Meteorol. Appl. 11, 201211 (2004) DOI:10.

1017/S1350482704001288

Sky view factor analysis implications for urban

air temperature differences
Marie K. Svensson

Physical Geography, Department of Earth Sciences, Goteborg University, Box 460, SE-405 30

Goteborg, Sweden
Email: maries@gvc.gu.se

This study identifies the use of the sky view factor (SVF) in urban climate studies. In addition, it relates
air temperature differences to the SVF and examines these differences with respect to the height at which
fish-eye photographs are taken for the calculation of the SVF. The study focuses on night-time air
temperature patterns within the urban canopy using data collected during clear, calm nights from
sixteen permanent stations and from car measurements. Fish-eye photographs taken at two levels (2 m
above ground and at ground level) are compared and shown to be statistically different. The results of

the study performed in Goteborg, Sweden, indicate a fairly strong relationship between air temperature
and SVF. The permanent stations used indicate that it is better to use fish-eye photographs taken at
ground level. The relationship is determined by means of regression analysis. The SVF variation in
urban areas and the importance of SVF in relation to other central parameters such as thermal
admittance are also discussed.

1. Introduction have shown a relationship between surface temperature

Surface geometry has a complex influence on the urban
atmosphere. The most important geometric effect is
that of sky obstruction as it delays the cooling of the
surface during clear, calm nights (Oke 1981; Barring
et al. 1985). The thermal properties in built-up areas
and the counter radiation from obstructions affect the
net radiation and consequently the temperature pattern.
Model experiments show that the canyon geometry
or sky view factor (SVF) in central areas is a relevant
variable in producing a nocturnal urban heat island
(
Tu-r ). This is due to its role in regulating long-
wave heat radiation losses (Oke 1981; Oke et al.
1991). The SVF expresses the ratio between radiation
received by a planar surface and that from the entire
hemispheric radiating environment (Watson & Johnson
1987). Parameters such as anthropogenic heat release
and thermal properties of material are related to the
intensity of the
Tu-r but simulations show that the
SVF alone can produce a
Tu-r with a magnitude of
7 C (Oke 1981; Oke et al. 1991; Chapman et al. 2001a).
For low wind speeds the intensity of the
Tu-r is a
function of the city centres SVF, a relationship which
is explained when it is noted that the development of
the
Tu-r at night is partly due to long-wave radiation
losses in the city (e.g. Oke 1993; Brown & Grimmond
2001).
and sky view factor, which has statistical significance
for several areas (Barring et al. 1985; Eliasson 1996;
Upmanis 1999; Postgard 2000; Chapman et al. 2001b).
This is expected since the energy balance of the surface
controls the surface temperature. Thus the SVF is an
important parameter for radiation geometry in cities
(Oke 1981, 1991; Holmer 1992; Nunez et al. 2000).
The relationship between air temperature and SVF
has also been investigated. Eliasson (1996) found no
statistical significance between street canyon geometry
and air temperature in the central parts of Goteborg.
In a study of another Swedish city, Malmo, Barring
et al. (1985) concluded that air temperature was not as
strongly correlated to street canyon geometry as the
surface temperature. In Japan, however, a fairly strong
relationship was found between air temperature and
SVF in cities such as Fuchu and Higashimurayama
(Yamashita et al. 1986). In forested areas, Karlsson
(2000: 860, fig. 8) found a strong correlation between
the SVF and both net radiation and air temperature;
Postgard (2000) showed that the SVF along forested
stretches of roads accounts for 46% of the variation
in air temperature. Furthermore, Eliasson & Svensson
(2003) have demonstrated that both land use parameters
and the SVF are important for the spatial variation of air
temperature within the urban environment.

The night-time temperature distribution in relation to This range of analytical methods may explain the
differences in street geometry and land use has been different views held on whether SVF is related to air
investigated in a number of studies. Several authors temperature. One hypothesis is that the analysis of

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Marie K. Svensson
SVF and air temperature is affected by where and how a)
measurements of SVF are taken. A literature survey
on this subject shows that information on how fish-
eye images are captured is not always included. Fish-
eye photographs have been taken at ground level (e.g.
Eliasson 1996; Upmanis & Chen 1999; Karlsson 2000;
Nunez et al. 2000; Brown & Grimmond 2001), at the
sunroof level of a car (Postgard 2000; Bradley et al.
2001) and at eye level (Barring et al. 1985). Yamashita
et al. (1986) took photographs at a height of 1.2 m and
Heisler et al. (1994) at a level of 1 m (3.3 ft). Both
Blennow (1998) and Eliasson & Svensson (2003) took
fish-eye photographs at the height of the measurement
equipment, i.e. at 0.25 m and 2.20 m respectively; and
Oke et al. (1991) used an SVF representative of the
canyon floor in an energy balance model.

