Evaporation

Chamber

Precipitator

Charging Aisle

Furnace
Aisle
Teeming
Aisle

Fig. 3-18 Cross section of a basic oxygen steel plant. The furnace (converter vessel), nearly
18feet in diameter and 27 feet high, is just left of center. The charging box at the right of the
converter is 25 feet above floor level. The entire steelmaking cycle takes about 45 minutes from
tapto tap.

obtain the desired chemical composition largely elimi-
nates the short time cycle advantage and, in general, only
carbon steels are produced.
Vacuum Furnaces and Degassing
Equipment
The melting of steel and other alloys in a vacuum re-
duces the gases in the metal and produces metal with a
minimum of impurities. The gases formed in a vacuum
furnace are pulled out of the metal by vacuum pumps.
Figure 3-20, pages 5758 illustrates the various vacuum
melters and degassers. There are two general types of fur-
naces used for vacuum melting. The two processes are
called vacuum induction melting and consumable elec-
trode vacuum arc melting.
Vacuum Induction MeltingVacuum induction melting
was first used in the 1940s. The charge is melted in a
conventional induction furnace contained within an air-
tight, water-cooled steel chamber, Fig. 3-21, page 59. The
furnace resembles induction furnaces used for air-melt
processes. Advantages of the vacuum induction process
include freedom from air contamination, close control of
heat, and fewer air inclusions.
prepared by other methods. Steel electrodes of a pre
determined composition are remelted by an electric
arc in an air-tight, water-cooled crucible. The prin-
ciple of operation is similar to arc welding. (Refer to
Chapter 12.)
The furnace consists of a water-cooled copper crucible,
a vacuum system for removing air from the crucible dur-
ing melting, and a d.c. power source for producing the arc,
Fig. 3-22, page 59. The electrode is attached to an elec-
trode holder that feeds the electrode during the remelting
operation to maintain the arc. The copper crucible is en-
closed by a water jacket that provides the means of con-
trolling ingot solidification.
In general, both of these processes produce high qual-
ity steel and steel alloys. The equipment has the following
advantages:
Production of alloys too expensive to manufacture by
air-melt processes
Use of reactive elements
Decreased amounts of hydrogen, oxygen, and n itrogen
in the finished product
Improved mechanical properties
Close heat control
Better hot and cold workability

Consumable Electrode Vacuum Arc Melting Consum- Vacuum DegassingThe vacuum degassing of mol-
able electrode melting is a refining process for steel ten steel is a refining operation. Its purpose is to reduce

Steel and Other Metals Chapter 3 55

 Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
Americas capability to produce steel by the basic oxygen process has grown enormously from small beginnings
during the middle 1950s. The high tonnage of steel now made in basic oxygen furnacescommonly called
BOFsrequires the consumption of large amounts of oxygen to provide operational heat and to promote the
necessary chemical changes. No other gases or fuels are used. The basic oxygen process produces steel very
quickly compared with the other major methods now in use. For example, a BOF may produce up to 300-ton
batches in 45 minutes as against 5 to 8 hours for the older open hearth process. Most grades of steel can be
produced in the refractory-lined, pear-shaped furnaces.

Scrap Charger The first step for making a heat of

on Rails steel in a BOF is to tilt the furnace and
charge it with scrap. The furnaces are
mounted on trunnions and can be
swung through a wide arc.

This schematic drawing of a BOF facility shows the emphasis the steel industry places
on air quality control. A hood over the furnace catches the dirty waste gases from the
steelmaking process. The gases are conducted to air treatment facilities which occupy
Basic most of the space to the left of the crane-held ladle in the diagram.
Oxygen
Furnace

Gas Cleaning
Equipment

Molten pig iron

accounts for between
65% and 80% of the
charge and is poured
from a ladle into the top
of the tilted furnace. The principal material used in manufacturing steel by the basic oxygen process is molten
iron. Therefore, most BOF facilities are built near blast furnaces. Some scrap steel is used
Ladle of in the process. Oxygen producing facilities are usually built in the same plant.
Molten Iron

During the oxygen blow, lime is

added as a flux to help carry off
the oxidized impurities as a floating
layer of slag. Lime is consumed at
a rate of about 150 pounds per ton
of raw steel produced.

