Chapter 5

Solution Chemistry
by
Dr. Nor Nadiah Mohamad Yusof
 Homogeneous mixtures

suspension colloids solutions

Kind of Mixture Particle Size Examples

Solution 0.2 2.0 nm Air, sea water, gasoline
Colloid 2.0 1000 nm Butter, milk, fog
Suspension > 1000 nm Blood, paint, aerosol spays
* Solutions, the most important class of homogenous mixtures
A solution is a homogenous mixture of 2 or
more substances

The solute is(are) the substance(s) present in the

SMALLER amount(s)

The solvent is the substance present in the

LARGER amount
A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of a
solute that will dissolve in a given solvent at a specific
temperature.
An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the
solvent has the capacity to dissolve at a specific
temperature.
A supersaturated solution contains more solute than is
present in a saturated solution at a specific temperature.
Sodium acetate crystals rapidly form when a seed crystal is
added to a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate.
Three types of interactions in the solution process:
solvent-solvent interaction
solute-solute interaction
solvent-solute interaction

Solvent-solvent Solvent-solute Solute-solute

interaction interaction interaction

DHsoln = DH1 + DH2 + DH3

 like dissolves like

Two substances with similar intermolecular forces are likely

to be soluble in each other.
non-polar molecules are soluble in non-polar solvents
CCl4 in C6H6

polar molecules are soluble in polar solvents

C2H5OH in H2O
ionic compounds are more soluble in polar solvents
NaCl in H2O or NH3 (l)
 Concentration of Solution
When an amount of solute dissolves completely in a solvent, it
will form a homogenous mixture called solution .
There are several way to represent concentration of solution:

a) Molarity (M)

moles of solute (mol)

M =
Volume of solution (dm3)

The unit used to express molarity is:

moldm-3 or molL-1 or molar (M)

What mass of KI is required to make 500. mL of
a 2.80 M KI solution?

moles of solute
M = molarity =
liters of solution
M KI M KI
volume KI moles KI grams KI

1L 2.80 mol KI 166 g KI

500. mL x x x = 232 g KI
1000 mL 1 L soln 1 mol KI
 Example

Calculate the molarity of a solution with 34.6 g of NaCl

dissolved in 125 mL of solution.

Answer: 4.73 M

How many grams of HCl would be required to make 50.0

mL of a 2.7 M solution?

Answer: 4.93 g of HCI

 b) Molality (m)

Molality is a solution is defined as the number of moles of

solute per kg of solvent

moles of solute (mol)

m =
mass of solvent (kg)

The unit used to express molality is:

molkg-1 or molal (m)

 What is the molality of a 5.86 M ethanol (C2H5OH)
solution whose density is 0.927 g/mL?
moles of solute moles of solute
m = M =
mass of solvent (kg) liters of solution

Assume 1 L of solution:
5.86 moles ethanol = 270 g ethanol
927 g of solution (1000 mL x 0.927 g/mL)
mass of solvent = mass of solution mass of solute
= 927 g 270 g = 657 g = 0.657 kg

moles of solute 5.86 moles C2H5OH

m = = = 8.92 m
mass of solvent (kg) 0.657 kg solvent
 c) Mole Fraction (X)

Moles fraction is the ratio of the number of moles of the species to

the total number of moles present

Mole Fraction (X)

moles of A
XA =
sum of moles of all components
 A solution is containing 0.50 moles of KNO3 and 0.30 moles
of NaCI in 100 g of water. Calculate the mole fraction of each
species (XKNO3, XNaCI,XH2O).

moles of A
XA =
sum of moles of all components

Total number of moles : nKNO3 + n NaCI + nH2O

nH2O = 100 g H2O x 1 mol H2O = 5.56 mol

18 g H2O

Total number of moles : 0.50 mol + 0.30 mol + 5.56 mol

: 6.56 mol
 The mole fraction of each species:

XKNO3 = 0.50 mol = 0.079

6.36 mol

XNaCI = 0.30 mol = 0.047

6.36 mol

XH2O = 5.55 mol = 0.874

6.36mol

Note that the total fraction in a mixture (or solution) is equal

to ONE. In this case;

X Total = XKNO3+ XNaCI + XH2O

= 0.079 + 0.047 + 0.874
= 1.00
 d) Percentage by mass (%w/w)

Percentage by Mass is defined as the percentage of the mass

of solute in a given mass of solution

mass of solute
% by mass = x 100%
mass of solute + mass of solvent
mass of solute x 100%
=
mass of solution
8 g of sugar is dissolved in 42g of water. What is concentration
(%w/w) of the solution formed?