Different methods have also been used to express urban

geometry or calculate the SVF. It has been calculated
b)
as height/width ratio (Oke 1981; Johnson & Watson
1984), graphically (Watson & Johnson 1987), from
fish-eye photographs (Steyn 1980; Barring et al. 1985;
Holmer et al. 2000; Chapman et al. 2001a; Grimmond
et al. 2001), with the aid of a three-dimensional (3-D)
building database (Brown et al. 2001), and recently using
GPS receivers and satellite data (Chapman et al. 2002).
Fish-eye photographs have the advantage of the 3-D
perspective as opposed to the 2-D SVF factors derived
from height/width ratios or, in asymmetric canyons,
the multiple calculations due to segmentations of the
hemisphere (Bradley et al. 2001). Sky view factors
derived from single fish-eye images are therefore used
in this study.

This study aims to identify and discuss the use of SVF

in urban climate studies. Its relation to air temperature
is also investigated. The difference in SVF between fish-
eye images captured at different levels above ground,
as well as how this difference affects the relationship
between air temperature and SVF is examined. The
relationship between air temperature and SVF is studied
by means of regression analysis. The aim is to use air
temperature measurements and fish-eye photographs
from two levels (at the height of the air temperature
sensor, approximately 2 m, and at ground level) and
compare the results.
In contrast to earlier studies, this study uses a larger
data set (annual averages as well as single occasions) as
opposed to only case studies (e.g. Barring et al. 1985;
Yamashita et al. 1986; Postgard 2000).
Figure 1. Maps showing the Goteborg area and the locations
of air temperature measurements: (a) permanent stations and
(b) car measurements. The small black square in (a) marks the
location of (b).
family complexes and detached houses with gardens
are more common in areas further away from the city
(Svensson & Eliasson 2002). The climate is typically
maritime, having relatively warm winters (December
February) given its latitude, and cool summers (June
August) (mean diurnal temperatures 0.4 C and 16.3 C
respectively).

2. Area description 3. Stationary instruments and measuring trips

This study was carried out in Goteborg (57 42 N,

11 58 E), the second largest city in Sweden, with a
population of 500,000 inhabitants (Figure 1a). The City
of Goteborg has a typical European structure with
a densely built-up central area (Figure 1b). Multi-
This study is divided into two parts. The first part
includes a test with data collected on 36 occasions from
16 permanent stations in the study area. The second part
includes case studies with car measurements performed
in the central built-up areas.

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 SVF analysis and air temperature
Air temperature data collected during clear, calm nights, Table 1. Description of the permanent stations used in the
three hours after sunset were used because previous analysis. All stations are situated in built-up areas, except
studies show that the heat island is best expressed under station 3, which represents an open area. The sky view factor
calm, cloudless conditions and the maximum intensity at ground level and at the height of the air temperature
measurements are denoted SVFg and SVFs respectively. See
occurs 35 h after sunset (Oke 1981). The role of urban
Figure 1a for the location of the stations.
geometry has been examined during such conditions at
night and these conditions also favour strong outgoing
Station SVFg SVFs Description
radiation (Oke 1981; Barring et al. 1985). On a clear,
calm night the wind speed was required to be less than 1 0.78 0.88 single houses
3.3 m s1 and the total sum of clouds observed every 3 0.98 0.98 open
hour was required to be equal to or less than 2 octas 6 0.92 0.95 single houses
(2/8) (Lee 1987; Taesler 1972). The wind speed limit is 7 0.81 0.87 single houses
taken from the Beaufort scale, which quantifies winds 8 0.93 0.96 single houses
in terms of its effect on humans (Lee 1987). Force 2 on 9 0.94 0.96 single houses
the Beaufort scale is 1.63.3 m s1 . 10 0.88 0.90 multi-family
12 0.85 0.88 multi-family
15 0.92 0.96 single houses

In Goteborg, 31% of the city area is built-up and there
16 0.89 0.93 urban dense
are three well-defined land use categories (urban dense, 17 0.34 0.37 urban dense
multi-family and single houses). Data from temperature 18 0.70 0.73 multi-family
stations located within these categories were used. 20 0.69 0.74 multi-family
Other built-up land use categories exist in the area but 22 0.73 0.75 multi-family
they are not as homogeneous as the main three (Eliasson 23 0.98 0.98 multi-family
& Svensson 2003). The urban dense category occupies 28 0.96 0.96 multi-family
2% of the total land use and multi-family and single 31 0.92 0.93 multi-family
houses occupy 9%.

