CHEMISTRY 2013

1.
i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix x
A B D E A D D B E C

2.
i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix x
F E C A G N J T H D

3. (a) (i) Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract the shared pair of
electrons towards itself in a molecule. The electronegativity values of elements in
group 0 (inert gases) is zero.

Electronegativity increases while moving across the period from left to right (A to C)
in the periodic table. Electronegativity decreases while moving downwards in a group
(B to D).

(ii) Electronic configurations of A, C2+, D and B are:

A = 2:8:2
C2+ = 2:8:8
D = 2:8:7
B = 2:7

(b) (i) In a blast furnace, which is generally used to obtain pure iron from its ore, the
following reactions take place:

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

C(s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g)

Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

Fe2O3(g) + 3C(s) 2Fe(s) + 3CO(g)

Of these only the reaction between oxygen and carbon is exothermic:

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) H = -349kJ/mol

This reaction is responsible for increasing the temperature of the blast furnace so that
the other reactions between the carbon compounds and iron oxide can take place. It is
essential to increase the temperature of the furnace to levels near 700 degree Celsius
for iron oxide to react and form iron.

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(ii) In the middle of the furnace, the rising up carbon dioxide gas is reduced by more
coke, producing carbon monoxide.

C(s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g)

(iii) A word equation for the formation of slag is:

Calcium oxide + silicon dioxide (silica) calcium silicate (slag)

4. (a) (i) Elements with atomic number 11 and 12 are sodium and magnesium,
respectively. These elements form basic oxides (Na2O and MgO).

(ii) An element with atomic number 1 is hydrogen and an element with atomic
number 17 is chlorine. An equation of a reaction between hydrogen and chlorine is:

H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)

(iii) An equation of a reaction between sodium oxide (Na2O) and aqueous solution of
hydrogen chloride gas (HCl) is represented as:

Na2O(s) + 2HCl(g) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

(b) (i) Soil erosion is the removal of the top soil by agents of erosion namely rain,
moving water, animals, wind and gravity.

(ii) Factors leading to soil erosion include:

1. ploughing along a steeply sloping land;
2. indiscriminate felling of trees (deforestation) without planting other trees to
replace those cut down;
3. uncontrolled burning of vegetation in the course of clearing the land for
cultivation;
4. overgrazing or overstocking;
5. monoculture system of farming; and
6. overcultivation: This refers to cultivating the land so much that it becomes
too loose and hence easily removed and carried away by the agents of
erosion (wind, moving water, animals, etc).

5. (a) The following are the reasons why people who use hard water incur higher
costs than people who use soft water.

- Hard water does not form lather easily. To get enough lather with hard water,
it requires more soap than it does with soft water. In this way, hard water
wastes a great deal of soap, a fact which compels a person to buy more soap
when hard water is used in washing and cleaning.
- It forms a precipitate or scum which leave unsightly marks on clothes after
washing.
- Insoluble calcium and magnesium carbonates form hard, insulating limescale
(a hard crust) on the bottom of kettles. This makes more fuel to be consumed
during boiling of the kettles.

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 - The resulting limescale that coats the inside of water pipes can eventually
block the pipes, necessitating incurring extra costs to either dissolve (descale)
the limescale or purchase new pipes altogether (see the figure below). The
limescale also restricts water flow and can even cause the pipes to burst.
- Hard water is not good for dyeing materials. This is why the dyeing industry
doesnt use it to work.

A water pipe that has been blocked by

limescale

(b) (i) Sublimation

(ii) Paper chromatography
(iii) Fractional distillation
(iv) Picking iron filings by using a magnet (magnetic separation)

6. (a) (i) outlined below are some characteristics of a homologous series:

- All members obey the general molecular formula, e.g. for alkanes Cn H2n+2,
alkenes Cn H2n and alkynes, Cn H2n-2. Other homologous series are alcohols,
CnH2n+1OH and carboxylic acids, CnH2n+1COOH.
- All members of homologous series can be prepared by the same general
method.
- All members of homologous series show similar chemical properties.
- All members of homologous series posses the same functional group.
- All members of homologous series show a gradual change in their physical
properties e.g. in alkanes, boiling points and freezing points increase with
increase in the number of carbon atoms (CH4 a gas; C5H12 a liquid; C20H42
a solid at ordinary temperatures and pressure).