% by mass = mass of solute

x 100%
mass of solute + mass of solvent
mass of solute x 100%
=
mass of solution
= 8g
x 100
(8 + 42) g
= 16%
e) Percentage by Volume (%v/v)
The abbreviation v/v indicates that the percentage is based
on the volume of both the solute and the solution

Volume of solute (ml)

(%v/v) = x 100
Volume of solution (ml)

Percentage by mass / volume (%w/v)

Percentage by mass/volume is defined as the percentage

of mass of solute in g per volume of solution in ml

mass of solute (g)

(%w/v) = x 100
Volume of solution (ml)
A 200 ml of perfume contain 28 ml of alcohol. What is the
concentration of alcohol by volume in this solution?

Volume of solute (ml)

(%v/v) = x100
Volume of solution (ml)
= 28 x100 = 14%
200
A 20 ml sample of plant food solution contains 1.4 g of glucose.
What is the concentration (in %w/v) of glucose in the plant
food?
Answer : 7%
f) Parts per million, ppm
This unit is used when one component in a solution or mixture
is present in a relatively very small amount.

mass of solute
ppm = x 106
mass of solution or mixture

mass of solute
ppb = x 109
Mass of solution or mixture

Apart from using the mass of solute and the mass of solution,
the ppm concentration can also be express in term of volume
A gaseous mixture contain 13.6 ppm of xenon by volume. If
total volume of all components in the mixture equals to 716 L,
calculate the volume of xenon in the mixture.

Volume of solute
ppm = x 106
Volume of solution or mixture

Answer : 9.74 x 10-3 L

Preparation of Solution
 Making solutions
Describe how to make 250.0 mL of a 0.011M KMnO4
solution.
moles of solute
M = molarity =
liters of solution
Moles of solute = Molarity x Liters of solution

Moles of solute = 0.011mol x 0.250 L = 2.75 x 10-5 mol

L

g of solute = 2.75 x 10-5 mol x 158 g KMnO4 = 0.435 g KMnO4

1 mol KMnO4

* 0.435g of KMnO4 will dissolved in 250 ml solvent

 Dilution
Adding more solvent to a known solution.
The moles of solute stay the same.
moles = M x L
M1 V1 = M2 V2
Moles of solute before dilution = moles of
solute after dilution
Stock solution is a solution of known
concentration used to make more dilute
solutions
Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less concentrated
solution from a more concentrated solution.

Dilution
Add Solvent

Moles of solute Moles of solute

before dilution (i) = after dilution (f)

MiVi = MfVf
 How would you prepare 60.0 mL of 0.2 M
HNO3 from a stock solution of 4.00 M HNO3?

MiVi = MfVf

Mi = 4.00 Mf = 0.200 Vf = 0.06 L Vi = ? L

MfVf 0.200 x 0.06

Vi = = = 0.003 L = 3 mL
Mi 4.00

3 mL of acid + 57 mL of water = 60 mL of solution

 Making Dilutions
Describe how to make 0.001 M K2Cr2O4 from a stock
solution of 0.1 M K2Cr2O4.
What Volume (in ml) of concentrated H2SO4 (18.0M)
must be used to prepared 400 ml of 3.0 M H2SO4
solution?
MiVi = MfVf

Answer: 66.67 ml

What is the final concentration if 75.0 ml of 3.5 M

glucose solution is diluted to a volume of 400 ml ?
Answer: 0.7 M
 Titrations
In a titration a solution of accurately known concentration is
gradually added to another solution of unknown concentration
until the chemical reaction between the two solutions is
complete.

Equivalence point the point at which the reaction is complete

Indicator substance that changes color at (or near) the

equivalence point

Slowly add base

to unknown acid
UNTIL
the indicator
changes color
 What volume of a 1.420 M NaOH solution is
Required to titrate 25.00 mL of a 4.50 M H2SO4
solution?

WRITE THE CHEMICAL EQUATION!

H2SO4 + 2NaOH 2H2O + Na2SO4

M rx M
volume acid moles acid moles base volume base
acid coef. base

4.50 mol H2SO4 2 mol NaOH 1000 ml soln

25.00 mL x x x = 158 mL
1000 mL soln 1 mol H2SO4 1.420 mol NaOH
 Titrations

Standardization procedure to determine the

concentration of an analytical reagent

Primary standard weigh out a known amount of

acid or base and titrate with the base or acid to be
standardized
Another way is to titrate with another solution that is
already standardized
 The Factor That Affecting Solubility
Solubility is defined as the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a
given quantity of solvent at a specific temperature

Temperature and Solubility Solid solubility and temperature

solubility
solubility decreases
increases with
with
increasing temperature
Fractional crystallization is the separation of a mixture of
substances into pure components on the basis of their differing
solubilities.