3.1. Stationary instruments: Part 1
Air temperature data were collected using 16 Tiny-
loggers (combined miniature data loggers and sensors
Gemini Data Loggers), located in the built-up
environment at a height of approximately 2 m (Fig-
ure 1a). The sensor is an encapsulated thermistor with
an accuracy of 0.2 C (0 C to 70 C) and a time where a value of 0 (complete obstruction) means that all
constant (63%) of 11 minutes in air. The instruments
were calibrated in a climate chamber before and after
the measurements. During the measuring period lasting
two years, 36 occasions were classified as clear and calm
and consequently used in this paper.
3.2. Measuring trips: Part 2
Air temperature measurements, performed using a
specially equipped cars between 1988 and 1991 in the
cold season, were used for a case study of central built-
up areas. The measurements were carried out within
the more densely built-up central areas of Goteborg
during clear, calm nights and 13 measurement points
were selected (Figure 1b). A wire wound resistance ther-
mometer with an accuracy of 0.2 C was mounted
on the vehicle at a height of 2 m and the data stored in a
computer.
4. Sky view factor
The sky view factor (SVF), also denoted by s , expresses
the ratio between radiation received by a planar
surface and that from the entire hemispheric radiating
environment (Watson & Johnson 1987). The SVF is a
dimensionless value between 0 and 1 and approaches
unity in perfectly flat terrain, whereas locations with
obstructions such as buildings and trees will cause the
SVF to decrease proportionally (Oke 1993). The SVF
is, in this sense, a measure of the openness of the sky
to radiative transport in relation to a specific location,
outgoing radiation will be intercepted by obstacles and
a value of 1 (no obstruction) means that all radiation
will propagate freely to the sky (Brown & Grimmond
2001).
Fish-eye photographs were taken at each station at
both sensor height (approximately 2 m above ground)
and ground level with a Nikon 8 mm fish-eye lens
(picture angle of 180 , f/2.8). To avoid the photographer
appearing on the images, the ground-level fish-eye
photographs were taken with a timer. The sky view
factor at each height was calculated from the fish-eye
photographs using a GIS-based method developed by
Holmer et al. (2001).
Table 1 shows the land use classification and the
computed sky view factors for all permanent stations,
where SVFg refers to the measurements taken at ground
level and SVFs refers to those taken at sensor height.
The same information is presented in Table 2 for
the car measurements, and the city centre stations
are divided into two groups: dense canyons (SVF
between 0.22 and 0.60) and open canyons (SVF
between 0.63 and 0.82). This division was made to
separate broad avenues from other canyons in the city.
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Marie K. Svensson
Table 2. Stations within land use urban dense (category 1) car stations, but in general it was smaller (Tables 1 and 2).
measurements. The sky view factor at ground level and at the A difference in SVF is expected between different
height of the air temperature measurements are denoted SVFg heights due to the definition of SVF. The differences
and SVFs respectively. See Figure 1b for location of stations. were, however, shown to be statistically significant on
the 5% level according to a students t-tests for both the
Station SVFg SVFs Description permanent stations and the car measurement sites.
A 0.26 0.29 dense canyon
B 0.22 0.24 dense canyon
C 0.38 0.44 dense canyon
D 0.29 0.33 dense canyon 5. Air temperature and sky view factor in
E 0.25 0.30 dense canyon built-up areas
F 0.52 0.55 dense canyon
G 0.51 0.56 dense canyon Station 3 (Figures 1a and 2d), representing an open
H 0.39 0.42 dense canyon site, was used to calculate the temperature difference
I 0.60 0.60 dense canyon between the built-up and open areas (
Tb-o ). This
J 0.71 0.74 open canyon station has the highest SVF (SVFg = 0.98, SVFs = 0.98)
K 0.71 0.73 open canyon of all stations in the entire measuring network (total 31
L 0.80 0.82 open canyon
stations, see Svensson 2002). See in ref. list.
M 0.63 0.65 open canyon

Figure 4 shows the relationship between
Tb-o and SVF

for all built-up areas during 36 clear, calm nights (solid
a) b) dots). The relationship is somewhat better for SVFg
(R2 = 0.58) than SVFs (R2 = 0.51).

