UNIV ER SITY

OF FLORIDA
LIBRARlES

COLLEGE COLL ECTION

 :::

Shopping Towns
USA
The Planning of Shopping Centers

by Victor Gruen
and Larry Smith

""
REINHOLD PUBLISHING CORPORATION
A SUBSIDIARY OF CHAPMAN-REINHOLD, INC.

NEW YORK AMSTERDAM LONDON

; rr;;
1960, R einhold Publishin g Corporation
A subsidiary of Chapman-Reinhold, /nc .

All righ ts reserved

Fourth Printing, 1967

Prin ted in the United S tates of America

Designed by Myron Hall 3rd

T ype set by Nu-Type Service

Printed by H alliday Lithograph Corp .

Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number 60-8527

 Contents

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 7
INTRODUCTION .. l l

PROLOGUE .......................... 15

PART 1 THE PREREQUISITES ...................... 25

1 The Developer 27
2 The Location 30
3 The Site 38
4 Zoning 46
5 The Tenants 52
6 Financing 57

PART 11 PLANNING .. . 63
The Planning T eam 65
.
1
2 The Planning Sch edule 68
v__3__ Plannin g The Site 74
4 Planning Surrounding Areas 98
5 Planning for Gro\\'th 110
6 Planning for Traffic 115
7 Planning for l\ lerch andising 132
S Designing the Shopping Cente! 140
9 Enginceri ng th e Shopping Center ..... 171
1O Leasing th c Shopping Centcr .. 190
11 Budgeting the Shopping Center 202
12 Case Studies 215

PART 111 THE COMPLETED CENTER .. .. 249

Openin g and Promotion 2 51
2 ~ l erch a nts Associa ti ons 255
3 Use of Public Areas .... 2 57

EPILOGUE .......... ... ....................... .. ..... .. ....... .... .... . W5

Th e Future of Shopping Centers ......... ... ...... . 267

APPENDIX ..... .... ................. ... .... ... .... .......... ....... ................. 275
Glossary .............. .. ......................... .. 277
Bibliography .. .... .... . .. .. .... .. .... .. ...... . .. 279
lndex ............. . 282
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2011 with funding from
LYRASIS Members and Sloan Foundation

http ://www.arch ive .org/detai ls/shoppi ngtownsusaOOg rue

 :Acknowledgment s

Victor Cruen wishcs to thanl.: the m embers of his orga n-

ization who hal"c becn ac til"ely in voll"ed in th e wri ting of this
bool.: : h is par tncrs, R . L. Baumfeld, Karl va n Leuvcn, Jr.,
Edgardo Contini , Bcn Southl and and Herm an Cuttman ;
his assoc ia tes, R olf SJ.:brel.:, Joh n Cilehrist, Carl Troedsson;
oth er staff mem bers, Syh ia Prcss, Virginia Sasse. H or tense
Hockett and Lnl"lc Eiden . Last but not leas t, he wan ts to
thank his wife ,;ho not only assisted actively in th e writing
tas k bu t also endured patien tly th e strai ns and stresses which
th e wri tin g of such a booJ.: invoii"CS.
Lam Smith wish cs to thank th c ,arious members of h is
orga niza tion wh o assistcd in thc prcparation of material
for th c book, nc ludi ng h is partn e rs Franl.: O rr co a n d
Fredcrick Arp kc.
Thc auth ors wsh to thanl.: th ose archi tcc ts and d e\clopers
who fu rn sh ed l"aluablc adv iee, nfor m ati on and material for
ths booJ.: .

ARCHITECTS
Abbott, Me rk t & Compan y, lnc .
W e lton Be cket & Associotes
Brust ond Brust
R. C. Brugnoni
J . & G . Daverman Company
lathrop Douglo ss
Fred e rick Emmons
Howord T. Fisher & Ass ociotes
Francis X. Gin
John Graham & Compon y
Grossold-Johnson & Associotes
Victor Gruen Associotes
Halobird, Roo! and Burgee
A. Quincy Jones
Ke tchum, Gin & Shorp
lrving R. Klein & A ssociot es
John lord King
DEVELOPERS
lo e bl, Schlo ssmo n & Bennett Eo stlond Center, lnc . - Detro it
Alb ert C . Mo rtin & Ass ociotes Mr. Horace Carpe nter, Jr.
Mondowmin Board of Desi gn : Northlond Ce nle r, lnc. - Detroit
Mr. Horace Carpenter, Jr.
Pie t ro Be llu sch i
Northgote Ce nter - Seottle
Dan Kil ey
Mr. James 8 . Doug/as
Ke nn elh We lch
Community Reseorch ond
Wilbur Smith Development, lnc . - Bahimore
Sewo rd Moti Mr. James W. Reuse
Jam es Reuse Arthur Rubloff & Co. - Chicogo
Fish er, Nes, Compbell Mr. Arthur Rub/off ond
Mr. Wi//ord A . Srown
& As sociotes
Southdale Ce nter, lnc. - Minneopols
l. M. Pe i & Asso cio tes
M r. Williom Crear, Jr.
Per kins & W ill
E. W . Tanner & Associ o tes
Tom s Jo s Sanabria
H. E. Beyster Corp.
Jock Alan Biolosky ( Continu ed on next poge )

 (Con tin ued from p revious poge )

\ Ve wish to thank the photographers and other age ncies

who have in the most generous manner supplied most of
the illustrative material for this book.

