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Basic Chemistry
Chemistry, a branch of physical science, is the study of the
composition, properties and behaviour of matter.
Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other
atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds.
Chemistry is also concerned with the interactions between atoms (or
groups of atoms) and various forms of energy (e.g. photochemical
reactions, changes in phases of matter, separation of mixtures,
properties of polymers, etc.).
Chemistry is sometimes called "the central science" because it
bridges other natural sciences like physics, geology and biology with
each other.
Chemistry is a branch of physical science but distinct from physics.
Source: Wikipedia
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Matter
In chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has rest mass and
volume (it takes up space), as well as being made up of particles.
The particles that make up matter have rest mass as well - not all
particles have rest mass, such as the photon.
The law of Conservation of matter - matter can neither be created
nor destroyed. (Actually, NOT really true).
Matter does not magically appear" or" disappear.
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Atoms
Atoms are the basic unit of chemistry. They consist of 3 smaller
things:
Protons - these are positively charged (+)
Electrons - these are negatively charged (-)
Neutrons - these have no charge
These 3 smaller particles are arranged in a particular way. In the
centre is the Nucleus where you find the positive Protons and neutral
Neutrons.
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Atoms
In orbit around the nucleus are the Electrons. These are found in a
series of orbits (depending on the atom) with differing numbers of
electrons as seen below.
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Interaction of Atoms
It's the electrons in orbit around the nucleus that allow one atom to
interact with other atoms so they can be linked together.
For example, H2O consists of an Oxygen atom linked to 2 Hydrogen
atoms.
The linkage or interaction between the electrons of the Hydrogen and
Oxygen atoms is called a Chemical Bond.
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Element
The concept of chemical element is related to that of chemical
substance.
A chemical element is specifically a pure substance which is
composed of a single type of atom.
A chemical element is characterized by a particular number of
protons in the nuclei of its atoms.
This number is known as the atomic number of the element. For
example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the
chemical element carbon, and all atoms with 92 protons in their
nuclei are atoms of the element uranium.
Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will
have the same number of protons, they may not necessarily have
the same number of neutrons; such atoms are termed isotopes. In
fact several isotopes of an element may exist.
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Element Identifying Characteristics

Ninetyfour different chemical elements or types of atoms based
on the number of protons are observed on earth naturally, having
at least one isotope that is stable or has a very long half-life.
A further 18 elements have been recognised by IUPAC after they
have been made in the laboratory.
The standard presentation of the chemical elements is in the
periodic table, which orders elements by atomic number and
groups them by electron configuration.
Due to its arrangement, groups, or columns, and periods, or rows,
of elements in the table either share several chemical properties,
or follow a certain trend in characteristics such as atomic radius,
electronegativity, etc.
Lists of the elements by name, by symbol, and by atomic number
are also available.
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Oxygen atoms contain 8 protons and have an atomic number of 8.
The atomic number of an element never changes, meaning that the
number of protons in the nucleus of every atom in an element is
always the same.
Mass Number
The mass number, also called atomic mass number or nucleon
number, is the total number of protons and neutrons (together known
as nucleons) in an atomic nucleus.
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Element (Periodic Table) Atomic Symbols, Atomic Number

and Mass Numbers

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Identifying Characteristics Isotopes

Each element is different and has unique properties. Isotopes are variants of a particular chemical element: while all
These differences can be described in part by looking at the isotopes of a given element share the same number of protons and
relationships between the atomic particles in each element. electrons, each isotope differs from the others in its number of
neutrons.
The periodic table contains numbers that describe these relationships.
Atomic Number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines an
element's atomic number.
In other words, each element has a unique number that identifies how
many protons are in one atom of that element.
For example, all hydrogen atoms, and only hydrogen atoms, contain
one proton and have an atomic number of 1.
All carbon atoms, and only carbon atoms, contain six protons and
have an atomic number of 6.