It was shown statistically that the SVF varied according

to the height at which the measurements were taken
(i.e. the sensor and the ground; see Tables 1 and 2).
One hypothesis was that sky view factors derived from
ground level measurements (SVFg) are better to use
in urban climate studies. A statistical comparison of
the two dotted regression lines shown in Figure 4 was
c) d) therefore conducted following a method presented by
Brownlee (1967). The two regression lines differ at
the 5% level and thus represent different populations.
In Figures 4a and 4b there is a 7% difference in the
strength of the correlation depending on the sky view
factor values used. An improvement of the coefficient
of determination (R2 ) was obtained when using SVFg.

There is one single point that controls the slope of the

Figure 2. Fish-eye photographs from the three different built-
up urban environments (a) urban dense, (b) multi-family,
(c) single houses. A fish-eye photograph, (d) from a station
which represents an open area is also shown.
The different built-up categories as well as an open
station are displayed in the fish-eye photographs shown
in Figure 2. Histograms of the computed sky view
factors are presented for both the permanent stations
(Figure 3a) and the car measurements (Figure 3b). As
shown in Figure 3, stations with lower SVF are less
frequent in the permanent station network than at
measuring sites within the city centre. Sky view factors
below 0.5 are found in the central areas only and are rare
in the outskirts.
linear regression in Figure 4a and 4b (solid dots). If
this point is excluded there is a differences of 12% in
the degree of explanation, with an increase when using
the SVFg. The ground is the energy exchange surface
and based on this result it was determined that it was
best to use the sky view factor derived from fish-eye
photographs captured at ground level. Thus the factor
SVFg will be used henceforward.
Earlier studies in Goteborg have shown that land
use is an important factor in determining the pattern
of air temperatures (Eliasson & Svensson 2003). The
relationship between air temperature and SVF was
therefore analysed on the basis of land use. This could
indirectly represent the distance from the city centre
since there is a gradual reduction in the density of built-
up areas with distance from the centre (see section 2).

The difference in SVF between ground and sensor levels The stations were divided into the three main built-
varied. The difference was as much as 10% for some up land use categories: urban dense (category 1),
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 SVF analysis and air temperature

a)

SVF ground
SVF sensor
5

4
Frequency
3

0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
SVF
b)
SVF ground
SVF sensor
5

4
Frequency

0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
SVF
Figure 3. Histograms of the computed sky view factor for ground and sensor levels. (a) built-up areas (urban dense, multi-
family and single houses), data from the permanent stations, and (b) built-up areas in the city (urban dense), data from the car
measurement sites.

Table 3. Data from all permanent stations (case 1), multi-

multi-family (category 2) and single houses (category family houses only (case 2) and single houses only (case 3).
3). (See also the fish-eye photographs in Figure 2.) The sky view factors at ground level and at sensor height are
The result of this division is presented in Figure 5 and denoted (g) and (s) respectively. In the regression equation x
summarised in Table 3. is SVF value and
Tb-o is Y. Number of occasions and
stations are denoted n and N respectively. The significance of
The regression is statistically significant for categories correlation has been tested using Pearsons correlation.
multi-family (2) and single houses (3) and the correlation
equation shows that the slope coefficient differs between Significance
these categories (Table 3). The correlation coefficient Case n N Regression equation rx,y R2 5%
(rx,y ) increases in category 3, i.e. indirectly with an
1g 36 16 Y = 6.613x + 7.508 0.76 0.58 yes
increased distance from the centre of the city. This
1s 36 16 Y = 6.355x + 7.484 0.72 0.51 yes
can be compared with a study performed in Malmo 2g 36 8 Y = 6.264x + 6.841 0.63 0.39 yes
(population about 230,000) where the correlation 3g 36 6 Y = 10.462x + 11.155 0.73 0.53 yes
between air temperature and SVF decreases further

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Marie K. Svensson

a)

Tb-o (C) 3

1
2
y = 6.6127x + 7.5079 R = 0.58 (dotted)
0
y = 2.0754x + 4.4586 R2 = 0.60 (solid)
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
SVF ground

b)

4
Tb-o (C)

1
2
y = 6.3554x + 7.4838 R = 0.51 (dotted)
0
2
y = 2.1634x + 4.5655 R = 0.61 (solid)
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
SVF s ensor