PHOTOGRAPHERS ORGANIZATIONS ANO IN STITUTION S

Mo rley Boer Melgar Photogrophy Borbe r's Historical Co llectio n
Bei-Air Photogrophers Merge Studias Elmer Be lt librory of Vinciono
Blakeslee-Lone, lnc. Frederick J. Miller Th e Bettmonn A rc hive
Robert R. Blonch Minneapalis Star & Tribune French Governmen f Tourist Office
Camera Hawaii Prestan E. Mitchell lnt e rnotionol Co uncil o f Shopp ing Ce nfe rs, ln c.
Capital Photogrophers Moulin Studios las Angeles Chomb e r of Comm erce
Edword Clork - Lile Nartan & Peel Metropoliton Opero Guild
Robert Clevelond Sussman Ochs Museum of Modern Art
Herbert Bruce Cross Photogrophers Assaciated New York Public libra ry
Clint Deon Phatagraph House, Detroit John & Mobe l Ringl ing Muse um of Art
Francis DiGennaro Refot Soles Monog e me nt Magazine, 1955
Roger Dudley Warren Reynolds
Dular Photogrophic Studio Willy Ronis
S. W. Emerson Ca. Ben Schnall
Fred English Julius Shulmon
Phil Fein Skeltan Studias
Chester Freden Gordon Sommers
Felix Gilbert Stane & Steccati
Louis Goldenberg Ezro Stoller
Gottscho-Schleisner Soichi Sunami
Gridwoll Compony Thomas Airviews
Alexondre Georges Corl Ullrich
Hedrich-Biessing L. V. van Oudgaarden
Kelly-Holidoy Wells Fogliono-Giodding McBean
Anthony Lone Lowrence Willioms
Maps, lnc. York Phatographic Studio
Bucky McDonnell Victor Haveman

