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3.0
2.5
2.0
[kW]
1.5
1.0
0.5
0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Ann
Fig. 2: Primary load Monthly averages (max, min; daily high, average, low)
Fig. 1: Hybrid off-grid system
TABLE I
BASIC DATA FOR HYBRID OFF-GRID SYSTEM 7 1.0
[kWh/m2/d]
Component PV DG Converter WT Load 6
0.8
P [kW] 3 5 2 3 2,8# 5 CI
Cost [k$] 18 3 1,5 15,5* - 0.6
4
Ann. Cost [%] 28 30 1,5 24 -
* Price is for the WT, tower and all required for the system installation. 3 0.4
# Peak power.
2
0.2
1
geographical determination. NASA Surface meteorology and 0 0.0
Solar Energy Daily Data are used as convenient source [5]. Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Daily Radiation Clearness Index
There is web link from HOMER where data can be
Fig. 3: Solar resources Monthly averages
automatically retrieved for particular location. Since the
focus is on the wind energy NASA source is considered
sufficiently good. Data are in hourly resolution for one year.
Figure 3 is presenting monthly averages.
Wind speed data were obtained from one meteorological
station (personal communication with M. Boievi V.).
Data were 10 minutes averages. This is prepared for
HOMER in hourly average values. Figure 4 is presenting IV. WIND TURBINES AND POWER CURVES
monthly average speed values, and Figure 5 is presenting One of the most important information about wind turbine
probability distribution function with discrete values for 0,5 is power curve which is presenting dependence of electrical
m/s bins, and respected Weibull fit (k=1,43, c=4,36 m/s). power on wind speed. Total of five power curves were
This data set is used as low speed case with 3,1 m/s average selected for this evaluation. They are derived from various
speed. Two additional average wind speed cases were used in sources: HOMER database, NREL reports (i.e., [6]), and
the assessment by using HOMER capability to scale base various vendors declared data (i.e., [10], [11], and [12]).
input data for resources. Mean case is used with 4 m/s Even testing and verification of small wind turbines power
average speed, and hi case is used with 5 m/s. This is done in curve is important it is out of the scope for this paper. It is
order to estimate the influence of average wind speed value considered that results from this assessment are even more
on the general results conclusions. emphasizing how confidence to power curve is important.
Load data are very important for whole system References [7], [8] and [9] are further describing how this can
optimization. They are also very specific for small isolated be addressed.
off-grid configurations. Therefore, they are very difficult to Table II presents selected data about five chosen wind
define in general. Load schedule is defined in hourly turbines. This is certainly not sufficient to describe small
resolution based on available data for consumption in wind turbine, but it is sufficient for this exercise. For this
particular region in Croatia [4]. This load is partly presented evaluation power curve is considered most important with
in Figure 2 with number of specific values: monthly estimated cost.
maximum and minimum; daily high, average and low. It is Figure 7 presents five different power curves as they are
clear that maximum load is required during the summer when implemented in different HOMER evaluation case. Event his
available wind is at minimum. This is additional reason to is not comprehensive coverage of small wind turbines power
include solar in the whole hybrid system configuration curves it is believed to be sufficient for assessment objective.
3
4
4,0
3
3,5
2
3,0
1 2,5
P [kW]
0 2,0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1,5
Fig. 4: Wind resources Monthly average wind speed - SE Croatia, low speed
case 1,0
0,5
0,0
14 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
v [m/s]
12
Best-fit Weibull (k=1.43, c=4.36 m/s) Fig. 6: Power curves for the five selected small wind turbines
10
Wind speed data
Frequency [%]
6 TABLE II
BASIC DATA FOR SELECTED WIND TURBINES
4
WT 0 1 2 3 4
2
Cost* [k$] 5 6 4,5 7 7,5
0 D [m] na 5,8 3,2 4,5 5
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
[m/s] #
Pr/Pp [kW] 2,5/3 3/3 2/3 3/3,2 3/4
Fig. 5: Wind resources Wind speed PDF - SE Croatia, low speed case * Cost is for the WT only in comparison with other VTs. System price is
separated.
# Rated and peak power.
TABLE III
SELECTED RESULTS FOR MEDIUM WIND RESOURCES CASE - 4 M/S
V. RESULTS
WT 0 1 2 3 4
One set of results from yearly hybrid system evaluation is 0,603 0,589 0,612 0,548 0,519
COE [$/kWh]
rich with technical and economical information. Considering
WT CF [%] 10,4 22,2 7,6 16,0 17,7
this for five model variations and three average wind speed
WT Energy* [%] 24, 46, 23, 35, 48,
values is even more complex. Only most important results [kWh] 2724 5838, 1994 4476 6192
will be presented since it is out of scope for one paper to PV/Batt./Conv.# 4/6/3 3/4/3 2/2/2 4/6/3 3/5/2
present in detail all those results. * Total el. en. produced (part is lost due to load schedule and battery capacity
limitations).