(ii) The open structural formula of 2, 2-dichlorohexane is shown below:

2,2-dichlohexane
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(iii) 2,2-dichloro-3-methylbutane is a structural isomer of 2,2-dichloropentane
because of the following reasons:

- Both compounds can be prepared by the same general formula.

- Both compounds have the same number of atoms of each element and have
the same molecular weight. Both molecules have 5 carbons, 10 hydrogen
atoms and 2 chlorine atoms (C5H10Cl2), but the different arrangement of the
atoms within the molecules leads to differences in their chemical properties.
- Both molecules belong to the same organic compound (haloalkane) and they
have a similar functional group.

(b) (i) Consider the equilibrium reaction below.

CO(g) + 2H2(g) CH3OH(g) ; H=-80kJ.mol-1

The features of the reaction are as flows:

- The concentration of reactants and the product remain the same (constant).
- The rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction.
That is, the product, methanol (CH3OH), is being produced at the same rate as
the reactants, CO and H2, in the reverse (backwards) reaction.

(ii) Because the above reaction is exothermic, as depicted by a negative sign for heat
change (H = -80Kj/mol), any increase in temperature will favour the reverse
reaction and hence low production of methanol (CH3OH). This means methanol will
be decomposing back to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen, leading to a decrease
in equilibrium yield of methanol.

7. (a) Aluminium (bauxite) is purified to yield a white powder, aluminium oxide

(Al2O3), from which aluminium can be extracted.

The extraction is done by electrolysis. But first the aluminium oxide must be made
molten so that electricity can pass through it. Aluminium oxide has a very high
melting point (over 2,000C), so it would be expensive to melt it. Instead, it is
dissolved in molten cryolite, an aluminium compound with a lower melting point than
aluminium oxide. The use of cryolite reduces some of the energy costs involved in
extracting aluminium.

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The diagram above shows an aluminium oxide electrolysis tank. Both the negative
electrode (cathode) and positive electrode (anode) are made of graphite, a form of
carbon.

Aluminium metal forms at the negative electrode and sinks to the bottom of the tank,
where it is tapped off.

Al3+ + 3e- Al(s)

Oxygen forms at the positive electrodes.

2O2- - 4e- O2(g)

This oxygen reacts with the carbon of the positive electrodes, forming carbon dioxide,
and they gradually burn away.

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g

Consequently, the positive electrodes have to be replaced frequently, which adds to

the cost of the process.

(b) (i) 2CH3CH2OH(l) + 2Na(s) 2CH3CH2ONa(s) + H2(g)

(ii) CH3CH2CH2OH (l) KMnO

4 ,
H+
CH3CH2CHO(l) + H2O(l)
H+
(iii) CH3COOH (l) + CH3CH2CH2OH (l) CH3COOCH2CH2CH3(l) + H2O(l)



8. (a) The reaction equation for neutralization process is:

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

From the equation, the number of moles of base (NB) = 1 and the number of moles of
acid (NA) = 1.

Given:

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VA = 25cm3
MA = 0.10M
NA = 1
VB = 20cm3
MB =?
NB = 1

Required: to calculate the concentration of base in g/dm3

Solution:
M A VA M B VB
From the volumetric equation, =
NA NB
M V N
MB = A A B
VB N A
0.1 25 1
=
23 1

= 0.10869M
= 0.10869

But concentration in g/dm3 = Molarity x Molar mass

= 1.0869 x 40
= 43.476
= 43.5

Concentration of base in grams per litre (g/dm3) = 43.5 g/dm3

(b) (i) Soil structure is the arrangement of individual soil particles with respect to
each other into a pattern. Also, soil structure refers to the manner in which soil
particles are assembled in aggregate form.
(ii) Acidic soil is the soil of such a low pH (pH<6.0) that it affects the availability
of plant nutrients and hence curtail the growth of most plants grown on it.
(iii) Liming is the process of adding basic compounds (usually called agricultural
limes) to an acidic soil in order to reduce its acidity.