8
Shopping Towns
USA
Th e Planning of Shopping Centers
1

The sh opping center is on e of th e few new building
types crea ted in our tim e. It also represents one of th e
rare instances in which a number of individual busin ess
enterprises, in bandin g togcther, are ready to submit to
certain over-all rules in arder to furth er their common
welfare.
Because shopping centers represent groupings of struc-
tures and b ccause of th e underlyin g cooperative spmt m-
volved, th e need for emironmental plannin g for this build-
ing type is obvious. \Vh ere this need has been full y
understood sh opping centers h a\'e taken on th e ch aracter-
isbcs of ~=isms scrving a multitude of human
needs and ac ti\'ibes, thus justifving th e designaban:
SHOPPING TOWNS.
The subtitle of this book indicates that it is concerned
with PLANNING. For purposes of this book the t erm
planning is used in th e widest sense. Discussion is n ot
limited to physical planning alone, but includes th e eco-
nomic, fin ancia], legal, engineering. sociological, t raffic, and
merchandising aspects of plannin g as th ey apply to shop-
ping center problems.
The authors of this book are an architect and an eco-
nomist. In most majar planning projects th e profe~s ions
of architecture and economics play an important role and
carry a heavy burden of responsibility. This is especially
true in the case of shopping center planning where eco-
nomic succes~ is the paramount aim, achievable only by
thoroughly fusing phys ical and economic planning.
The authors have cooperated for nearly ten years on a
number of shopping center and urban planning projects.
J:NTBODUCTJ:ON
Because of the difference of approach inherent in th e
character of their profession s, such coopera b an h as often
imolved lively arguments. Som etimes th e battle of wits
between the economist and the architect resulted in th e
creaban of an entirely new concept superior in man y re-
spects to the one which each of them had in mind at
the ou tset.
In collaborati ng on this b ook the authors h ad to resolve
such differences with regard to th e man y questions raised
in nearly every ch apter. T hey ha\'e succeeded in arriving
at answers sa tisfactory to both of th em and thus at a text
that refl ects th e common thinking of an architect and an
econ omist. lt is th e sincere h ope of th e authors th at
through th eir collab oration they have succeeded in writing
a useful guide, not just for good th eo retica] planning of
sh opping cen ters, but for practica], feasible planning in
the framework of economic realities .
The scope of a book on sh opping centers is so wide and
the possible approaches to this th eme are so many, that
it was necessary to set certain limitations and to define
the direction our wribng was to take. It may be well at
this point to make clear what this book is not intended
to achieve.
Our aim is not to furni sh a set of shopping center re-
cipes, nor to gi\'e instructions, formulae, or design patterns
that can be automa tically followed by everyone. \Ve seek
ra th er to explore th e general directions fr om which the
whole subject can be approach ed and to furnish a basis
for furth er discussions and development.
This book does not attempt to be a history of shopping
11
Country Clu b Plaza Shopping Center, Kansas City, J\1issouri.
T his pace-setting developmen t located shopping facilities away
fro m the bu sy llghway, pr01ided offsite parking, architectural
unity, and sign con trol.
Architect: E . \ V . Tanner
center development. The authors do not take the detached
1iew of the historian. This is an aimful book and its aim
is to furth er the understanding :md use of good planning
principies . \Ve have not attempted to produce a picture
book. Pictorial material is used for the purpose of illu-
strating points which have been raised in the discussion.
Statements made in this book are applicable, generally,
to al! types of shopping centers regardless of size or char-
acter. H owever, since th e importance of applying sound
planning principies usually increases as the size and com-
plexity of a center increases, we often refer to the re-
P edes trian 1\ lall in th e Liinbaa n Slwpping Cen ter, Rotterdam.
H ollaud.
Archi tects: J. H . van den Broek, J. B. Bakem a
Plw tograph: L. V . 1an O udgaarden
T he F armer's 1\l arket. L os Angeles, California. An carly cluster-
t,pe development, th e building core provides li1elr pedestria11
areas, outside ea ting facilities, and is surro unded br pa rking areas.
gional shopping center in illustra ting a poin t. It is the very
large center in which planning and design characteristics
appear in their strongest and purest form. Ne,ertheless,
even where points have been made onl y with reference to
regional shopping centers, they are still, with sorne modi-
fications, applicable to smaller types.
\Ve have limited ourselves to a discussion of shopping
centers in the United States and deal in th e main with
centers constructed during th e past ten years. However,
we are full y aware of the significant contributions toward
the planning of shopping facilities which were made earlier
Free-standing display case, Liin baan Shopping Center, Rot terdam,
Holland.
A rchitects: f. H . van den Broek , f. B. Bakema
Ph otograph: L. V . 1an Ou dgaa rden
Proiected South A111erican Slwpping Ceuter, Ciudad C omercial
Tamauaco. C~racas. Venezuela.
Architects: Toms Jos Sanabria. Fraucis X. Gin and Associates
and which are being made toda y in shopping centers in
other parts of th e world. Today's shopping center planners
owe a great debt to developm ents like the Country Club
Plaza in Kansas City. ~Iis s ouri, constructed in 1925 as
part of a well planned community of mer eight thousand
homes. They also haYe profited from study of other village-
type shopping facilities which followed th e prototype of the
Country Club Plaza district, amongst them \Vestwood Vil-
lage in Los Angeles. One of the most significant de,elop-
ments of early years, we fcel, is the Farmer's M arket in Los
Angeles. The authors regret that the framework of this book
Shopping Center o{ the new toll'n o{ Vaellingby, near Stocklwlm,
Sll'eden.
Photograph: Refot,Courtesy of the Swedish C onsu l G eneral, Nell'
York
C ommercial Center proiected for Beersheba, capital o{ the Negev,
Israel.
Architects: L. Cohn and Y. Lal'ie
does not permit us to discuss the de,elopment of shopping
centers in oth er countries. Man y such centers have been
built in Canada and Latn America, and they generally
follO\\' design principies arri\ed at in the U .S.A. Plans for
shopping centers are under way in Australia, many South
American countries, and Israel. Of special interest are the
Lijnbaa n C enter in the reconstructed city core of Rotter-
dam, the sh opping centers in th e new sa tellite towns of
Sweden, es pecially in Vaellingby. and in the new towns in
Engla nd.
The book is organized in three parts. Part 1 deals with
Tow u Center of the new towu of H arlow, near London. England.
Architect: Fred Gibberd
Plwtograph: Copyright H arlow D evelopment Corpora tion
 the " prerequisites." It attempts to enumerate and qualify
the conditions which must be present as a basis for the
planning effort. \Vhenever the quality of such prerequisites
is extremely poor, even the best planning efforts lead to un-
desirable results. But when the quality of the prerequisites
is optimum, even comparatively poor planning efforts may
result in an economically successful shopping center. How-
ever, experience has shown that in the overwhelming
majority of cases there is, as far as prerequisities are con-
cerned, neither black nor white. There is a large "gray"
area wh ere basic conditions exist that are advantageous in
sorne respects and disadvantageous in others; here the
planning effort plays a decisive role. Planning, the rnain
theme of this book, is discussed in Part JI.
Part III deals with sorne special activities which occur
in the operation of shopping centers, but only insofar as
they form a direct extension of the planning effort.
The division of the parts into chapters is, in sorne cases,
arbitrary. Very often we found ourselves confronted with
a situation where, becau se of the intimate tie-in which
exists between all planning activities, overlapping and
duplication could not be avoided. \Ve therefore have
merely touched on specific problems in certain chapters
and referred the reader to oth er ch apters in which a closer
look is taken at the problem in qu estion. \Ve mention
these difliculties not as an apology but because our prob-
lems in this respect are effective proof that closest inte-
gration must prevail at all times between the various facets
of planning procedure.
The broad, all-inchJsi,e approach to planning which we
have chosen for this book brings with it, of course, the
disadvantage that man y aspects could not be discussed with
the thoroughn ess they may deserve. HoweYer, we decided
on this approach because of our deep conviction that the
most important contribution this book could make would
be to promote understanding among all the interests con-
cern ed in th e creation of a successful shopping center.
Over-all understanding, we feel , is necessary for architects,
planners, civil, stru ctural and mech anical engineers, eco-
nomists, de,elopers, real estate owners, shopping center
operators, departmcnt store and chain store organizations,
super-market operators, owners of stores dealing in all types
of merchandise, public oflicials, building and planning de-
partments, zoning boards, traflic consultants, landscape
architects, insurance companies, mortgage institutions,
graphic designers, sculptors and artists, store designers and
lawyers.
The authors have found that although a great amount
of specialized knowl edge and experience is necessary in each
field of endeavor, there is not enough awareness of the
l4
processes, methods and problems that must be worked out!
by others engaged in allied activities. This results in a lack 1
of understanding from which springs mistrust and sus- .
picion, poor coordination, and ultimately a general inability. ,
to coopera te successfully. \Ve therefore felt that what is 1:
needed most for the achievernent of better over-all plan-
ning is recognition of t~e rn any forces that shape a shop- 1
ping center project and of the role and importance offi
each participant in the planning process. !
Specialization is one of the natural consequences as well l!
as one of the curses of our complex society and our ad- 1
vanced technology. Unless we manage to counteract special-
ization by disseminating general information about our t
common problems we shall drift hopelessly apart and 1
destroy the opera tional basis from which all work must be
undertaken in order to be fruitful. The ideal of Greek
education in antiquity was to teach every man something
about everything, and everything about something. In this
spirit it seems to us essen t ial that each contributor should
know something about th e entire over-all problem as well
as have a thorough knowledge in his own field.
Planning is a unifying activity. It requires the demo-
cratic Yirtue of seeing the other fellow's point of view
and makin g allowances for his needs even th ough you rnay
be personally attach ed to other concepts. Planning is not
an ac tiYity reserYed for a special profession . It entails an
intelligent lon g-range approach to any problem, implying ;
cooperation, imagination and foresigh t. T h us, th e mission
of this book is to introdu ce each plan ning participant to
the requi rements, needs, th ought processes, meth odology,
and aims of all the oth ers.
lnasmuch as this book deals with " plann ing" our obser-
Yation s and discnssions are restric ted to th e "controlled".
or " plann ed" sh opping center. \Ve h aYe, of course, ex-
pressed our personal views concern ing the philosophical
found ation of planning, and the direction that planning
and design procedures sh ould, in our opinion, take. Thus,
th e views expressed are necessaril y sub jective. \Ve also
feel strongly th at since th e sh opping center as a building
type is still in its infa ncy, all th oughts expressed concerning
its planning are subject to constant change.
The authors owe a great debt to the many who, by .
sharin g their experience, ha\'e contributed immeasurably to
this book. By listing th eir names on the preceding pages of
acknowlcdgmcnts, we wish to cxprcss our deep appreciation
for their cooperation.
VICTOR GRUEN
LARRY Sl\1 ITH
New York, 1959
 1