Oxygen Tap Hole

Flux
Lance
Charge
Refractory
Lining Alloy
Addition

Steel Shell Ladle of

Molten Steel

The furnace is returned to an upright position. Oxygen combines with carbon After steel has been refined,
A water cooled oxygen lance is lowered into and other unwanted elements, the furnace is tilted and
the furnace and high purity oxygen is blown eliminating these impurities molten steel pours into a
onto the top of the metal at supersonic speed. from the molten charge and ladle. Alloy additions are
converting it to steel. made into the ladle.

Fig. 3-19 The basic oxygen process. Adapted from American Iron & Steel Inst.

56 Chapter 3 Steel and Other Metals

 Vacuum Processing Of Steel
Steels for special applications are often processed in a vacuum to give them properties not
otherwise obtainable. The primary purpose of vacuum processing is to remove such gases
as oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen from molten metal to make higher-purity steel.
Many grades of steel are degassed by processes similar to those shown on this page. Even
greater purity and uniformity of steel chemistry than is available by degassing is obtained by
subjecting the metal to vacuum melting processes like those shown on the facing page.

Furnace
Ladle
The Vacuum Degassers
In vacuum stream degassing (left), a ladle of molten steel from a
conventional furnace is taken to a vacuum chamber. An ingot mold
Pony is shown within the chamber. Larger chambers designed to contain
Ladle ladles are also used. The conventionally melted steel goes into a
pony ladle and from there into the chamber. The stream of steel is
broken up into droplets when it is exposed to vacuum within the
chamber. During the droplet phase, undesirable gases escape from
the steel and are drawn off before the metal solidifies in the mold.

To Vacuum Pump
To Vacuum
Pump
To Vacuum
Pump

Vacuum
Vessel
Ingot Mold Vacuum
Suction Vessel
Degassing Nozzle
Chamber Suction
Nozzle

Ladle Ladle

Ladle degassing facilities (right) of several kinds are in current use. In the left-hand facility,
molten steel is forced by atmospheric pressure into the heated vacuum chamber. Gases are
removed in this pressure chamber, which is then raised so that the molten steel returns by
gravity into the ladle. Since not all of the steel enters the vacuum chamber atone time, this
process is repeated until essentially all the steel in the ladle has been processed.

Fig. 3-20 Vacuum degassing and melting. Adapted from American Iron & Steel Inst. (Continued)

the amounts of hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen in steel.
The process is carried out after the molten metal is
removed (tapped) from the furnace and before it is poured
into ingots and castings. It is based on the principle that
the solubility of a gas in liquid steel decreases as pressure
decreases. There are three processes used today.
Stream Degassing Steel is poured into a tank from which
the air has been already removed. After degassing, it is
collected in an ingot mold or ladle, Fig. 3-23, page 60.
Ladle Degassing A ladle of molten steel is placed in a
tank and then air is removed from the tank, thus exposing the
metal to the vacuum, Fig. 3-24, page 60. This method has
the advantage of being able to process smaller amounts of
steel than stream degassing.
Vacuum Lifter Degassing A vacuum is created in a chamber
suspended above a ladle of steel. The metal is forced up-
ward into the vacuum chamber through nozzles by means
of atmospheric pressure, Fig. 3-25, page 61.

Steel and Other Metals Chapter 3 57

 The Vacuum Melters
Vacuum melting by either of the two processes shown on
this page has helped make possible steels for many
advances in space flight, nuclear science, electronics, and
industry. A third process called electroslag remelting is
coming into increasing favor; it is an extension, in some ways
Charging
of the consumable-electrode method described below.
Bell
Charging
Bucket

Control
Panel

Induction
Furnace

Launder Control Rod (Cathode)

