Work and Energy Notes

In this unit our study of motion is

going to be approached from the
perspective of work and energy.

Work

In physics, work is defined as a

force acting upon an object to cause a
displacement. There are three key words
in this definition - force, displacement,
and cause. In order for a force to qualify
as having done work on an object, there
must be a displacement and the force
must cause the displacement.

The formula for work is:

W = Fdcos

where

W = work (J, Joules)

F = force (N)

d = displacement (m)

= the angle between the force and

the displacement vector

The cosine theta in the work equation

relates to the cause factor - it selects
the portion of the force which actually
causes a displacement.

Example
A 2.0 x 102 N force is applied at an
angle of 30.0o to the horizontal to move
a 10.0 kg object at a constant speed for
a distance of 15 m. How much work is
done by this applied force?

Solution
W = Fdcos
W = (2.0 x 102 N)(15 m)(cos30.0o)
W = 2598 J or 2.6 x 103 J

Example
A rope is used to pull a cart up a
ramp as per the diagram below. A force
of 245 N is used to pull the cart a
distance of 2.5 m. How much work is
done?

Solution
W = Fdcos
W = (245 N)(2.5 m)(cos 0o)
W = (245 N)(2.5 m)(1)
W = 612.5 J or 6.1 x 102 J

*we use 0o because F and d in the above

scenario are both aligned at the same
28.0o, making the difference between
them, , equal to zero.

Example
A 1.00 x 102 kg crate is being
pulled across a horizontal floor by a
force F that makes an angle of 30.0o
above the horizontal. The coefficient of
kinetic friction is 0.200. What should be
the magnitude of F so that the net work
done by it and the kinetic frictional force
is zero?
Solution
This question combines dynamics
with work and energy concepts. Draw a
diagram and write a master equation
that relates to this scenario.

W F + Wf = 0

Now figure out WF and Wf

separately and put back into the above
master equation later.

WF = Fdcos
WF = Fdcos30.0o
WF = Fd(0.866)
WF = 0.866Fd *this will be for master
equation

To find the work due to friction, Wf,

we'll need to know the force due to
friction, Ff. But to find Ff, we'll need to
know the normal force, FN. Since the
crate is not being lifted off the ground,
all the vertical forces must add up to
zero:

FN + Fsin - Fg = 0
FN + Fsin30.0o - mg = 0
FN + Fsin30.0o - (1.00 x 102 kg)(10 m/s2)
=0
FN + F(0.500) - 1000 = 0
FN + 0.500F - 1000 = 0
FN = -0.500F + 1000

Ff = uFN
Ff = (0.200)(-0.500F + 1000)
Ff = -0.100F + 200

Wf = -Ffd *negative; friction

Wf = -(-0.100F + 200)d is opposite
direction
Wf = (+0.100F -200)d
Wf = 0.100Fd - 200d*this will be for
master equation

W F + Wf = 0
0.866Fd + 0.100Fd - 200d = 0
0.866F + 0.100F - 200 = 0
0.966F -200 = 0
0.966F = 200
0.966F = 200
0.966 0.966
F = 207 N

Practice Questions
Try practice questions 1-7, 30, 36-37.

Kinetic Energy

Consider the case of a net external

force F acting on a mass m. This net
force is the vector sum of all the
external forces acting on the object, and
for simplicity, its direction is assumed to
be in the same direction as the
displacement d. According to Newton's
second law, the net force produces an
acceleration a given by a = F/m.
Because there is an acceleration, the
velocity of the mass increases from vi to
vf .

Taking F = ma, multiply both sides

by d to obtain:

Fd = mad

From out study of kinematics we

have:

vf2 = vi2 + 2ad

Solving this equation for ad, we

obtain:

2ad = vf2 - vi2

ad = vf2 - vi2/2
or:
ad = vf2 - vi2

Substituting this into Fd = mad

gives:
Fd = mad
Fd = m(vf2 - vi2)
Fd = mvf2 - mvi2

In this equation, Fd represents the

work done by a net external force. So
the formula can become:

W = mvf2 - mvi2

The quantity mv2 is called the

kinetic energy the above formula leads
to the connection between work and
kinetic energy. The work-energy
theorem states that when a net
external force does work W on an object,
the kinetic energy of the object changes
from its initial value of KEi to a final
value of KEf, the difference between the
two values being equal to the work:

W = KEf - KEi = mvf2 - mvi2

Because of the above relationship,

energy is also given the unit of Joules (J).

In general, the kinetic energy (KE)

of an object with mass m and velocity v
is given by:

KE = mv2

Kinetic energy is the energy of

motion.

Example
 What is the kinetic energy of a
15.00 kg mass moving with a velocity of
3.50 m/s?

