Michael Faraday investigated what happens to the
V
-q capacitance C of a capacitor when the gap between the plates
is completely filled with an insulator (a.k.a. dielectric)
q' Faraday discovered that the new capacitance is given by :
V
C Cair Here Cair is the capacitance before the insertion
-q' of the dielectric between the plates. The factor is known
as the dielectric constant of the material.
Faraday's experiment can be carried out in two ways:
q V 1. With the voltage V across the plates remaining constant
In this case a battery remains connected to the plates .
q
-q
This is shown in fig.a
V'
2. With the charge q of the plates remaining constant.
q In this case the plates are isolated from the battery
-q This is shown in fig.b

(25 - 15)

C Cair
q
Fig.a : Capacitor voltage V remains constant
V
-q This is bacause the battery remains connected to the plates
After the dielectric is inserted between the capacitor plates
q' the plate charge changes from q to q q
V q q q
The new capacitance C Cair
-q' V V V

q V
Fig.b : Capacitor charge q remains constant
-q
This is bacause the plates are isolated
Aft the
After th dielectric
di l t i is
i inserted
i t d between
b t th capacitor
the it plates
l t
V' V
q the plate voltage changes from V to V

q q q
-q The new capacitance C Cair
V V / V
(25 - 16)

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In a region completely filled with an insulator of

dielectric constant , all electrostatic equations
containing the constant o are to be modified by
q
replacing o with o

Example 1 : Electric field of a point charge inside

1 q
a dielectric: E
4 o r 2

conductor dielectric Example 2 :

Th electric
The l t i field
fi ld outside
t id an isolated
i l t d conductor
d t
immersed in a dielectric becomes:

E
o

(25 - 17)

Dielectrics : An atomic view

Dielectrics are classified into "polar" and "nonpolar"
Polar dielectrics consist of molecules that have a non-zero
electric dipole moment even at zero electric field
due to the asymmetric distribution of charge
within the molecule ((e.g.
g H 2 O ).
) At zero electric field
(see fig.a) the electric dipole moments are randomly

oriented. When an external electric field Eo is applied
(see fig.b) the electric dipole moments tend to align

preferrentially along the direction of Eo because this
configuration corresponds to a minimum of the potential
energy and thus is a position of stable equilibrium.
Thermal random motion opposes the alignment and
thus ordering is incomplete. Even so, the partial
U pE cos alignment produced by the exterlal electric field
generates an internal electric field that apposes

(25 - 18) Eo . Thus the net electric field E is weaker than Eo

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A nonpolal dielectric on the other hand consists of molecules that in the absence of
an electric field have zero electric dipole moment (see fig.a) . If we place the dielectric

between the plates of a capacitor the external electric field Eo induces an electric dipole

moment p that becomes aligned with Eo (see fig.b). The aligned molecules do not create
any net charge inside the dielectric. A net charge appears at the left and right surfaces
of the dielectric opposite to the capacitor plates
plates. These charges come from negative and
positive ends of the electric dipoles. These induced surface charges have sign opposite
to that of of the opposing plate charges. Thus the induced charges create an electric field

E which opposes the applied field Eo (see fig.c). As a result is that the

net electric field E between the capacitor plates is weaker. E
E o (25 - 19)

Gauss' law and dielectrics

In chapter 23 we formulated Gauss' law assuming that the

charges existed in vacuum. o E dA q or o q
S n

In this section we will write Gauss' law in a from which

is suitable for cases in which dielectrics are present.
Consider
Co s de first
st the
t e parallel
pa a e plate
p ate capacitor
capac to shown
s ow in fig.a.
g.a.
q
We will the Gaussian surface S. The flux Eo A
o
S n q
Eo Now we fill the space between the plates
o A
with an insulator of dielectric constant (see fig.b) .
We will apply Gauss' law for the same surface S. Inside S in addition to the plate charge q
q q
we also have the induced charge q on the surface of the dielectric. EA
o
q q Eo q
E (eqs.1) From Faraday's experiments we have: E (eqs.2)
A o A o
q
If we compare eqs.1 with eqs.2 we have: q q o E dA q (25 - 20)

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Gauss' law in the presence of dielectrics

o E dA q

Even though the equation above was derived for the parallel plate capacitor
is true in general.

Note 1 : The flux integral now involves E
Note 2 : The charge q that is used is the plate charge,
charge also known as "free
free charge
charge"
Using the equation above we can ignore the induced charge q
Note 3 : The dielectric constant is kept inside the integral to desrcibe the
most general case in which is not constant over the Gaussian surface

(25 - 21)

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