PROLOGUE

Historical Background

The Growth of Suburbia

The Role of Planning

 PROLOGUE

Buying and selling is as old as mankind. Prehistoric man
exchanged the deer he had slain for a necklace of pretty
shells. The modern housewife acquires a package of frozen
food in exchange for sorne round pieces of metal. Gratifi-
cation of needs ancl_ desires motivatcs both transactions.
Only the cogditiollS- under which the_y take _ place have
changed.
A condition of most important consequence, of course,
who turned barter into commerce. He carried the work
produced by others from place to place, established trade
routes and trading posts, founded country stores and
merchant states. \Vhere,er he settled h e became an in-
tegral, invigorating part of urban life.
Tn the Greece of antiquity the merchant spread his wares
under the colonnades of the Stoa, a building especially
des ig~ated for his activity. The Stoa \\'as as important in

------
was the introduction of the middleman- the merch ant- the Agora, or city square, as the Bouleuterion where the

T l1 e Agora ot Assos.
Drawing: Comtesy ot the New York Public Library

17

Outdoor M arket Place in the Triangular Forum, Rome,
circa 100 B.C .
Illustration : Courtesy ot the Bettmann Archive
political representatives me t, or the Ecclesialierion, de-
sign ed for public meetings . Th e T emple was nearby.
Citizens strolling in the square discussed the tapies of the
day, transacted their business, did their marketing, while
philosophers, poets, and entertainers argued, recited and
performed. C ourt trials were held there. Banquets were
spread. The Agora was the center of city life, and in this
clorful, lively, dynamic environment commerce had its
share.
This integration of human activities was_a universal pat-
tern. Its existence was guaranteed in ancient Rome wher~
wheeled traffic was banished from the city's forum wben
veh.icles threatened to crowd out the humans.
The medieval city market square was the city's center,
not only geographically but socially and commerciafiY; re-
ligiously and culturally. The City H all and Guild Halls
were placed there. The Cathedral, th e merchants' and
craftsmen 's stalls and stores surrounded it. The open center
area became in turn the market place, the fair ground and
the entertainment center for th e citizenry.
That genius of the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci, rec-
ognized the threa t to human values of life when they
become isolated. H e designed a City Center for the con-
venience and pleasure of th e people, confining wheeled
vehicles toan underground road .

T his perspectil'e sketch by Leonardo da Vin ci shows his ad1anced

ideas: th e street surface reserved for shoppin g pedestrians; under-
ground passages for vehicular tra ffic and servicing.

Medieval market place, N uremberg, Ger-

many.
Illustration: Courtesy ot the 1\-fetropolitan
Opera Guild

18
 1~
J

i1
1'
Engraving of co lonia l comt square, Spring-
fie ld, 1\fassachusetts.
Illustration: Courtesy of Barber's Hstorical
Co llection

'1

An early expression of the Industrial R ev-

olution (a dvertisement for manufacturer of
steam boilers, around 1850).

Below
1\farket place in New York's East Side,
about 1900.
Photograph: Courtesy of th e New York
Publc Library

Our own New England_and I\lidwest towns are witness

to the basic _tQlyn square concept which our forefathers
brought with them from Europe. lt persisted here well
into theni~th century.
The advent of the Industrial Revolution radically
changed the organiza tion and character of cities. Thou-
sands of factories were built in the midst of towns and
cities. The city grew into a craz y quilt of packed hum an-
ity. The industrial slum became the new pattern of the
city. 1
1
Life in the citv soon became intolerable and those who
could afford itle'"d themarch to the sul:iurbs. The e~odus
increasecl~its tempo with the advent of the interurban ,
elevated and subway trains and b ecame a rout with the
emergence of the automobile.
The automobile was the IJleans by which the las t ves tige
of communify coherence was destroyed. So long as sub-