9. (a) Given: I = 0.5A; t=30 minutes (1800 s)

Required: to find the mass of silver deposited and equivalent weight of silver.

Solution:
The quantity of electricity passed, Q = I x t
= 0.5 x 1800
= 900 coulombs

During electrolysis, silver is discharged thus: Ag+ (aq) + e Ag(s)

But the quantity of electricity required to deposit one of electrons during electrolysis
= 1 faraday = 96500 coulombs

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This means one mole of silver (108g) requires 96500 coulombs.

If, 96500 coulombs deposits 108 g of silver, then 900 coulombs will deposit

98x 108/96500 g = 1.007 g

Therefore, the mass of silver deposited = 1.007 g

Equivalent weight of an element = atomic weight/valency

Equivalent weight of silver = 108/1 = 108

(b) (i) An addition reaction is an organic reaction in which a free atom or group
chemically combines with an unsaturated organic compound e.g.
CH2 = CH2(g) + Cl2(g) CH2ClCH2Cl

(ii) An elimination reaction is a type of organic reaction in which an atom or group of

atoms is removed from a carbon. A double bond consequently forms between the two
atoms e.g,.

H 2SO4
CH3CH2OH(l)
o CH2=CH2(g) + H2O(l)
180 c

10. (a)( i) Given: 0.5 moles of oxygen.

Required: to find the actual the number of oxygen molecules and atoms in 0.5 moles
of oxygen.

Solution:
Change this mole to actual number of molecules: This gives 0.56.02 1023 = 3.01
1023 molecules.

Since each mole of oxygen (O2) contains 2 atoms, the total number of atoms in 0.5
moles of oxygen = 2 0.5 6.02 1023 = 6.02 1023 atoms.

(b) Air is a mixture gases because of the following reasons:

1. Its constituent gases can be separated by physical means;
2. The properties of air are a sum of the properties of the constituent gases;
3. Mixing of the gases is not usually accompanied by external effects such as
explosion, evolution of heat, or volume change;
4. The composition of air from place to place can vary widely; and
5. No new substance is produced as the air forms.

11. (a) Consider these reactions:

(i) Cl2(g) + H2O(l) + SO2(g) 2HCl(g) + H2SO4(aq)

(ii) SO2(g) + 2H2S (g) 2H2O(l) + 3S(s)

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(i) In this equation, chlorine acts an oxidizing agent because it has oxidized sulphur
dioxide to sulphuric acid and itself reduced to hydrogen chloride gas.

(ii) - Sulphur dioxide is an oxidizing agent because it has oxidized hydrogen sulphide
to water and it has reduced itself to elemental sulphur.

- Hydrogen sulphide is a reducing agent because it has reduced sulphur dioxide

to elemental sulphur.

(b)
Sub-atomic Relative mass Charge Location in
particle atom
Proton 1 unit +1 in nucleus
Neutron 1 unit 0 in nucleus
Electron 1 -1 outside
(almost nothing ) nucleus
1836

12. Acid rain refers to any form of precipitation with acidic components, such as
sulphuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry
forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.

Causes of acid rain

Air pollution from burning of fossil fuels is the major cause of acid rain. The main
chemicals in air pollution that create acid rain are sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx). Acid rain usually forms high in the clouds where sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides react with water, oxygen, and oxidants.

This occurs when these gases come in contact with moist air. For example, sulphur
dioxide dissolves in water vapour from the clouds and combines with oxygen from
the atmosphere to form an acid sulphuric acid:

SO2(g) + H2O(l) + O2(g) H2SO4(aq)

Nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide also play a great part in the formation of
acid rain and photochemical smog. Acid rain is formed from nitrogen oxides by the
reaction of NOx, oxygen of the air and water vapour.

4NO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + O2(g) 4HNO3(aq)

These acidic solutions then fall on the ground as acid rain.

Effects of acid rain

Acid rain has significant effects on the world environment and public health. Some
effects of acidic rain are explained below.

Effect on vegetation

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Acid rain damages the leaves and barks of plants making them more vulnerable to
disease, extreme weather, and insects.