Figure 4. Scattergram for all seasons (solid squares) and for measuring trips (hollow squares). (a) SVFg and air temperature
deviation (b) SVFs and air temperature deviation. The regression lines are shown for the permanent stations (dotted line) and
for car traverses (solid line).

out from the city, owing to increasing wind influence
(Barring et al. 1985).
The land use categorisation in Goteborg does not,
however, completely correspond to the fixed distance
classification used in Malmo where stations within a
7 km radius of the city centre were divided into zones
(Barring et al. 1985). In Goteborg the stations classified
as single houses are similar in terms of both SVF and
amount of greenery and built-up surfaces (Svensson &
Eliasson 2002); this category is common in the outskirts.
Multi-family complexes however, exist both within the
urban heat island and further out from the city, resulting
in lower correlations, compared with Barring et al.
(1985), between air temperature and SVF. The SVF
interval within the category of single houses is also
smaller compared with the multi-family category (see
Table 1), which may result in a stronger correlation.
Furthermore, one explanation for the different results
may be that other parameters influence the correlation.
This needs further investigation.
6. Air temperature and SVF in urban city
centres case studies
Ancillary data from car transects (Figure 1b) were
used to investigate the inner city structure and study

206
 SVF analysis and air temperature
All seasons

5.50

4.50

Tb-o (C) 3.50

urban dense
2.50 multi-family
single houses
1.50

0.50

0.50
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
SVF ground

Figure 5. All seasons scattergram with data divided into built-up land use categories (a) SVFg and air temperature deviation.
The regression lines are shown for multi-family (solid) and single-houses (dotted).

the relation between air temperature and SVF in the a)

urban dense environment (category 1). The results from
the regression analysis of four case studies (AD) are Case A (071289)

presented in Table 4. 2.5

y = 2.1953x + 2.4356 R2 = 0.57
A mean of
Tb-o from the two significant cases A and B 2
air temperature (C)

are also included in Figure 4 (hollow dots). The aim of 1.5

including the case studies is to fill the gap in the values of
SVF in the permanent station network. The difference in 1

strength of the correlation when using SVFg or SVFs is 0.5

not as clear as for the stationary network (solid dots), i.e.
a 1% difference in degree of explanation depending on 0

whether SVFg or SVFs are used. A mutual linear regre 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
SVF ground
ssion analysis for the datasets presented in Figure 4 (i.e.
stationary data and car measurements) give R2 -values of b)
0.62 and 0.60 for SVFg and SVFs respectively.
Case B (041089)

The two significant cases (A and B) are also shown in 10.5

Figure 6. Thirteen stations, including both dense and y = 2.0754x + 10.009 R2 = 0.60
10
open canyons, are used (SVF interval of 0.220.82).
air temperature (C)

The correlation between air temperature and SVFg is 9.5

convincing (R2 0.57 and 0.60). 9

8.5
The correlation appears to be strong within
homogeneous land use areas (see the general discussion 8

in Section 7 below). A further division into only dense 7.5

canyons was therefore used to test the importance of 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

station location and choice of stations. Table 5 shows SVF ground

the results of the regression analysis when only nine
stations within an SVF interval of 0.220.60, i.e. dense
canyons (Table 2), are used. The correlation is strong
for Case A and lower and statistically not significant for
Case B.
Figure 6.The results from car measurements for both dense
and open canyons (SVF interval 0.220.82) when 13 measuring
points are used. SVFg and air temperature (a) Case A and (b)
Case B.

The results indicate that the choice of measurement

points is crucial to the outcome of the analysis. The a larger interval of SVFs within the urban dense category
correlation is stronger, at least in Case A, when only are used. The permanent stations (SVF range 0.340.98),
stations within a close range of sky view factors are used. however, show strong correlations. This needs to be
This is in contrast to cases in which stations representing further examined with more case studies.

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Marie K. Svensson
Table 4. Results from the regression analysis of the relation between air temperature and SVFg with data from car
measurements. The number of stations is denoted N. The significance of the correlation was tested using Pearsons correlation.

Case SVF level N Regression equation rx,y R2 Significance 5%

A (071289) g 13 Y = 2.195x + 2.436 0.75 0.57 yes

B (041089) g 13 Y = 2.075x + 10.009 0.77 0.60 yes
C (021288) g 13 Y = 1.188x 5.3287 0.45 0.20 no
D (250391) g 5 Y = 0.995x + 5.612 0.62 0.38 no

Table 5. Results from the regression analysis on the relation between air temperature and SVFg for dense canyons only (sky
view factor-interval 0.220.60), with data from car measurements taken within the centre of the city (category 1). The number
of stations is denoted N and the significance of the correlation has been tested using Pearsons correlation.