Solution
KE = mv2
KE = 0.5(15.00 kg)(3.50 m/s)2
KE = 91.87 J or 9.19 x 101 J

Example
A space probe of mass m = 5.00 x
10 kg is travelling at a velocity of vi =
4

1.10 x 104 m/s through deep space. No

forces act on the probe except that
generated by its own engine. The engine
exerts a constant external force F of
4.00 x 105 N directed parallel to the
displacement. The engine fires
continually while the probe makes a
straight line for a displacement d of 2.50
x 106 m. Determine the final velocity of
the probe. (assume the system is
isolated and ignore any gravity)

Solution
Since the force F is the only force
acting on the probe, it is the net
external force, and the work it does
causes the kinetic energy of the
spacecraft to change. The work is
positive because F points in the same
direction as the displacement d.
According to the work-energy theorem,
a positive value for W means that the
kinetic energy increases. Since the KE
increases, we expect the final velocity to
be greater than that of the initial
velocity. Our master equation becomes:
W = KEf - KEi
KEf = W + KEi

Find each part separately:

W = Fd
W = (4.00 x 105 N)(2.50 x 106 m)
W = 1.00 x 1012 J

KEi = mvi2
KEi = 0.5(5.00 x 104 kg)(1.10 x 104 m/s)2
KEi = 3.03 x 1012 J

KEf = W + KEi
KEf = 1.00 x 1012 J + 3.03 x 1012 J
KEf = 4.03 x 1012 J

To find the final velocity, use:

KEf = mvf2
4.03 x 1012 J = 0.5(5.00 x 104 kg)v2
4.03 x 1012 J = (2.50 x 104 kg)v2
4.03 x 1012 J = (2.50 x 104 kg)v2
2.50 x 104 kg 2.50 x 104 kg
1.612 x 108 = v2
v = 1.27 x 104 m/s

Example
*This example combines dynamics with
work and energy concepts, ie. is
challenging!
The velocity of a curling rock
decreases from 1.35 m/s to 0.98 m/s in
coasting 9.5 m across the surface of the
ice. Find the coefficient of kinetic friction
between the rock and ice.

Solution
 The work done in slowing down the
rock is:

W = mvf2 - mvi2

But because we're being asked for

the coefficient of friction, you know we'll
have to somehow include :

Ff = uFN

We don't know the normal force,

but we do at least know what gravity is.
Therefore, change this to:

Ff = umg

It is the friction that does the work.

Also the force of friction is opposite to
the direction of motion and therefore
needs to be negative:

W = -Ffd
W = -umgd

Lastly, since W = mvf2 - mvi2

and W = -umgd, we can write:
mvf - mvi2 = -umgd
2

vf2 - vi2 = -ugd

Now solve for u:

(0.98 m/s)2 - (1.35 m/s)2 = -u(10

m/s2)(9.5 m)
0.4802 - 0.9112 = -u(95)
-0.431 = -u(95)
-0.431 = -u(95)
-95 -95
u = 0.00453 or 4.5 x 10-3
Practice Questions
Try practice questions 8-12, 14-18, 25,
28-29, 34.

Gravitational Potential Energy

Kinetic energy, energy of motion, is

not the only type of energy. Potential
energy is the stored energy of position.
An example of such energy can be found
by an object having a position above the
surface of the Earth. Gravitational
potential energy, PE, is the energy that
an object of mass m has by virtue of its
position relative to the surface of the
Earth (or some arbitrary zero position)
measured by the height h of the object.
As a formula:

PE = mgh

Example
The CN tower in Toronto is
advertised as being the world's tallest
free standing structure. At 181 stories, it
has a height of 553 m. What is the
gravitational potential energy of a 55.0
kg person who is at the top of the
tower?

Solution
PE = mgh
PE = (55.0 kg)(10 N/kg)(553 m)
PE = 3.04 x 105 J

When an object is lifted up work is

done when the object is moved from one
position to a higher one. Our work
formula can become:
W = mghf - mghi

Example
How much work is done when a 5.0
kg object is moved from a height of 0.54
m to one of 0.97 m?

Solution
W = mghf - mghi
W = (5.0 kg)(10 N/kg)(0.97 m) - (5.0 kg)
(10 N/kg)(0.54 m)
W = 48.5 - 27.0
W = 22 J

Another type of potential energy is

elastic potential energy but is not
covered in this course.

Conservative and Non-

Conservative Forces

Earlier we spoke of the work-

energy theorem and it stated that when
a net external force does work on an
object, the energy of the object
changes. In order to better understand
this idea, it is important to understand
conservative and non-conservative
forces. Gravity is an example of a
conservative force. The work done by
gravity does not depend on the choice
of path. For instance, when an object is
moved from an initial height hi to a final
height hf, the object could be raised
straight up or it could be moved along
any curved path from the initial height
to the final height. Any side to side
motion does not affect the final work
done by gravity. It is only the difference
in height that is important. This example
leads to one possible version of the
definition of a conservative force.