19

MeclJanized traffic congests urban streets.
Modem suburbia is born. PlJ otograplJ : TlJomas Airviews
urban dwellers traveled in vehicles that ran on tracks, new
communities had a central point:-th e raihva).--s.top--to
build around. As the cities stretched out along the tentacles
of railroad lines, shops, churches, and community build-
ings sprang up around th e railroad station; the size of
residential areas was automatically controlled by thewalk-
ing distance from the station. Such subcenters are still
clearly recognizable in the Greater London Area.
When the automobile emerged as a means of private
mass transportation, the fin al urban explosion took place.
Automobiles, free of steel rails or overhead wires, could
move at will in every _direction . They provided complete
freedom of movement to the individual driver and made
him independent of public transportation . So, with the
automobile carne a dispersa] of population that follmved no
pattern whatever.
To accommodate the _flo od of humans seeking escape
from the intolerable conditions of the city, m~ housing
builders tare up the ground, chopped down the trees, and
removed swiftly and cynically every vestige of what the
people had come to find. l\Iodern suburbia. was _born, in
which there were neither the values of a rural community
nor those of an urban environment. ~
But people must live somewhere and suburbia grew.
According to a report of the United States Census Bureau,
suburbs grew sevcn times as fast as central ci ties in the
 1930
+- 1 l ...
Olslnbuftonoflos Ang!l!s Populollon
1930-19 57
years 1950 to 19 54. Th e population of metropolitan areas
in 1950 was 8 3,796, 000; 95,304,000, in 1954 . Within
incorporated city areas an increase of 3.8 percent occurred;
27.8 percent in suburban communities of the metropolitan
area . In 1957 a population census was taken in New York
City in ~ n attempt to obtain additional state aid by
proving increased population . To the great surprise of
city government it was found that the combined to tal
population of the fi ve borough s h ad decreased from
7,891 ,957 in 1950 to 7,79 5,4 17-or 1.2 percent-a t a time
when the population of the Greater l\Ietropolitan Area
was increasing dramatically.
As the spreading continued with increasing speed, dis-
tances between places of residcnce and the central city
grew by leaps and bounds.
In spite of this, public transportation faced the threat of
annihilation. The inroads that private automobile traf!ic
had made on public transportation is indicated by figur es
of a study made by the W estchester County Association.
It showed that despite a population increase during the
years 1949 to 1954 of 15.5 percent, the number of rail-
road commuters decreased during the same period by 16.3
percent.
Throughout the United States, the growth was so fas t
and frenzied that purely practica] matters: construction
of roads, highways, drainage and sewage, power and gas
lines lagged years behind; but any serious attempt at
adequate planning of properly situated sch ools, shopping
facilities, communitv centers and churches was nonexistent.
Row upon row of iclentical houses set in an empty country-
19S7
1118 %
Distribution of population, Los Angeles,
1930 and 1957 . Note growing dispersion
of pop ulation.
'!
side proved to be less than the Heaven its settlers had
bargained for. Suburbia had become an arid land inhabited
duri ng the day almost entirely by women and children and
strictly compartmentalized by family income, social, re-
ligious, and racial background .
A psychiatrist of th e United States Department of
H ealth, Leonard J. Duhl, believes that this matriarchal
pattern of suburbia sets up mental health haza rds. Label-
ing it a "Feminine \ Vorld," he describes it as a place
where people are keeping up with the Joneses, where con-
fo rmi ty is considered a necessity and where children have
only limited experiences and are not exposed to broader
environmental influences.
Critics of C ity Planning are equally concerned . Chris-
topher T unnard and Henry Hope Reed, in their book
American Skyline, have this to say about suburbia :
How different this is from our eorlier American troditian which al-
lowed people of oll classes lo mingle together os lhey still do in
communities where peaple live as well as wark. Samething af this
mixture is heahhier far demacracy which will surely suffer if residential
suburbs continue to refuse public housing projects, business firms, in-
dustry and res! camps. Withaut these they will remoin smug, lacklustre
bockwoters.
Ma ny others, trained to apprehend the private and public
dangers inh erent in our unplanned suburban growth , are
increasingly concerned. Charles Abrams, Chairman of th e
New York State Commission Against Discrimination,
poin ts out that: "The sub urbs and their quest for status
are shaping the American personality of the future as the
21

Stores lin e both sides of suburban streets.
Photograph: Gordon Somm ers
frontier once shaped the American personality of the past."
Since submbia is undoubtedly h aving a serious effect
on the personality of our entire urban life, it is natural
that its influence should be felt by the segment of human
activity that is of prim ary concern to us h ere: the marketing
of goods for the gratifica tion of human needs and desires.
In thiu _mprphous c_onglomerat_!9n-suburbia- :Jhe mer-
chant has had difficultv in findin g a logical wa y to inte-
grate his activities with the local scene. -
Stores, which followed_ their customers into the__sulwrbs,
were no longer provided with obvious predetermined loca-
tions such as near railway stations. For the customer no
longer emerged at defined poin ts; h e and his automobile
were everywhere.
Under these circumstances the best bet seemed to be
store loca trons on high wa ys aYer wh ich sh oppers would
have to travel on their wav back and forth to the citv. As
the number of highway . stores increased, more ~ople
stopped their cars along the curb and parking space be-
carne available only for a cash premium-a new t ype of
hitching post, the parking meter, h ad made its appearance.
Because the shortage and cost of curb parking tended to
slow clown sales, merchants arranged for off-street car
storage areas, at first behind and later on in front of their
stores.
Business grew and so did au tomobile traffic. Conse-
quentl y, serious traffic congestion appea red on the high -
ways, so seri ous that drivers began to moid them b y ming
altern a te ro utes . 'Vhen these roads ine,itablv attradeo new
stores and new congestion, s~er h igh way; and freewa ys
were constructed at tremendous cost in arder to prornote
an ea s~' flow of traffic .
In the rneantirne, residential areas surrounding con-
gested traffic carriers, or faci ng the unsightly sef\ice facili-
ties of stores, becarne undesirable. T he original owners
:md tenants moYed out and only those wh o could not
afford or were not perrnit tcd to live in th e more desirable
places mo\"ed in . Soon stores foun d themseh es surrounded
by residen tial areas of reduced b uying power.
As customers were siphonccl off from th e roads along
which merchants had scttlcd, partl y by neighborh ood de-
terioration, partly by the use of new fr eewa ~s . a wild
scrambl e for new locations sta rted. l\ lercha ndising outlets
were built in fr eshly created subm ban areas still far ther
removed. Here, within a few years. merchants encountered

Hitcl1ing posts of yesterday and today.