SVF Case level N Regression equation rx,y R2 Significance 5%

A (071289) g 9 Y = 2.680x + 2.596 0.88 0.78 yes

B (041089) g 9 Y = 1.437x + 9.791 0.63 0.40 no

Table 6. Summary of studies in the literature examining the relationship between air temperature and SVF. The data is
obtained from car measurements (car meas.) and permanent stations (perm. stations). The correlation coefficient and the
coefficient of determination are denoted by r x,y and R2 respectively.

Sky view Number of Number of Type of

Author(s) interval stations occasions Season rx,y R2 Method environment
Barring et al. (1985) 0.520.98 75 1 cold 0.54 0.29 car meas. urban
Barring et al. (1985) 0.520.98 75 5 cold 0.48 0.23 car meas. urban
Yamashita et al. (1986) 0.550.90 9 1 cold 0.68 0.46 car meas. urban
Yamashita et al. (1986) 0.550.90 21 1 cold 0.62 0.38 car meas. urban
Eliasson (1996) 1030 6 cold a car meas. urban
Upmanis (1999) 0.381 7 1 cold 0.54 0.29 perm. stations central city
Upmanis (1999) 0.600.80 6 10 summer 0.87 0.76 perm. stations central park
Karlsson (2000) 0.420.99 13 cold b perm. stations forest
Postgard (2000) 0.260.98 1 spring 0.44 car meas. forest
Postgard (2000) 0.26 0.98 1 cold 0.45 car meas. forest
Svensson (2004) 0.340.98 16 36 all year 0.76 0.58 perm. stations built-up
Svensson (2004) 0.700.98 8 36 all year 0.63 0.39 perm. stations multi-family
Svensson (2004) 0.780.94 6 36 all year 0.73 0.53 perm. stations single houses
Svensson (2004) 0.220.82 13 1 cold 0.75 0.57 car meas. open and dense
canyons
Svensson (2004) 0.220.60 9 1 cold 0.88 0.78 car meas. dense canyons

Notes: Sky view factor from images captured at ground level (SVFg); a no significant correlation; b strong correlation presented graphically

7. General discussion
One purpose of this study was to examine how SVF
changes with different measuring heights above ground
and how this influences the SVF/air temperature
relationship. The results show that the relationship is
generally strong, which contradicts the results presented
by Barring et al. (1985), Eliasson (1996) and Upmanis
(1999).
7.1. Air temperature and sky view factor
Several authors have, as mentioned in Section 1,
discussed the relationship between air temperature and
SVF with varying results. Some of these are listed
in Table 6. The table includes the results which are
presented in this paper.
There are differences between these studies and this
may account for the variation in the results. The best
correlations are presented for areas where measurements
have been performed within the same environment,
i.e. in forested areas (Karlsson 2000; Postgard 2000),
central parks (Upmanis 1999) or cities (Yamashita et al.
1986; Upmanis 1999). Postgard (2000) also shows that
there is no significant relationship between SVF and
air temperature for car measurements when an entire
stretch of road is studied (R2 -values of 0.01 and 0.13
in spring and winter respectively). This is due to the
proximity to water and wind exposure in open valleys,
which lessens the influence of the SVF and therefore
contributes to lower correlations (Postgard 2000). The
results presented in this paper support this since the
relation is strong for car measurements conducted
within the same land use category, urban dense. The