To Lowers the electrode as it melts
Vacuum
Pump
Ladle

Ingot Steel (To be To

Mold refined is melted Vacuum
as a consumable Pump
electrode)
Mold Car
Water Out
The vacuum induction process above melts and refines steel in a
furnace surrounded by an electrical coil. A secondary current induced in
the steel provides melting heat. The entire furnace is in a vacuum. +
Scrap or molten steel is charged to the furnace, from which most of the Water-Cooled Mold (Anode)
atmosphere has been evacuated. In the type of vacuum induction
facility illustrated, after the gases are eliminated, the furnace tilts and
Water In
pours newly refined steel into the trough (launder) which conveys it into
a holding ladle from which it can be cast into separate ingot molds. All A vacuum arc process, called the consumable
of these operations are remotely controlled within three separate electrode process, remelts steels produced by other
vacuum chambers sealed off from each other. methods. Its purpose is to improve the purity and
uniformity of the metal. The solid steel performs like a
gigantic electrode in arc welding with the heat of the
electric arc melting the end of the steel electrode. The
gaseous impurities are drawn off by the vacuum in the
chamber as the molten steel drops into the water-cooled
mold below. The remelted product is almost free of
center porosity after it solidifies. Inclusions are minimized.

Fig. 3-20 Vacuum degassing and melting. (Concluded)

The following benefits are generally derived from the Continuous Casting of Steel
degassing operation: Continuous casting is the process by which molten
T
 he reduction of hydrogen eliminates flaking of the steel. steel is solidified into a semifinished billet, bloom, or
T
 he reduction of oxygen promotes internal cleanliness. slab for subsequent finishing. Prior to the use of contin-
Oxygen reduction, however, is not as low as that uous casting in the 1950s, steel was poured into station-
achieved in vacuum-melted steels. ary molds to form ingots. Since that time, continuous
N
 itrogen content is reduced slightly. casting has taken over this operation to achieve im-
T
 he transverse ductility (flexibility across the grain of proved yield, quality, productivity, and cost efficiency.
the metal) of most degassed forged products is nearly Figure 3-26, page 61 shows some examples of continu-
double that of air-cast steel. ous caster configurations.

58 Chapter 3 Steel and Other Metals

 Charge Chamber
Optional
To
Vacuum
System To
Vacuum
Sight Port System
Vacuum Valve

To Control
Vacuum Panel
System

Induction Molds Door

Furnace Inner
Door
Mold Cart

Track Track

Melt Chamber Mold Chamber

(Optional)

Fig. 3-21 Cross section of a typical vacuum induction furnace inside a vacuum
chamber.

Electrode Holder

Power Source
Furnace and
Vacuum Control Panel
System

Water Out

Consumable Electrode

Water-Cooled Crucible
Ingot
Water In

Fig. 3-22 Schematic drawing of a consumable electrode remelting furnace. Direct current produces an arc
that melts a single electrode. Circulating water cools the ingot mold.

Steel from the BOF or the electric furnace is tapped
into a ladle and taken to the continuous casting machine.
The tundish is located under the ladle that has been raised
onto the turret, which will rotate the ladle into the proper
pour position. Refer to Fig. 3-26, which covers the flow
through the continuous caster.
Depending on the product end use, various shapes are
cast. The trend is to have the melting, casting, and rolling
processes linked so that the casting shape substantially
conforms to the finished product. The near-net-shape cast
section is most commonly used for beams and flat-rolled
products and greatly improves operation efficiency. The
complete operation from liquid metal to finished rolling
can be achieved within two hours.
How Continuous Casting WorksTo begin the cast-
ing operation, the mold bottom must be plugged with
a steel dummy bar that seals it. The bar is held in