Suppose you have 90 g KNO3

contaminated with 10 g NaCl.

Fractional crystallization:
1. Dissolve sample in 100 mL of
water at 600C
2. Cool solution to 00C
3. All NaCl will stay in solution
(s = 34.2g/100g)
4. 78 g of PURE KNO3 will
precipitate (s = 12 g/100g).
90 g 12 g = 78 g
Temperature and Solubility
Gas solubility and temperature

solubility usually
decreases with
increasing temperature

Example:
Carbonated drink taste flat when they lose so much of CO2 during the increasing
of room temperature from refrigerator
 Effect of Pressure on Solubility
Pressure and Solubility of Gases
The solubility of a gas in a liquid is proportional to the pressure
of the gas over the solution (Henrys law).
c is the concentration (M) of the dissolved gas
c = kP P is the pressure of the gas over the solution
k is a constant (mol/Latm) that depends only
on temperature

low P high P

low c high c
 The solubility of pure nitrogen gas at 25oC and 1
atm is 6.8 x 10-4 mol/L. What is the concentration of
nitrogen dissolved in water under atmospheric
conditions?. The partial pressure of nitrogen gas in
the atmosphere is 0.78 atm.

c = kP

6.8 x 10-4 mol/L = K (1 atm)

K = 6.8 x 10-4 mol/ L.atm
There the solubility of nitrogen gas in water is:
c = (6.8 x 10-4 mol/ L.atm) (0.78 atm)
= 5.3 x 10-4 mol/L
= 5.3 x 10-4 M
 Colligative Properties

Colligative properties are properties that depend only on the

NUMBER of solute particles in solution and not on the NATURE
of the solute particles.

The colligative properties are:

vapor- pressure lowering

boiling point elevation
freezing point depression
osmotic pressure.
 Vapor Pressure of Solutions

The formation of a solution gives a little effect on chemical properties.

Example:
Sodium gives a same amount of product when its reacts with an aqueous
solution or distilled water
Physical properties of substances often change when they become part of
solution

Example:

Water will freeze and crack the block in engine at 0OF but will remain
liquid if it is mixed with ethylene glycol (antifreeze)
Vapor pressure is the amount of pressure exerted by the vapor

Vapor pressure is one of physical properties in solution and it is effected

by the solute inside the solution
If the nonvolatile solute is dissolved in liquid solvent , the
solvent vapor pressure is lowered
If the solute is the electrolytes in water, the equilibrium pressure
exerted by solvent vapor is directly proportional to the mole
fraction of the solvent in the solution.

The relationship is called Raoults law.

P1 = X1 P 10

P 1 = vapor pressure of solution

X1 = mole fraction of the solvent
P 10 = vapor pressure of pure solvent
What is the vapor pressure in mmHg of a solution made by
dissolving 18.3 g of NaCI in 500 g of H2O at 70 o C? The vapor
pressure of pure water at 70oC is 233.7 mmHg

Moles of NaCl = 18.3 g x 1 mol = 0.313 mol NaCl

58.44 g

Moles of NaCl = 500 g x 1 mol = 27.75 mol NaCl

18.02 g
1 mol
Moles fraction H2O = = 0.989
(0.313 mol + 27.75 mol)
From Raoults Law, the vapor pressure of the solution is,

P1 = X1 P 10
P1 = 0.989 x 233.7 mmHg = 231.1 mmHg
 If a solution with two volatile
Ideal Solution components:

PA = XA P A0
PB = XB P 0B
PT = PA + PB
PT = XA P A0 + XB P 0B
A mixture was prepared that contained 50.0 g of carbon tetrachloride,CCI4 and
50.0 g of chloroform,CHCI3. At 50OC , the vapour oressure of pure CCI4 is 317
torr and that of pure CHCI3 is 526 torr. What is vapor pressure of mixture at
50OC.
Mole fraction of each component:

Moles of CCI4 = 50.0 g x 1 mol

= 0.325 mol CCI4
153.8 g

Moles of CHCI3 = 50.0 g x 1 mol = 0.419mol CHCI3

119.4 g
XCCI4 0.325 mol
= = 0.437 mol
0.744mol

XCHCI3 = 0.419 mol

= 0.563 mol
0.744mol
Vapor pressure of solution:

PT = PA + PB

PT = XA P A0 + XB P 0B

PT = (0.437 x 317 torr) + (0.563 x 526 torr)

= 435 torr
Fractional Distillation Apparatus