Effect on aquatic environment

When acid rain reaches the lake, river, stream or other water bodies it makes the water
body acidic. Even a low concentration of acid in the water can kill fish and other
aquatic organisms. The aquatic plants and animals need a particular pH level of about
4.8 to survive. If the pH level falls below that the conditions become hostile for the
survival of aquatic life.

Effect on buildings and metals

Acid rain attacks buildings, especially those that are built out of limestone. The acid
rain reacts with the limestone reducing it to a powdery substance. This is then washed
away, thus weakening the building and making it susceptible to decay. Many of the
worlds most ancient buildings have been damaged by acid rains. Acid rain also leads
to corrosion of metals and peeling of paints off surfaces. Cars, airplanes, steel bridges
and pipes are all affected by acid rain

Effect on soil
Acid rain has a great impact on soil chemistry and biology. Soil microbes and
biological activity as well as soil chemical compositions such as soil pH are damaged
or reversed due to the effects of acid rain. The soil needs to maintain an optimum pH
level for the continuity of biological activity. When acid rain seeps into the soil, it
raises the soil pH, which damages or reverses soil biological and chemical activities.
Hence, sensitive soil microorganisms that cannot adapt to changes in pH are killed.
High soil acidity also denatures enzymes for the soil microbes. On the same breadth,
hydrogen ions of acid rain leach away vital minerals and nutrients such as calcium
and magnesium.

Effect on public health

Intensified levels of acid deposition in dry form in the air can cause lung and heart
problems such as bronchitis and asthma.

Measures to prevent/reduce the amounts of acid rain

Remedial measures that can be taken to prevent or reduce the amount of acid rain
include the following:

Cleaning up exhaust pipes and smokestacks

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulphur dioxide (SO2) are the chief contributors to acid
rain. Burning coal largely accounts for SO2 emissions while NOx emissions are
mostly from fossil fuel combustions.

Washing coal, use of coal comprised of low sulphur, and use of devices known as
scrubbers can provide technical solution to SO2 emissions. Scrubbing also called
flue-gas desulphurization (FGD) typically work to chemically eliminate SO2 from the
gases leaving smokestacks. It can eliminate up to 95% of SO2 gases. Power
generation facilities can also shift to using fuels that emit much less SO2 such as
natural gas instead of burning coal. These methods are simply called emission
reduction strategies.

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Similarly, NOx emissions from automobile fossil fuel combustions are reduced
through use of catalytic converters. Catalytic converters are fixed on the exhaust pipe
system to reduce NOx emission. Improvement of gasoline that combusts cleaner is
also a strategy for reducing emission of NOx gases.

Liming
Use of limestone or lime, a process called liming, is a practice that people can do to
repair the damage caused by acid rain to lakes, rivers and brooks (streams/rivulets).
Adding lime into acidic surface waters balances the acidity. Its a process that has
extensively been used to keep the water pH at optimum. Even though, liming is an
expensive method and has to be done repeatedly. Furthermore, it only offers a short-
term solution at the expense of solving the broader challenges of SO2 and NOx
emissions and risks to human health. Nevertheless, it helps to restore and allow the
survival of aquatic life forms by improving chronically acidified surface waters.

Use of clean energy sources

Clean energy sources are those which do not produce harmful substances during
production and use. They include wind energy, solar energy, hydroelectricity, and
geothermal energy, and nuclear power.

Harnessing these energy sources can offer effective electrical power alternatives
instead of using fossil fuels. Fuel cells, natural gas, and batteries can also substitute
use of fossil fuel as cleaner energy sources.

Installation of solar panels for home will help curb air pollution. This will help reduce
dependency on fossil fuels, wood and charcoal which produce and emit harmful
substance into the atmosphere during use.

Using energy-efficient devices

Using devices that consume less electricity not only help lower electricity bills but
also reduce the pollution. The domestic appliances which serve energy include
energy-serving bulbs, which can be purchased from local shops.

Using public transport

Use of public mode of transport will reduce the number of motor vehicles on the road,
and consequently, the emission of harmful gases by car exhaust systems.

Law enforcement
Laws and policies should be put in place to prohibit any kind of pollution by vehicles
and industries. Vehicles which emit a lot of exhaust gases should not be allowed to
operate. The owners of a plant which pollutes the environment should be fined or the
plant should even be closed down.

