Blackberry

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the bramble fruit, not to be confused with the tree fruit Morus nigra or the black
raspberry. For other uses, see Blackberry (disambiguation)

Blackberry

Ripe, ripening, and unripe blackberries,

of an unidentified blackberry species

Blackberry flower, Rubus

fruticosusspecies aggregate.

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Plantae

(unranked Angiosperms
):

(unranked Eudicots
):

(unranked Rosids
):
 Order: Rosales

Family: Rosaceae

Genus: Rubus

Subgenus Rubus (formerly Euba

: tus)

Species

Rubus ursinus

Rubus laciniatus
Evergreen blackberry

Rubus argutus

Rubus armeniacus
Himalayan blackberry

Rubus plicatus

Rubus ulmifolius

Rubus allegheniensis

And hundreds more microspecies

(the subgenus also includes
the dewberries)

The blackberry is an edible fruit produced by many species in the Rubus genus in
the Rosaceae family, hybrids among these species within the Rubus subgenus, and hybrids
between the Rubus and Idaeobatus subgenera. The taxonomy of the blackberries has historically
been confused because of hybridization and apomixis, so that species have often been grouped
together and called species aggregates. For example, the entire subgenus Rubus has been called
the Rubus fruticosus aggregate, although the species R. fruticosus is considered a synonym of R.
plicatus.[1]

Contents
[hide]

1Description

2Botanical characteristics
 3Ecology

4Uses

o 4.1Nutrients

4.1.1Nutrient content of seeds

o 4.2Food

o 4.3Phytochemical research

5Cultivation

o 5.1Commercial cultivation

o 5.2Diseases and pests

6Folklore

7See also

8References

9Further reading

10External links

Description[edit]
What distinguishes the blackberry from its raspberry relatives is whether or not the torus
(receptacle or stem) "picks with" (i.e., stays with) the fruit. When picking a blackberry fruit, the torus
does stay with the fruit. With a raspberry, the torus remains on the plant, leaving a hollow core in the
raspberry fruit.
The term "bramble", a word meaning any impenetrable thicket, has traditionally been applied
specifically to the blackberry or its products,[2] though in the United States it applies to all members of
the Rubus genus. In the western US, the term caneberry is used to refer to blackberries and
raspberries as a group rather than the term bramble.
The usually black fruit is not a berry in the botanical sense of the word. Botanically it is termed
an aggregate fruit, composed of small drupelets. It is a widespread and well-known group of over
375 species, many of which are closely related apomictic microspecies native throughout Europe,
northwestern Africa, temperate western and central Asia and North and South America. [3]

Botanical characteristics[edit]
Blackberries are perennial plants which typically bear biennial stems ("canes") from the perennial
root system.[4]
In its first year, a new stem, the primocane, grows vigorously to its full length of 36 m (in some
cases, up to 9 m), arching or trailing along the ground and bearing large palmately
compound leaves with five or seven leaflets; it does not produce any flowers. In its second year, the
cane becomes a floricane and the stem does not grow longer, but the lateral buds break to produce
flowering laterals (which have smaller leaves with three or five leaflets). [4] First- and second-year
shoots usually have numerous short-curved, very sharp prickles that are often erroneously called
thorns. These prickles can tear through denim with ease and make the plant very difficult to navigate
around. Prickle-free cultivars have been developed. Recently the University of Arkansas has
developed primocane fruiting blackberries that grow and flower on first-year growth much as the
primocane-fruiting (also called fall bearing or everbearing) red raspberries do.
Unmanaged mature plants form a tangle of dense arching stems, the branches rooting from the
node tip on many species when they reach the ground. Vigorous and growing rapidly in woods,
scrub, hillsides, and hedgerows, blackberry shrubs tolerate poor soils, readily colonizing wasteland,
ditches, and vacant lots.[3][5]
The flowers are produced in late spring and early summer on short racemes on the tips of the
flowering laterals.[4] Each flower is about 23 cm in diameter with five white or pale pink petals.[4]
The drupelets only develop around ovules that are fertilized by the male gamete from a pollen grain.
The most likely cause of undeveloped ovules is inadequate pollinator visits.[6] Even a small change in
conditions, such as a rainy day or a day too hot for bees to work after early morning, can reduce the
number of bee visits to the flower, thus reducing the quality of the fruit. Incomplete drupelet
development can also be a symptom of exhausted reserves in the plant's roots or infection with
a virus such as raspberry bushy dwarf virus.