208

best correlation found in Table 6 is obtained from
car measurements performed within category 1, urban
dense with R2 = 0.78.
In the literature survey it was found that single
situations are often presented and that conclusions
are drawn from limited material (see Table 6). The
results presented in this study show not only the
probable difficulties in finding representative situations
when using car measurements but also the problem of
choosing stations. The correlation is strong (R2 = 0.78)
when using dense canyons in the central areas of the
city. By adding only four slightly more open canyons
(see Table 2) the explanatory factor is reduced to 57%.
The car measurements (single occasions) and the Tiny-
logger network (larger database) nevertheless indicate
that there is a relationship between air temperature
and urban geometry expressed as SVF (Table 6). Large
temperature differences (
Tb-o ) appear in areas with
low sky view factors, such as in the centre of the city
where there is a positive net radiation, low amount of
greenery and dense material.
Car measurements in Goteborg show lower air
temperatures in more open areas (high SVF-value).
These correspond to Karlsson (2000), for example, who
showed that high sky view factors gave the lowest
air temperatures within the forest. On two occasions
(Case C and D, Table 4) the opposite occurs, with
higher temperatures in open areas. The correlation
was, however, not statistically significant. That the
weather was defined as clear and calm during the car
measurements shows that there are other parameters
than the SVF affecting the air temperature (see below).
7.2. Sky view factor at ground level or at sensor
height
Another purpose of this study was to examine the
differences in SVF according to the height at which
fish-eye photographs are taken since the measuring
height for the calculation of the SVF varies in the
literature. Several authors discuss the time-consuming
process of gathering spatial sky view information and
the development of mobile continuous measurement
techniques (Postgard 2000; Chapman et al. 2001a;
Bradley et al. 2001; Grimmond et al. 2001). The energy
exchange surface is basically the ground surface and to
make mobile data collection possible a fish-eye camera
lens needs to be mounted on some kind of vehicle, i.e.,
above ground level. It is thus important to examine
whether there are differences in the SVF at different
heights above the ground.
Data from the permanent stations show that there is
a difference in correlation between the two levels of
sky view factors. When all stations are used the SVF at
ground level gives a stronger correlation. The difference
SVF analysis and air temperature
in the degree of explanation is 7%. If the Tiny-logger
station with the lowest SVF (in the centre of the city) is
excluded, thereby affecting the correlation in Figure 4,
then there is a difference of 12% in the degree of
explanation, with an increase when using the ground
level sky view factors (SVFg).
A combination of the two datasets (i.e. data from
ancillary car measurements and permanent stations)
shows a slightly stronger correlation when using SVFg
(R2 = 0.62). The difference in degree of explanation is
2% depending on whether SVFg or SVFs are used.
The difference indicates that the decision to use SVFg
is justified. There is, however, a need to remember the
difference between these datasets; there is a large amount
of data behind the permanent station network while
the car measurements are represented by two single
occasions. Mixing different datasets is not encouraged,
but in this case the car measurements that were
performed within the urban dense category have to
be viewed as complementary to those obtained from
permanent stations.
The air temperature sensors used in the investigations
described in this study were situated at a height of
2 m, probably above the height at which the surface
controls the air temperature. The air temperature at this
height is perhaps more likely to be affected by wind. It
is possible that the result would have been different if
the air temperature measurements were carried out on
a lower level but both Eliasson (1996) and Upmanis
(1999) measured air at different heights (0.2 m and
2 m) and found no clear and consistent results to indicate
whether the correlation was stronger at the lower level
than at a height of 2 m. Barring et al. (1985), however,
suggested that canyon geometry was of importance
for the air temperature but that this effect decreases
with height above ground. Sky obstruction and the
influence of energy exchange surfaces decrease with the
height above ground together with an increasing wind
influence.
7.3. City structure
The network of Tiny-loggers was initially located to
represent different land use environments for analysis
of the air temperature pattern. The SVF analysis could
be improved by the addition of more permanent stations
(Tiny-loggers) within the city centre (urban dense).
However, this was not deemed necessary as the urban
dense category only occupies 2% of the total area. As
noted above, the car measurements performed within
the urban dense category have to be viewed as comple-
mentary to those obtained from permanent stations.
Sky view factors below 0.5 are more frequent in the
centres of urban cities than elsewhere and this reflects
a structure which is typical of European cities. In a
typical North American city the canyon geometry is
usually more consistent and predictable (Bradley et al.
209
Marie K. Svensson
2001). It is difficult to find a city which has all ranges
of SVF. Bradley et al. (2001) took measurements of SVF
in a transect through five different land use categories:
central business district, industrial, residential (high
and low density) and open, in Birmingham, United
Kingdom. Sky view factors below 0.5 were only
represented in the central business district and the SVF
in high-density residential areas was between 0.75 and