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Ions Anions
Sometimes atoms gain or lose electrons. The atom then loses or
gains a "negative" charge. These atoms are then called ions.
Sometimes atoms gain or lose electrons. The atom then loses or
gains a "negative" charge. These atoms are then called ions.
Positive Ion - Occurs when an atom loses an electron (negative F-1 Fluoride
charge) it has more protons than electrons. Cl-1 Chloride
Negative Ion - Occurs when an atom gains an electron (negative Br-1 Bromide
charge) it will have more electrons than protons.
Here are some examples of common ions:
I-1 Iodide
Na+ Sodium
K+ Potassium
Cl- Chloride
Ca+ Calcium
Fe+ Iron The Halogens
P- Phosphorous
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Ions Anions
The following image shows Na losing an electron and Cl gaining
an electron OH-1 Hydroxide
Thus the Na becomes Na+
NO2-1 Nitrite
The Cl becomes Cl-
NO3 -1 Nitrate

PO4-3 Phosphate
SiO4-2 Silicate
SO4-2 Sulfate
MoO4-3 Molybdate
B4O7-2 Borate

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Cations Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonds are formed when the electrons in an atom interact
with the electrons in another atom. This allows for the formation of
more complex molecules.
When two or more atoms are in a chemical bond they stay joined
H+ Hydrogen unless the needed amount of energy or more is transferred to the
Na+ Sodium bond.
Mg+2 Magnesium Something different can then happen.
Ca+2 Calcium Chemical bonds can be explained using different theories. Some of
Ag+1 Silver these theories try to explain chemical bonds in a simple way that
can be used by chemists to imagine what could happen when they
try to make molecules. Some explain how the atoms are bonded
together with more detail and are used by chemists and physicists.
There are 3 types of chemical bonds:

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Chemical Bonds
Covalent Bond
The sharing of a pair of electrons between 2 atoms.

Li2

Strong <----------------> Weak

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SALT - a Cation and an Anion Covalent Bond

held together by an ionic bond.

Cl2

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Covalent Bond Metallic Bond

These strong bonds form when two atoms share electrons.
Sometimes the electrons in an atom get shared.
It's much like when you were a kid and got to sleep over at a friends
house. Your friends parents were in charge of you both for one night
and the next night you would sleep over at your house and your own
parents would be in charge. This sharing of responsibility is
functionally similar to the way covalent bonding works.
Metallic Bond the sharing of valence electrons by neighbouring
metal atoms.
Metallic bond is the reaction between molecules within metals called
alkali reactive force. It is the sharing of a sea of delocalised electrons
amongst a lattice of positive ions, where the electrons act as a "glue"
giving the substance a definite structure.
The electrons and the positive ions in the metal have a strong
attractive force between them. Therefore metals often have high
melting or boiling points. The principle is similar to that of ionic
bonds.
The metallic bond accounts for many physical characteristics of
metals, such as strength, malleability, ductility, conduction of heat
and electricity.

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Metallic Bond
Because the electrons move independently of the positive ions in a
Ionic bond
sea of negative charge, the metal gains some electrical conductivity.
It allows the energy to pass quickly through the electrons generating Li F
a current.
Metal bonds have at least one valence electron which they do not 2 2
share with neighbouring atoms, and they do not lose electrons to 1
form ions. Instead the outer energy levels (atomic orbitals) of the
1
metal atoms overlap. They are similar to covalent bonds.

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Ionic Bond
An ionic bond is the bonding between a non-metal and a metal that
Ionic bond
occurs when a charged atoms (ions) attract after one loses one or
more of its electrons, and gives it to the other molecule, for example
sodium and chlorine.
Li F
This makes the bond stronger and harder to break. 2
2
In other words, an ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction 1
between two oppositely charged ions 1