13. Oxides of non-metals can both be beneficial and harmful to man. This statement
can be justified by focusing on the benefits and harmful effects of the oxides of
carbon, nitrogen and sulphur to man.

Oxides of carbon

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The two main oxides of carbon are carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2).

Benefits
- Carbon dioxide is important because it is used in photosynthesis, a process that is
necessary for the survival of life on Earth. Carbon dioxide is also a vital
greenhouse gas that helps trap heat in the atmosphere, and it plays a key role in
Earth's carbon cycle.
- Carbon dioxide is used in soft drinks and beer to improve taste and as a
preservative.
- Carbon dioxide released by baking powder or yeast makes the cake rise.
- Because it is denser than air and does not support burning, carbon dioxide is used
in fire extinguishers to put off fire.

Harmful effects
- Carbon monoxide is a very poisonous gas when inhaled in large amounts. The
deficiency of oxygen in blood may cause headache, dizziness, cardiac and
respiratory problems and even death. Exposure to moderate and high levels of CO
over long periods of time has also been linked with increased risk of heart disease.
- Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that contribute to global warning.
Indeed, carbon dioxide is responsible for over 50% of the global warming.
- Carbon monoxide is one of the gases responsible for formation of the hazardous
acid rain. The effect of acid rain to environment has been discussed in answer 12
above.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx)

Nitrogen oxides (nicknamed NOx) are highly reactive gases that contain nitrogen and
oxygen in varying molecular combinations. The oxides of nitrogen include nitrogen
monoxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and dinitrogen oxide (N2O).

Benefits
- Dinitrogen oxide, also called nitrous oxide (N2O), is used in surgery and dentistry
for its anaesthetic and analgesic effects. It is also used as an oxidizer in rocket
propellants, and in motor racing to increase the power output of engines. At
elevated temperatures, nitrous oxide is a powerful oxidizer similar to molecular
oxygen.

- The most important uses of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are in the manufacture of
nitric and sulphuric acids, two of the most widely used inorganic acids. The
compound is also used widely as an oxidizing agent and nitrating agent.

- Nitrogen monoxide, also called nitric oxide (NO), is a particularly important

intermediate in the chemical industry. Another medical use of nitric oxide is in the
treatment of impotence, or erectile dysfunction, in men.

Harmful effects
- Nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide play a great part in the formation of acid
rain and photochemical smog. Smog is formed when oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
react with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the presence of sunlight. It is
formed in heavy traffic in hot weather, when sunlight causes the nitrogen oxides
and hydrocarbons from car exhausts to react together. Areas with the highest

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 concentration of motor vehicles and industrial emissions tend to have the worst
ground-level ozone problems.

- High levels of NOx in air cause inflammation of the airways. Long term exposure
can decrease lung function, increase the risk of respiratory conditions and
increases the response to allergens. NOx also contributes to the formation of fine
particles, also called particulate matter (PM), and ground level ozone, both of
which are associated with adverse health effects.

- High levels of NOx can have a negative effect on vegetation, including leaf
damage and reduced growth. It can make vegetation more susceptible to disease
and frost damage.

Oxides of sulphur
The two common oxides of sulphur are sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide
(SO3).

Benefits
- Sulphur dioxide is a reducing agent and is used for bleaching and as a fumigant
and a food preservative.
- Large quantities of sulphur dioxide are used in the contact process for the
manufacture of sulphuric acid.
- Sulphur dioxide is used in bleaching wool or straw, and as a disinfectant.
- Sulphur trioxide is used as an intermediate in the production of sulphuric acid,
other chemicals, and explosives.

Harmful effects
- Sulphur dioxide is one of the major causes of acid rain. When sulphur dioxide
combines with water and air, it forms sulphuric acid, which is the main
component of acid rain.
- Sulphur dioxide can form secondary particles (sulphates) that cause haze and
reduce visibility.
- Sulphur dioxide can cause respiratory problems such as bronchitis, and can irritate
your nose, throat and lungs. It may cause coughing, wheezing, phlegm (thick
viscous substance secreted by the mucous membranes of the respiratory passages)
and asthma attacks. Sulphur dioxide has been linked to cardiovascular disease.

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