Photographs: Gordon Somm ers

22
a repetition of the undesirable conditions from which thev
had tried to esca pe. The need for farsighted, comprehe~
sive planning fin ally becarn e m gently apparent.
Planning is needed not only to bring arder, stability,
and meaning to chao tic submbia ; it is necessary in arder
to establish a strong logical frame\\'ork within which in-
dividual m erchandising enterprises can fl ourish and pro-
vide crystallization points for suburbia's comrnunity life.
Sorne rnembers of the business comrn uni ty have, in the
past, resisted the concept of cornpreh ensi,e planning. They
regarded it as interference wi th individual initiative and
free enterprise. Tt has been labeled by sorn e as " undern-
ocratic." But planning, properly understood and exercised,
does not result in fixed patterns, in authoritarianism, in
regirnentation, or in the suppression of individualisrn.
No democratic society can fl ourish without law and
arder which, when applied to the ph ys ical environrnent,
necessitates planning. In a cornplex and highly mechanized
society environmental planning safeguards the basic human
rights. By providing the best conditions for physical and
mental h ealth, it protects Jife. By establishing barriers Traffic congestion appears on suburban
against anarch y and the infringements of hostile natural highways .
and man-made forc es, it protects Jiberty. By the crea tion of Ph otograp h: Ed Clark, 1955 Time Inc .
a humane environment it invites and encourages the
pursuit of happiness.
\Vhen environmental plannin g is applied to the design-
ing of new cornmercial facilities, many conditions must be
analyzed, criteria weighed, requirem ents met, and prob-
lems solved . These all involve in various ways and to vary-
ing degrees the needs and desires of the shopper. It is
deeply significant that the term is " shopping center," not
"selling center." This indicates clearly th at the wishes and
desires of the shopper take priority over those of the
seller. (A n earlier term , " parking center," failed to catch
on.)
Th~ basic need of the ~an. .shopper is for a con -
venien tLv -~cesSI~Jmp_l-}'_1_tQckeg___iliQppjng.. area with
plentiful and free parking. This is the purely practica] need
for which lfeSh oppmg center was originally conceived
and which many centers most adequately fulfill. G ood
planning,_ h owever, will ~a t<: ~ ~ddition al attractions for Un sightly service fa cilities.
shoppers by m ~e[~g_~-~- ~eds ~h~ch are inherent in Ph otograph: Gordon Sommers
the psych ological climate peculiar to suburbia. By afford-
ing opportunities fQr ~ocial life and recreation in a pro-
tected ped~tri a n environment, by incorpora ting civic and

Superhighways, a costly answer to road

congestion.
Photograph: Los Angeles Chamber of
Commerce
 Pedestrian life in the Carden Court of
Eastland Center, Detroit.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Alexandre Georges

educational facilities, shopping centers can fill an existing
void. They can provide the needed place and opportunity
for participation in modern community life that the
ancient Greek Agora, the l\Tedie\'al Market Place and our
own Town Squares provided in the past.
That the shopping center can fulfill this perhaps sub-
conscious but nonetheless urgent need of suburbanites for
the amenities of urban living, is convincingly proved in a
large number of centers. In such centers, pedestrian areas
are filled with teeming life not only during normal shop-
ping hours, but on Sundays and holidays when people
windowshop, promenade, relax in the garden courts, view
exhibits and patronize the restaurants.
All age groups are provided for. Auditoriums are booked
to capacity. Meeting rooms are busy with civic and cul-
tural affairs. Dance schools, music schools, and ice skating
rinks attract teen-agers; amusement centers are popular
with children.
Such a planning concept also results in an upgradin; of
the residential area surrounding the center. It not only
protects surrounding communites from blght but actually
raises their desirability and consequently their property
values.
lf the shopping center becomes a place that not only
provides suburbanites with their physical living require-
ments, but simultaneously serves their civic, cultural and
social community needs, it will make a most significant
contribution to the enrichment of our lives.

Dancing in the streets of Paris.

Photograph: \Villy Roni~. Courtesy of
the French Government Tourist Office

Dancing in Southdale Center, near

Minneapolis.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Courtesy Minneapolis Star
and Tribune
PART 1

THE PREREQUISITES

Planning can .be fruitful only if basic

econornic, physical, and organizational

c haracteristics are present.