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Ionic Bond Ionic bond

Li+1 F-1
2 2
1 1

The attraction between a cation

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and an anion.
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Valence
In chemistry, valence, also known as valency or valence number,
is the number of valence bonds a given atom has formed, or can
SimpleReactions
form, with one or more other atoms. For most elements the
number of bonds can vary.
The valence of an element depends on the number of valence
electrons that may be involved in the forming of valence bonds. Synthesis Decomposition
A univalent (monovalent) atom, ion or group has a valence of one (Combination)
and thus can form one covalent bond.
A divalent molecular entity has a valence of two and can form
two sigma bonds to two different atoms or one sigma bond plus
one pi bond to a single atom.
Single Double
Replacement Replacement
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Valance and Radicals A + B AB

A radical is a group of atoms of elements, e.g., sulfate radical [SO4]. Synthesis
Some common radicals and their chemical symbols are listed
below.

Decomposition AB A + B

Single
Replacement AB + C A +CB

Double AB + CD AD + C B
Replacement
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Chemical Reactions
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of
one set of chemical substances to another.
Chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the
positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical
bonds between atoms, with no change to the nuclei (no change to
the elements present), and can often be described by a chemical
equation.
There are four basic types of chemical reactions.

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Chemical Equation Balancing chemical equations

A chemical equation is a way to describe a chemical reaction
using chemical formulae and other symbols.
For example: Nickel (II) chloride, dissolved in water, plus sodium
hydroxide, dissolved in water, produces solid nickel (II) hydroxide
plus sodium chloride, dissolved in water is written as below
equation.
If any fractional coefficient exist, multiply every coefficient with the
smallest number required to make them whole, typically the
denominator of the fractional coefficient for a reaction with a single
fractional coefficient.

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Balancing chemical equations Balancing chemical equations

The law of conservation of mass dictates the quantity of each As an example, seen in the above image, the burning of methane would be balanced
by putting a coefficient of 1 before the CH4.
element does not change in a chemical reaction.
1 CH4+ O2 CO2+ H2O
Thus, each side of the chemical equation must represent the same Since there is one carbon on each side of the arrow, the first atom (carbon) is
quantity of any particular element. balanced.
Similarly, the charge is conserved in a chemical reaction. Looking at the next atom (hydrogen), the right hand side has two atoms, while the left
hand side has four. To balance the hydrogens, 2 goes in front of the H2O, which
Therefore, the same charge must be present on both sides of the
yields:
balanced equation. 1 CH4+ O2 CO2+ 2 H2O
One balances a chemical equation by changing the scalar number for Inspection of the last atom to be balanced (oxygen) shows that the right hand side has
each chemical formula. four atoms, while the left hand side has two. It can be balanced by putting a 2 before
O2, giving the balanced equation:
Simple chemical equations can be balanced by inspection, that is, by
CH4+ 2 O2 CO2+ 2 H2O
trial and error. Another technique involves solving a system of linear
This equation does not have any coefficients in front of CH4 and CO2, since a
equations. coefficient of 1 is dropped.

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Balancing chemical equations Ionic equations

One balances a chemical equation by changing the scalar number for An ionic equation is a chemical equation in which electrolytes are written as
each chemical formula. dissociated ions.
Ionic equations are used for single and double displacement reactions that occur in
Simple chemical equations can be balanced by inspection, that is, by aqueous solutions.
trial and error. Another technique involves solving a system of linear For example in the following precipitation reaction:
equations. CaCl2(aq) + 2AgNO3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2AgCl(s)
Ordinarily, balanced equations are written with smallest whole- the full ionic equation would be:
number coefficients.
Ca2+ + 2Cl + 2Ag+ + 2NO3 Ca2+ + 2NO3 + 2AgCl(s)
If there is no coefficient before a chemical formula, the coefficient 1
is understood.
The method of inspection can be outlined as putting a coefficient of
1 in front of the most complex chemical formula and putting the
other coefficients before everything else such that both sides of the
arrows have the same number of each atom.

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Ionic equations Ionic equations

and the net ionic equation would be: Double displacement reactions that feature a carbonate reacting with an acid have the
net ionic equation:
2Cl(aq) + 2Ag+(aq) 2AgCl(s)
2 H+ + CO32 H2O + CO2
or, in reduced balanced form, If every ion is a "spectator ion", then there was no reaction, and the net ionic equation
Ag+ + Cl AgCl(s) is null.