Definition 1: A force is conservative

when the work it does on a moving
object is independent of the path of the
motion between the object`s initial and
final positions.

Other examples of conservative

forces are the elastic force of a spring
and the electrical force.

There is another way to view the

idea of a conservative force. Imagine a
roller coaster starting at the top of its
motion. The roller coaster car races
through dips and double dips, and
ultimately returns to its starting point.
This kind of path, which begins and ends
at the same place, is called a closed
path. If we assume that there is no
friction or air resistance, then gravity is
the only force that does work on the car.
The track does exert a normal force, but
this force is always directed
perpendicular to the motion, and hence
does no work. On the downward parts of
the trip, the gravitational force does
positive work, increasing the car`s
kinetic energy. On the upward parts of
the motion, gravitational force does
negative work, decreasing the car`s
kinetic energy. Over the entire trip, the
gravitational force does as much
positive work as negative work, so the
net work is zero. The car returns to its
starting point with the same kinetic
energy it had at the start. This example
leads to the other possible version of the
definition of a conservative force.

Definition 2: A force is conservative

when it does no work on an object
moving around a closed path, starting
and finishing at the same point.

We must keep in mind this second

version of the definition of conservative
forces when working with the upcoming
formula.

Conservation of Mechanical
Energy

The work-energy theorem has led

us to consider two types of energy:
kinetic energy and potential energy. An
object at any given time can have one
or even both of these energy types. We
can thus speak of an object`s total
mechanical energy, E, and this is
simply the sum of these two energy
types:

E = KE + PE

Recall that when either of these

two energy types change, work must
have been done. In terms of the work
done, our formula now becomes:

W = (KEf - KEi) + (PEf - PEi)

or
W = (KEf + PEf) - (KEi + PEi)
The expression (KEf + PEf) is the final
mechanical energy, Ef
The expression (KEi + PEi) is the initial
mechanical energy, Ei.

Take W = (KEf + PEf) - (KEi + PEi)

and apply our second definition of
conservative forces. The definition said
a force is conservative when it does no
work on an object...and since we will be
only considering closed system
examples (no friction or air resistance),
no work will be done by any outside
forces. Suddenly W = (KEf + PEf) - (KEi +
PEi) becomes:

0 = (KEf + PEf) - (KEi + PEi)

or
(KEi + PEi) = (KEf + PEf)

Example
One of the fastest roller coasters in
the world is the Magnum XL-200 at
Cedar Point Park in Sandusky, Ohio. The
ride includes a vertical drop of 59.4 m.
Assume that the coaster has a speed of
nearly zero as it crests the top of the
hill. Neglect friction and air resistance
and find the speed of the riders at the
bottom of the hill.

Solution
(KEi + PEi) = (KEf + PEf)
mvi2 + mghi = mvf2 + mghf
vi2 + ghi = vf2 + ghf
(0.00 m/s)2 + (10 m/s2)(59.4 m) =
vf2 + (10 m/s2)(0.00 m)
594 = vf2
2(594) = vf2
1188 = vf2
vf = 34.5 m/s

Power
Work is performed when a force
causes a displacement. But there is no
consideration of time in this simple
definition. The work could have been
done quickly or slowly.

Power is the rate at which work is

done. As an equation:

P = W/t

where

P = power (W, Watts)

W = work (J)

t = time (s)

For the same amount of work,

power and time are inversely
proportional. For example, a more
powerful engine can do the same
amount of work of a less powerful
engine, but in less time.

Another formula can be derived

from P = W/t. Since W = Fd, we
can have:

P = W/t

P = Fd/t
 Lastly, since velocity is d/t, we can
have:

P = Fd/t

P = Fv

This last equation for power tells us

that a powerful machine can be strong
(big force) or fast (big velocity), or
maybe even both at once.

Interesting fact:

milie du Chtelet (1706 - 1749) was

a French mathematician, physicist, and
writer during the years of history called
the Age of Enlightenment. While her
most famous achievement is considered
to be her translation of Isaac Newton's
Principia Mathematica, she gained some
notoriety by daring to question some of
Newton's ideas on kinetic energy. In her
book called Institutions de Physique she
combined the theories of Gottfried
Leibniz and the observations of Willem 's
Gravesande to show that the energy of
a moving object is proportional not to its
velocity, as had previously been
believed by Newton, Voltaire and others,
but to the square of its velocity
(KE = mv2). She was correct, but it
took nearly 100 years after her death for
this idea to be accepted, no doubt due
to the sexist attitudes of the day.
Voltaire wrote, considered a compliment
at the time, that "She was a great man,
whose only fault was being a woman."