25
r\ '
PART J:- CHAPTER 1
The Shopping Center Developer
Jt seems natural to start this part of the book by intro-
ducing the shopping center developer. \Vith ou t his ability
and his initiative we would h ave no sh opping centers now,
nor would an y be built in the futur e.
\Vho, thcn , are the shopping center developers? !\len who
create long range investments and men who h ave short
range objectives; single individuals and large organization s;
experienced developers and th ose who try for th e first
time.
But there is one aim they all ha ve in common . Relying on
their own skill and ingenuity and that of the professionals
whom they retain, backed by their fin ancia! investment they
seek to convert comparatively low priced real es tate, often
farm land or residentially zoned areas, into extremel y valu-
able real estate assets: namely, sh opping centers.
Basically, sh opping center developers fall into five cate-
gories: m erchandisers desirous of developing outlets for
their own merch andising aims; professional d evelopers;
land developers who reserve locations for commercial pur-
poses within an over-all development; institutional de-
velopers; other property owners who wish to develop land
they own or propose to acquire.
1) Merchandisers as Developers. The growth of suburbia
(see Prologue) forced the department store which tradi-
tionall y had developed in th e central downtown district,
to branch out. Today, the department store has th e follow-
ing choice: it may selcct a limited acreage for a branch
location along a suburban highway and build a free-stand-
Southdale Center, near Minneapolis.
Photograph: \Varren Reynolds, Inlinity, Inc.
ing departm ent store unit; it may lease space in a shopping
center developed by oth ers; or it mav develop a center
itself with its bran ch store as a main unit. In many cases
department storcs have become developers of sh opping
centers in arder to assure adequ ate locations and properly
plann ed projccts for their branch stores.
For mu ch th e same reason. superm arket organiza tions
have entered the developm ent field during the past few
years. Quite a few chains have organi zed subsidiary or
affiliatcd corporations, or ha,e entered into \\'Orking arrange-
ments with independent developers for purposes of acquir-
ing an d devclopi ng shopping center properties. Such
developm ent orga ni za tions are often publicly owned
throu gh corporate t ype financing . Their prim ary purpose is
to create the means of expansion for the parent food-store
organization.
2) Professional De,elopers. As sh opping centers grew in
scope it became apparent th at th eir developm ent presented
unique problems which differed substantiall y from that of
other commercial properties. Accumulated experien ce pro-
duced specialists, m any of whom broadened their interests
into the fi eld of de\'elopment in two major areas. As develop-
mental agents for department stores or food organiza tions,
they may acquire and develop properties already selected
by such merchandising enterprises but which the latter are
not eager or able to develop wi th their 0 \\'11 resources for
policy reasons, or b ecause of staff or fin ancia] limitations.
In other cases they seek out new loca tions themselves and
_7 ~
 acquire sites with the purpose of interes ting major retailers
in participating either as co-investors and co-developers or
as tenants.
3) Land Developers. These are organizations primarily ac-
tive in the residential fi eld. They often set aside, as shop-
ping center sites, strategic locations within large housing
projects or in completely new, planned communities. They
do so partly as a means of more effectively marketing their
residential units and partly for imestment purposes. Often
th ey are forced into shopping center development, as in
cases where the Federal Housing Authority requires shop-
ping facilities in large residential projects. Thus, in sorne
cases shopping centers become merely an incidental mat-
ter; in other cases, however, they b ecome important
developments in their own right.
4) lnstitutions as Developers. Two majar groups of institu-
tions h ave entered the shopping center field. The first one
is represented by the large insurance companies. These
organizations, the primary source of fin ancing for most
shopping center developments and therefore deeply in-
volved in their construction and planning, gained rich ex-
perience from continued contact with developers. With
this experience as a basis, certain of these institutions
have undertaken the developm ent of shopping centers
themselves.
The second group-universities and colleges-have plan-
ned the development of shopping centers, usually of inter-
mediate size, on university-owned land. Stanford University,
Antioch College, th e University of \Visconsin and the
University of British Columbia are examples of such
institutional developers. D evelopment by universities is
mostl y based on the coincidence that land which they own
or control happens to be suitable for shopping center
development.
5) Other Property Owners. These are representative of the
large group of investors who have confidence in real estate
as a medium of investment. \Vith a successful experience
in their first project, these developers may become pro-
fessionals and develop a series of projects.
Motivations and therefore methods of development dif-
fer among th ese five categories of developers. The differ-
ences are based mainl y on variations in imestment concept
and on attitudes taken toward th e continued ownership
of the completed shopping center.
Every developer automatically becomes an owner. At the
outset he becomes the owner of land and of a planning
concept. Later he becomes the owner of leases and of loan
commitments. As \vork progresses he becomes the owner
of plans and specifications; when leases are drawn, he
becomes the owner of a " package" consisting of land and
leases, plans, and fin ancing commitments. \Vhen physical
construction is completed, the developer becomes a full-
28
fledged shopping center owner. Once the shopping center
is opened h e is an owner and operator. His preconceived
intention as to how long he wish es to be committed to an
ownership position will color his attitude in regard to the
planning process . Subject to tax considerations and the
availability of a buyer, he may wish to realize a short-term
gain at an early moment, possibly when preliminary plans
are completed; or he may prefer to realize a capital gain
when physical construction has been accomplished; or his
interest may be the long-ra nge one of full y developing the
inherent potentials by operation over many yea rs, includ-
ing enlargement of the center and improvement of sur-
rounding areas. His objective will obviously influence the
quality of his shopping center planning.
" Pride of ownership" may be largely absent in the de-
veloper who intends to give up ownership at the earliest
practica] moment, but strong in the developer who intends
to retain ownership indefinitely-whether individual, corpo-
ration or institution. The first category of owners, the mer-
chandiser, usually has long-range interest beca use the success
of his own merchandising entcrprise, department store or
supermarket, depends on the sustained quality of opera-
tion of the entire shopping center. The fourth category,
the institution, also has long-ra nge interests because it is
characteristically engaged in long-term investments. In two
other categories (the professio nal developer and the land
developer) short-range interest may more frequently be the
predominant motivation.
\Vhether intended as a short-term or long-range invest-
ment, man y years may elapse between the developer's first
conception of a shopping center and its phys ical reality,
since all sorts of time-consuming activities are necessary
(see Part II, Chapter 2). D epending on the size of the
center and the complexity of th e problems with which the
development may be faced, the incubation time of a shop-
ping center may be anywhere fr om one and one-half to
six yea rs. Thus, it becomes apparent that whate\er the
motivation of the developer, he must be prepared for a