From economical prospective most important result is cost # PV capacity in [kW], number of batteries x [7,6 kWh], and converter
of energy. capacity in [kW].
On the other side from technical prospective number of
results might be important. For this evaluation technical optimal hybrid system configuration for each WT for medium
results related to the wind power were emphasized. wind speed case. Different WT are changing both amount of
electrical energy produced from wind, and optimal system
A. Economical results configuration.
Capacity factor for WT varies between less than 8 % to
Considering different small wind turbine power curves has
more than 22 %. Similar is for the low and high wind speed
significant impact to the COE. Table III shows, in the first
cases: with minimum of 4% WT2, and maximum of 32% for
row, how COE compares for five selected WT (medium wind
WT1.
speed case). Like results for other two wind speed cases
Wind energy penetration varies between 23 % and 48 %
importance of WT selection is significant. Depending on WT
for low wind speed. Minimum is 13 % for WT2, and
COE varies 20% for medium wind speed case or even more
maximum is 66 % for WT4 considering low and hi wind
for high wind speed case.
cases.
In order to present better how this hybrid system behaviors
B. Technical results separate figures are presented with average monthly electric
Different WT and average wind speed have affected both power produced from DG, PV, and WT. Figures from 7 to 10
amount of wind energy produced and optimal hybrid system are presenting results for medium wind speed case for all five
configuration. Table III presents amount of electrical energy WT's. From those figures it is easy to conclude which WT is
produced from wind, WT capacity factor, and respected performing better.
4
[kW] [kW]
1.8 1.4
PV PV
1.6 Wind 1.2 Wind
1.4 DG D
1.0 G
1.2
0.8
1.0
0.8 0.6
0.6 0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Fig. 7: Monthly average electric production 4 m/s; WT0 Fig. 9: Monthly average electric production 4 m/s; WT2
[kW]
[kW] 2.0
1.8 PV
PV
1.6 Wind
Wind
1.5 D
1.4 DG G
1.2
1.0 1.0
0.8
0.6 0.5
0.4
0.2 0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
0.0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Fig. 10: Monthly average electric production 4 m/s; WT3
Fig. 8: Monthly average electric production 4 m/s; WT1
2.0
PV
Wind
1.5 DG
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Remote places even in developed countries have difficulties 1.0
with connection to the power system. Some places, for
example on remote islands, do not have that connection at all. 0.5
This paper is assessing potential of using solar and wind Fig. 11: Monthly average electric production 4 m/s; WT4
renewable energy with diesel generator in hybrid off-grid
system. Selected power curves were considered representative for
Major focus of the assessment was to estimate importance the certain number of different small wind turbines on the
of small wind turbine selection for the overall economic and market. Important Problem related to the power curve
technical parameters. reliability and testing was not considered
Hybrid off-grid system was defined with one year hourly Final results were strongly suggesting how important
data for the predicted load, solar and wind resources power curve is to the both economical and technical results.
estimation.
HOMER micropower optimization modeling tool was used It is clear that variation of cost of energy, produced
in order to perform all quantifications. Number of sensitivity electricity from wind, and capacity factor are high enough for
cases was performed with HOMER capability to search for various wind turbines with different power curve that this
optimum inside defined space (i.e., number of batteries, should be considered very important factor for hybrid system
chargers, size of PV etc.)Wind speed data were also varied realization.
with three different average speeds: low (3,1 m/s), medium (4
m/s), and high (5 m/s). Further work seems necessary to verify sensitivity of
Since HOMER does not allow change of wind turbine presented results on some modeling assumptions. It would be
power curve separate cases were created with different important to consider sensitivity from: assumed cost related to
models. Five different wind turbines described with power particular wind turbine; assumed load schedule; and
curves and cost were included in five HOMER models. This sensitivity from different wind pattern.
is done so that rest of the system is kept unchanged (including
same optimization space).
5
REFERENCES
[1] HOMER: The Optimisation Model for Distributed Power, U.S. NREL
(http://www.nrel.gov/homer/)
[5] NASA Surface meteorology and Solar Energy: Daily Data, U.S.,
(http://eosweb.larc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/sse/sse.cgi?na+s01#s01)
[7] IEC 61400-12 Power Performance, Wind Turbine Standard, Jan. 1998
[9] Paul Gipe, Testing the Power Curves of Small Wind Turbines, Summer
2000, http://www.wind-works.org/articles/PowerCurves.html
[11] http://www.wwindturbine.com/windturbine3kw.htm, 3 kW
[12] http://www.windenergy.com/whisper_500.htm, 3 kW