0.91. The range of sky view factors also tended to be
greatest in the central business district and in industrial
areas and smallest in open areas (Bradley et al. 2001).
This is also true for Goteborg (Figure 3). Oke (1981) has
summarised a range of SVF values for city-centre areas
in European cities between 0.2 and 0.75 (average 0.53).
The corresponding values for North American cities
are 0.28 to 0.85 (average 0.66). This can be compared
with 93 measurements of SVF in downtown Salt Lake
City, USA, were 94% of the computed sky view factors
were greater than 0.5, with an average SVF of 0.7
(Brown & Grimmond 2001). The corresponding figure
for Goteborg is 95% and the average SVF is 0.5 in central
Goteborg. These results show that the gap in SVF limits
analyses and interpretations inasmuch as it reflects the
reality of the situation.
7.4. Parameters important for air temperature
The study focuses on night-time air temperature
patterns within the urban canopy and shows the
importance of SVF analysis. The SVF is naturally not
the sole parameter that explains the air temperature
pattern in an urban area. Neither is the SVF sufficient to
describe the effect of canyon geometry during daytime
at locations with an obstructed sky hemisphere when
shade and the blocking of direct sun radiation may be
a problem (Oke et al. 1991; Chapman et al. 2001a).
Other factors are also crucial in determining the pattern
of air temperature and Oke et al. (1991) show with
simulations that thermal properties are important but
difficult to quantify. Differences in thermal admittance
between urban and rural areas alone can produce a heat
(or cool) island. The differences in geometry between
rural and urban areas are clear but the differences in
thermal admittance are less clear and visible. Most
researchers accept that the city has a higher thermal
admittance but no strong evidence is presented for this
(Oke 1981). Simulations show that the most favourable
combination of geometry and thermal properties can
produce a heat island of 10 C after sunset, a magnitude
in accordance with those in the real world (Oke 1981;
Oke et al. 1991). These features work together and create
the thermal environment in the city.
The effect of geometry and thermal properties are
indirectly represented by land use. Thus land use is
important and large differences in air temperature exist
between urban districts of different land use (Barring
et al. 1985; Svensson & Eliasson 2002). When stations
are divided according to land use categories the effect
of land use is removed and the correlation is strong.
210
The relationships shown are perhaps the result of land
use categories but strong relationships are also presented
when all stations are used. Another important parameter
is the source area, which has a large influence on
the air temperatures (Grimmond & Souch 1994). The
source area is basically the area contributing to the
measurements and it is a function of sensor height, wind
direction, stability and roughness.
Nevertheless, the results presented show that fish-eye
photographs and SVFg give relevant information which
is measurable for an area, but that other parameters
such as the thermal properties of the surroundings,
anthropogenic heat release, air pollution and surface
emissivity will affect the air temperature pattern,
depending on the area.
Regional weather conditions are naturally also
important and the time period under certain conditions.
There is probably no correlation between air
temperature and SVF during windy conditions, due to
the mixed air mass (Eliasson & Svensson 2003). This
effect can be seen from car measurements in the city
when adding larger open areas (market places, larger
squares, etc); this results in lower correlations (Eliasson
1996). The stations in the permanent network are all
generally open and Station 16 represents an open area in
the city-centre environment. This effect is thus included
in the permanent network and the correlation could
have been stronger.
8. Conclusions
Fish-eye photographs are often used to derive sky view
factors in urban climate studies. A literature survey
reveals that images are captured at different heights
above ground, but what effect can this have? The
results presented in this study show differences in SVF
depending on how fish-eye images are captured. This in
turn affects analyses that include SVF. A large dataset
consisting of both annual averages and single situations
(see Table 6) are used and the difficulties of selecting
representative stations are illustrated with case studies.
The main conclusions from this paper can be sum-
marised as follows:
r There is a relatively strong relationship between SVF
and air temperature during clear, calm nights. This is
shown not only for case studies but also on a yearly
mean basis.
r A difference in the SVF between fish-eye images
captured at ground level and at sensor height
affects the relationship between sky view and air
temperature. Data from permanent stations indicate
that it is better to use the SVF calculated from fish-
eye images captured at ground level (SVFg). The
results show that the degree of explanation can be
improved by up to 12% by using SVFg.

Acknowledgements
Financial support has been received from the Swedish
Environmental Protection Agency and the Swedish
Society for Anthropology and Geography. Associate
Professor Ingegard Eliasson is greatly acknowledged
for providing data from car measurements in the area.
Professor Sven Lindqvist and Associate Professors
Ingegard Eliasson and Bjorn Holmer, as well as
two anonymous referees, are acknowledged for their
valuable comments on the manuscript. Thanks also
to Mrs Agnetha Malm for drawing the maps and to
colleagues, friends and family for hosting my Tiny-
Logger equipment during the measurement period.
The text was proofread by the Faculty of English
Incorporated in Sweden.
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