Ecology[edit]

A bee, Bombus hypnorum, pollinating blackberries

Blackberry leaves are food for certain caterpillars; some grazing mammals, especially deer, are also
very fond of the leaves. Caterpillars of the concealer moth Alabonia geoffrella have been found
feeding inside dead blackberry shoots. When mature, the berries are eaten and their seeds
dispersed by several mammals, such as the red fox and the Eurasian badger, as well as by small
birds.[7]

A basket of wild blackberries

Blackberries grow wild throughout most of Europe. They are an important element in the ecology of
many countries, and harvesting the berries is a popular pastime. However, the plants are also
considered a weed, sending down roots from branches that touch the ground, and sending
up suckers from the roots. In some parts of the world without native blackberries, such as
in Australia, Chile, New Zealand, and the Pacific Northwest of North America, some blackberry
species, particularly Rubus armeniacus (Himalayan blackberry) and Rubus laciniatus (evergreen
blackberry), are naturalised and considered an invasive species and a serious weed.[3]
Blackberry fruits are red before they are ripe, leading to an old expression that "blackberries are red
when they're green".
In various parts of the United States, wild blackberries are sometimes called "black-caps", a term
more commonly used for black raspberries, Rubus occidentalis.
As there is evidence from the Iron Age Haraldskr Woman that she consumed blackberries some
2500 years ago, it is reasonable to conclude that blackberries have been eaten by humans over
thousands of years.

Uses[edit]
Nutrients[edit]

Blackberries, raw (R. laciniatus)

Close-up view of a blackberry

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 180 kJ (43 kcal)

Carbohydrates 9.61 g

Sugars 4.88 g

Dietary fiber 5.3 g

 Fat 0.49 g

Protein 1.39 g

Vitamins

Vitamin A 214 IU

Thiamine (B1) (2%)

0.020 mg

Riboflavin (B2) (2%)

0.026 mg

Niacin (B3) (4%)

0.646 mg

Vitamin B6 (2%)

0.030 mg

Folate (B9) (6%)

25 g

Vitamin C (25%)

21.0 mg

Vitamin E (8%)

1.17 mg

Vitamin K (19%)

19.8 g
 Minerals

Calcium (3%)

29 mg

Iron (5%)

0.62 mg

Magnesium (6%)

20 mg

Phosphorus (3%)

22 mg

Potassium (3%)

162 mg

Sodium (0%)

1 mg

Zinc (6%)

0.53 mg

Link to USDA Database entry

Units

g = micrograms mg = milligrams

IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for

adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient Database

American cultivated blackberries (R. laciniatus and R. ursinus) are notable for their significant
contents of dietary fiber, vitamin C, and vitamin K (table).[8] A 100 gram serving of raw blackberries
supplies 43 calories and 5 grams of dietary fiber or 25% of the recommended Daily Value (DV)
(table).[8] In 100 grams, vitamin C and vitamin K contents are 25% and 19% DV, respectively, while
other essential nutrients are low in content (table).
Blackberries contain both soluble and insoluble fiber components.[9]
Nutrient content of seeds[edit]
Blackberries contain numerous large seeds that are not always preferred by consumers. The seeds
contain oil rich in omega-3 (alpha-linolenic acid) and -6 fats (linoleic acid) as well as protein, dietary
fiber, carotenoids, ellagitannins and ellagic acid.[10]
Food[edit]
The soft fruit is popular for use in desserts, jams, seedless jelly, and sometimes wine. It is often
mixed with apples for pies and crumbles. Blackberries are also used to produce candy.