In this aqueous reaction the Ca2+ and the NO3 ions remain in solution and are not
part of the reaction. They are termed spectator ions and do not participate directly in
the reaction, as they exist with the same oxidation state on both the reactant and
product side of the chemical equation. They are only needed for charge balance of
the original reagents.

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Ionic equations Avogadros number & the mole

In a neutralization or acid/base reaction, the net ionic equation will usually be:
Avogadro's number and the mole are very important to the
H+ + OH H2O understanding of atomic structure.
There are a few acid/base reactions that produce a precipitate in addition to the water The Mole is like a dozen. You can have a dozen guitars, a dozen
molecule shown above. An example would be the reaction of barium hydroxide with roosters, or a dozen rocks. If you have 12 of anything then you
phosphoric acid because the insoluble salt barium phosphate is produced in addition would have what we call a dozen. The concept of the mole is just
to water. like the concept of a dozen.
You can have a mole of anything. The number associated with a
mole is Avogadro's number. Avogadro's number is
602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (6.02 x 1023).
Probably the only thing you will ever have a mole of is atoms or
molecules. One mole of magnesium atoms (6.02 x 1023magnesium
atoms) weigh 24.3 grams. 6.02 x 1023 carbon atoms weigh a total of
12.0 grams. 6.02 x 1023 molecules of CO2 gas only weigh a total of
44.0 grams.
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Ionic equations Concentration

In this aqueous reaction the Ca2+ and the NO3 ions remain in solution and are not part The amount of solute dissolved in a solvent. Solute
of the reaction. They are termed spectator ions and do not participate directly in the
reaction, as they exist with the same oxidation state on both the reactant and product Solvent
side of the chemical equation. They are only needed for charge balance of the original
reagents.
In a neutralization or acid/base reaction, the net ionic equation will usually be:
H+ + OH H2O
There are a few acid/base reactions that produce a precipitate in addition to the water
molecule shown above. An example would be the reaction of barium hydroxide with
phosphoric acid because the insoluble salt barium phosphate is produced in addition
to water.

Low------------------- High
dilute dy loot concentrated
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pH H2O H+
Solubility 1 10 1
Strong ACID
Solubility -how likely it is for a solute to dissolve in a solvent. HCl Hydrochloric acid
H2SO4 Sulfuric acid
2 100 1
insoluble soluble HNO3 Nitric acid
Low High 3 1000 1

Weak ACID
CH3COOH Acetic acid
H2CO3 Carbonic acid
Citric acid
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Acid
pH paper

Red Litmus paper

Blue Litmus paper

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Base Balancing equations

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Ag + Cl2 2 AgCl CH4 + O2 CO2+2H2O

1 2 1 1 1 4 2 1 2 2 1
2 2
4 2
Both sides must be equal
for ALL atoms.

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2 Ag + Cl2 2 AgCl CH4 +2 O2 CO2+2H2O

1 2 1 1 1 4 2 1 2 2 1
2 2 2
4 4 2

Both sides must be equal

for ALL atoms.
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CH4 + O2 CO2+ H2O Ag + Cl2 AgCl

1 4 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1

Both sides must be equal

for ALL atoms.

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Catalyst
Catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of a chemical reaction.
It is unchanged at the end of the reaction.
Experiment with the changes of states of a substance (i.e. water, dry
ice).
Chart- state changes: melting, boiling, freezing, evaporation,
condensation, and sublimation.

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Platinum catalyst
2 CO + O2 Pt 2 CO2

stabilized
intermediates

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References
Wikipedia
http://www.personal.psu.edu/staff/m/b/mbt102/bisci4online/chemi
stry/chemistry1.htm
http://library.thinkquest.org/19957/atomic/molebody.html
Physical Science-Glencoe Science

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