Steel and Other Metals Chapter 3 59


Furnace Ladle
Stopper Rod
Pony Ladle
Observation Port
Observation Vacuum
Port
Water
Cooling
Ingot Mold
Degassing
Chamber
Fig. 3-23 Cross section of a vacuum degassing unit shows principal
components. Molten steel at the top pours into a pony ladle that mea-
sures steel into the vacuum unit, permitting the escape of hydrogen and
other gases.
place hydraulically by the straightener withdrawal
units (see Fig. 3-26, item 6). The liquid metal is pre-
vented from flowing into the mold via this bar.
The steel poured into the mold is partially solidi-
fied, producing a steel strand with a solid outer shell
and a liquid core. Once the solid steel shell is about
0.4 to 0.8 inch in the primary cooling area, the will range in thickness from 2 to 16 inches and can be
straightener withdrawal units withdraw the partially
solidified strand out of the mold along with the dummy
bar. Liquid steel is continuously poured into the mold
to replenish the withdrawn steel at an equal rate. The
withdrawal rate is dependent upon the cross section,
grade, and quality of steel being produced, and may
60 Chapter 3 Steel and Other Metals
Exhaust Outlet
Tapping
Ladle
Viewing Port
Seal Hopper
Seal
Diaphragm
Teeming
Ladle
Fig. 3-24 The ladle degassing process substi-
tutes a ladle for the ingot mold used in the stream
degassing process.
vary between 12 and 300 inches per minute.
The time required for this casting operation is
typically 1.0 to 1.5 hours per heat to avoid ex-
cessive ladle heat losses. (A heat is one pour-
ing of a specified amount of molten metal.)
When exiting the mold, a roller containment
section is entered by the strand (see Fig. 3-26,
items 4 and 5) in which water or a combina-
tion of water and air is sprayed onto the strand,
solidifying it. This area preserves cast shape
integrity and product quality. Extended roller
containments are used for larger cross sections.
When the strand has solidified and passed
through the straightener withdrawal units, the
dummy bar is removed. Following the straightener, the
strand is cut into the following as-cast products: slabs,
blooms, billets, rounds, or beam blanks, depending on
machine design.
Typically billets will have cast section sizes up to
about 7 inches square. Bloom section sizes will range
from approximately 7 inches square to about 15 inches
by 23 inches. Round castings will be produced in di-
ameters of anywhere from 5 to 20 inches. Slab castings
over 100 inches wide. Beam blanks take the shape of
dog bones and are subsequently rolled into I beams. The
aspect ratio is the width-to-thickness ratio and is used to
determine the dividing line between blooms and slabs. A
product with a 2.5:1 aspect ratio or greater is considered
to be a slab.
 The casting process comprises the following sections: A primary cooling zone or water-cooled copper mold
through which the steel is fed from the tundish, to
A tundish, located above the mold, to feed liquid steel
generate a solidified outer shell sufficiently strong to
to the mold at a regulated rate
maintain the strand shape as it passes into the second-
ary cooling zone
A
 secondary cooling zone in asso-
ciation with a containment section
positioned below the mold, through
Addition Hoppers
which the still mostly liquid strand
passes and is sprayed with water or
both water and air to further solidify
Gas Out
Heating Rod the strand
A
 n unbending and straightening sec-
Gas Out tion for all except straight vertical
casters
Vacuum Vessel
A
 severing unit (cutting torch or me-
Suction Nozzle chanical shears) to cut the solidified
strand into pieces for removal and fur-
Ladle ther processing
Liquid Steel TransferThere are two steps
involved in transferring liquid steel from
the ladle to the molds. Initially the steel
Ladle Car must be transferred from the ladle to the
tundish. Next the steel is transferred from
the tundish to the molds. The tundish-to-
mold steel flow is regulated by orifice con-
trol devices of various d esigns: slide gates,
Fig. 3-25 Vacuum lifter degassing works on the principle of atmospheric stopper rods, or metering nozzles. Metering
pressure pushing steel upward into a newly created vacuum. After the
nozzles are controlled by the tundish steel
steel is exposed to the vacuum for the proper time, it is returned to the
lower ladle. level adjustment.

1 2

12
6
7 8
11
9 10

Fig. 3-26 Examples of continuous casters. Liquid steel flows (1) out of the ladle, (2) into the tundish, and then into (3)a water-
cooled copper mold. Solidification begins in the mold, and continues through (4) the first zone, and (5) the strand guide. In this
configuration, the strand is (6) straightened, (8) torch-cut, and then (12) discharged for intermediate storage or hot-charged for
finished rolling. Source: American Iron & Steel Inst.

Steel and Other Metals Chapter 3 61