Wild blackberries picked in May in

Texas

Wild Blackberries in Virginia

Phytochemical research[edit]
Blackberries contain
numerous phytochemicals including polyphenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins, salicylic acid, ellagic
acid, and fiber.[8][11] Anthocyanins in blackberries are responsible for their rich dark color.
Phytochemical components of blackberries, salicylic acid and ellagic acid have been associated in
preliminary research with toxicity to cancer cells,[12][13] including breast cancer cells.[14]
Blackberries rank highly among fruits for in vitro antioxidant strength, particularly because of their
dense content of polyphenolic compounds, such as ellagic acid, tannins,
ellagitannins, quercetin, gallic acid, anthocyanins, and cyanidins.[15][16] One report placed blackberry at
the top of more than 1000 polyphenol-rich foods consumed in the United States, [17] but this concept
of a health benefit from consuming darkly colored foods like blackberries remains scientifically
unverified and not accepted for health claims on food labels.[18]

Cultivation[edit]
Commercial cultivation[edit]

Black Butte blackberry

Worldwide, Mexico is the leading producer of blackberries, with nearly the entire crop being
produced for export into the off-season fresh markets in North America and Europe. The Mexican
market is almost entirely from the cultivar 'Tupy' (often spelled 'Tupi', but the EMBRAPA program in
Brazil from which it was released prefers the 'Tupy' spelling). In the US, Oregon is the leading
commercial blackberry producer, producing 42.6 million pounds on 6,180 acres (25.0 km2), in
1995[19] and 56.1 million pounds on 7,000 acres (28 km2) in 2009.[20]
Numerous cultivars have been selected for commercial and amateur cultivation in Europe[3] and
the United States.[21] Since the many species form hybrids easily, there are numerous cultivars with
more than one species in their ancestry.
'Marion' (marketed as "marionberry") is an important cultivar that was selected from seedlings from a
cross between 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie' (commonly called "Olallieberry") berries.[22] 'Olallie' in turn is a
cross between loganberry and youngberry. 'Marion', 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie' are just three of many
trailing blackberry cultivars developed by the United States Department of AgricultureAgricultural
Research Service (USDA-ARS) blackberry breeding program at Oregon State University in Corvallis,
Oregon.
The most recent cultivars released from this program are the prickle-free cultivars 'Black Diamond',
'Black Pearl', and 'Nightfall' as well as the very early-ripening 'Obsidian' and 'Metolius'. 'Black
Diamond' is now the leading cultivar being planted in the Pacific Northwest. Some of the other
cultivars from this program are 'Newberry', 'Waldo', 'Siskiyou', 'Black Butte', 'Kotata', 'Pacific', and
'Cascade'.[23]
Trailing blackberries are vigorous and crown forming, require a trellis for support, and are less cold
hardy than the erect or semi-erect blackberries. In addition to the United States's Pacific Northwest,
these types do well in similar climates such as the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Chile, and the
Mediterranean countries.
Semi-erect, prickle-free blackberries were first developed at the John Innes Centre in Norwich, UK,
and subsequently by the USDA-ARS in Beltsville, Maryland. These are crown forming and very
vigorous and need a trellis for support. Cultivars include 'Black Satin' 'Chester Thornless', 'Dirksen
Thornless', 'Hull Thornless', 'Loch Maree', 'Loch Ness', 'Loch Tay', 'Merton Thornless', 'Smoothstem',
and 'Triple Crown'.[24] Recently, the cultivar 'Cacanska Bestrna' (also called 'Cacak Thornless') has
been developed in Serbia and has been planted on many thousands of hectares there.
The University of Arkansas has developed cultivars of erect blackberries. These types are less
vigorous than the semi-erect types and produce new canes from root initials (therefore they spread
underground like raspberries). There are prickly and prickle-free cultivars from this program,
including 'Navaho', 'Ouachita', 'Cherokee', 'Apache', 'Arapaho', and 'Kiowa'. [25][26] They are also
responsible for developing the primocane fruiting blackberries such as 'Prime-Jan' and 'Prime-Jim'. [25]
In raspberries, these types are called primocane fruiting, fall fruiting, or everbearing. 'Prime-Jim' and
'Prime-Jan' were released in 2004 by the University of Arkansas and are the first cultivars of
primocane fruiting blackberry.[27] They grow much like the other erect cultivars described above,
however the canes that emerge in the spring, will flower in mid-summer and fruit in late summer or
fall. The fall crop has its highest quality when it ripens in cool mild climate such as in California or the
Pacific Northwest.[citation needed]
'Illini Hardy' a semi-erect prickly cultivar introduced by the University of Illinois is cane hardy in zone
5, where traditionally blackberry production has been problematic, since canes often failed to survive
the winter.
Blackberry production in Mexico has expanded enormously in the past decade. While once based on
the cultivar 'Brazos', an old erect blackberry cultivar developed in Texas in 1959, the Mexican
industry is now dominated by the Brazilian 'Tupy' released in the 1990s. 'Tupy' has the erect
blackberry 'Comanche', and a "wild Uruguayan blackberry" as parents. [28] Since there are no native
blackberries in Uruguay, the suspicion is that the widely grown 'Boysenberry' is the male parent. In
order to produce these blackberries in regions of Mexico where there is no winter chilling to stimulate
flower bud development, chemical defoliation and application of growth regulators are used to bring
the plants into bloom.
Diseases and pests[edit]

Raindrop on blackberry pale pink flower

As a result of blackberries belonging to the same genus as raspberries, [29] they share the same
diseases including anthracnose which can cause the berry to have uneven ripening and sap flow
may also be slowed.[30][31] They also share the same remedies including the Bordeaux mixture, [32] a
combination of lime, water and copper(II) sulfate.[33] The rows between blackberry plants must be free
of weeds, blackberry suckers and grasses which may lead to pests or diseases. [34]Fruit growers are
selective when planting blackberry bushes as wild blackberries may be infected [34] and gardeners are
recommended to purchase only certified disease-free plants.[35]
The spotted-wing drosophila, Drosophila suzukii is a serious pest of blackberries.[36] Unlike its vinegar
fly relatives which are primarily attracted to rotting or fermented fruit, D. suzukii attacks fresh, ripe
fruit by laying eggs under the soft skin. The larvae hatch and grow in the fruit, destroying the fruit's
commercial value.[36]
Another pest is Amphorophora rubi, known as the blackberry aphid, which not only eats blackberries
but raspberries as well.[37][38][39]
Byturus tomentosus (raspberry beetle), Lampronia corticella (raspberry moth) and Anthonomus
rubi (strawberry blossom weevil) are also known to infest blackberries.[40]

Folklore[edit]
Folklore in the United Kingdom tells that blackberries should not be picked after
Old Michaelmas Day (11 October) as the devil (or a Pca) has made them unfit to eat by stepping,
spitting or fouling on them.[41] There is some value in this legend as autumn's wetter and cooler
weather often allows the fruit to become infected by various molds such as Botryotinia which give
the fruit an unpleasant look and may be toxic.[42] According to some traditions, a blackberry's deep
purple color represents Christ's blood and the crown of thorns was made of brambles,[43][44] although
other thorny plants, such as Crataegus (hawthorn) and Euphorbia milii (crown of thorns plant), have
been proposed as the material for the crown.[45][46]

See also[edit]

Food portal

Black raspberry, sometimes confused with blackberries.

Kotata Berry, USDA-ARS release in cooperation with Oregon State

University.

List of Lepidoptera that feed on Rubus

Redberry mite, a common pest of North American blackberry crops.

References[edit]
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(1977). Morphological and cytological separation of Amphorophora
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40. Jump up^ Squire, David (2007). The Garden Pest & Diseases
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 41. Jump up^ Black Country Bugle - Michaelmas History and Traditions

42. Jump up^ Historic-UK.com Michaelmas Facts

43. Jump up^ Watts, D.C. (2007). Dictionary of Plant Lore (Rev. ed.).
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44. Jump up^ Alexander, Courtney. "Berries As Symbols and in

Folklore" (PDF). Cornell Fruit. Retrieved 11 August 2015.

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46. Jump up^ Ombrello T (2015). "Crown of thorns". Union County

College, Department of Biology, Cranford, NJ. Retrieved 18
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Further reading[edit]
Allen, D. E.; Hackney, P. (2010). "Further fieldwork on the brambles
(Rubus fruticosus L. agg.) of North-east Ireland". Irish Naturalists'
Journal. 31: 1822.

External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Blackberry.

Wikibooks Cookbook has

a recipe/module on

Blackberry

BBC h2g2 article on Blackberries

USDA Plants Classification Report

From Idea to Supermarket:The Process of Berry Breeding Article on

berry breeding including pictures of blackberry emasculation and
pollination
Categories:
Berries
Medicinal plants
Rubus
Plant common names

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