protracted and sustained effort.
1n order to pursue this effort continuously and gainfully
the developer must have an effective organization. In sorne
cases, as in those of the professional developer or th e land
developer, such an organization may already be partly or
completely in existence. In others it may have to be newly
formed. The developer's organization, for regional centers
at least, should be headed by a full-time general manager.
He will coordin ate the work of all other members of the
developer' s organization and of the professionals retained.
These, in most cases, will include an economist, architect,
corporate lawyer, lease lawyer, tax lawyer, public relations
firm, engineer, contractor, etc. The general manager will
represent the developer as a member of the planning team
( see Part TI, Chapter 1). For larger projects he will be
assisted by a leasing manager and his staff. For smaller proj-
ects he may undertake the leasing himself.
It is essential that leasing be controlled through the
developer's organization. Methods used in leasing have a
substantial effect on the income-generating capacity, the
customer satisfaction and th e sustained position of the
shopping center. This does not exclude, b y any mean s, the
possibility of employing leasing brokers. Their fun ction in
a. shopping center is that of establishing contact with
various prospective tenants, especially chain store organiza-
tions, with whom the broker can negotiate effectively
because of est ablished connection s or special skills. The
attitude toward leasing as exemplified by the leasing man-
ager as part of the developer's organization m ay be sig-
nificantl y different from that of the leasing broker. Th e
leasing manager's aim is to achieve a leasing program
designed to be in the best interes t of a successful develop-
ment, which may at times involve the refusal of lease
offers for vacant space. (See Part I, Chapter 5, "The
Tenants"; Part II, Chapter 7, "Planning for I\ Ierch andis-
ing," and Chapter 1O, "Leasing the Shopping Center." )
D epending on the size of the sh opping center and on the
type of developer, the developer's organizaban might also
include a legal and tax law department, accountin g and
fin ancia] department, and a public relatio ns department.
"'here these are not members of the developer's organiza-
ban, independent professionals will often be retain ed.
The developer's fin ancia] ability h as a great impac t on
the successful conclusion of a project. It must be suf-
ficientl y stron g to make it possible for him to rely on his
own means durin g the periods of planning and construc-
tion befare income or financin g is available. H e must be
able to m eet the vari ous expenses connected with zoning,
economic studies, traffic studies and planning. His financia]
resources sh ould enable him to complete the project with
favo rable fin ancing from a suitable mortgagee. His fin ancia]
ability ma y influen ce majar tenants like department stores
in their decision to join the project. Equity requirements
in today's fin ancing market are often con siderable (see
Part I, Ch apter 6, "Financing").
\ Ve have now met th e star of the sh opping center plan-
ning team- the developer. \ Vhat sh ould his attitude to-
ward plan ning be? All types of developers, wh eth er they
wish to be sh ort-term or long-term owners, sh ould be
vitallv interested in good plannin g. Planning will achieve
better fin ancing conditions for th em because in stitution s
making long-tcrm loans are vitall y interested in the quality
of mortgaged property. (They regard themselves, rightl y,
as potential long-range owners.) Good planning helps in
acquiring tenants and ca n result in better leasing condi-
tions. Professional sh opping center developers wh o create
shoppin g cen ters successfull v over a period of years will
be in a better position to repeat a good performance.
29
 PART J:-CHAPTER 2
The Location
An extremely important prerequisite for successful sh op-
ping center development is proper location . For the pur-
poses of our discussion, we use the term "location" in a
purely geographical sense. Jt indica tes th e general area in
which to select a shopping center site in order to afford
the best opportunity for successful fun ctioning and opera-
tion of a center. In discussin g location we will omit con-
sideration of the physical charac teristics of land. These
will be dealt with in Part I, Chapter 3.
The proper loca tion, geogra phicall y, is determin ed by
the economic considerations pcrtaining to it. In judgin g
two parcels of land which may be equ al in all oth er re-
spects, their location and th e economic attributes that flow
fro m location must be given careful consideration.
In order to avoid embarkin g on a shopping center ven-
ture blindly, the merits of locat ion must always be judged
wheth er land has already been acquired, or whether a
suitable site is to be sought. If th e site has already been
acquired, the work of the economis t would be directed
toward the study of the economic charac teristics of that
location. The res ults of his study would serve as a basis
for deciding whether or not that particular property should
be developed for a shopping center pro ject, and if it
should be developed, what its size and character should be.
In oth er cases, the econ omist's effort would be directed
to th e study of a general area with th e aim of establishing
the m ost suitable location within which a site should be
acquired. This type of over-all study may involve a large
area such as the metropolitan area of one of our largest
cities. First, the total available economic potential of the
30
area would be analvzed. Then, various segments of th e
total area would be analyzed in order to arrive at conclu-
sions as to which segment, or segments, appeared to offer
the most advantageous poten tial. C ontinued analysis would
be di rected toward findin g, wi thin the segm ent, a specific
area most suitable from an economic point of view, and
fin ally, toward findin g a more defin ed location within this
area. Jt is obvious that this procedure of methodi<;:al
search , un biased by the own ership or control of a particular
piece of land by a developer, is likely to lead to the most
satisfac tory res ults. If pro perl y and thoroughl y undertaken,
it will usually establish the most suitable location for
shopping center developmen t.
H owever, regardless of whether the location study is to . .
be directed toward the establishment of the qualifications
of an existin g site, or the search for a new one, basic
methods to be employed will be ,ery similar. The aim of
the economic analysis is to provide detailed economic facts
so that it will be possible to ascertain the approximate'
amount of retail sales volume which might reasonably be
attrac ted to the location if shopping center facilities were
to be constructed. Inherent in any economic analys is is
the study of the following fac tors:
Population Com petitive Facilities
I ncome Accessibility
Purchas ing Power Other related considerations
Primary among the influences bearing upon location is
the question of popplation . The ra pid increase in popula-
tion which h as taken place in the United States since 1940
and the prospect that during th e next twenty years this

PoPU..LA714N
'VISTR 113U..."Y'"10 N
:::. 500 P liO P l..l
.. .... .
.. ..
..
..
Schernatic skctches of a theoretical shopping ccn ter location, showing its trade arcas, and its surrounding population distribution.
population will increase by 50,000,000 to 75,000,000
persons, presents a challenge and an opportunity to de-
velopers, planners, retailers and all who are interested in a
healthy development of our communities.
In analyzing a location, attention must be paid not only
to the existing population but to prospects for future
growth. Growth may be forecast by reference to past
growth rates, the trend of population shifts, and the avail-
ability of rcmaining suitable land for residential develop-
ment. In considering a qeveloped area, where only a
mnimum amount of suitable land is available for resi-
dential development, it would, of course, be fallacious to
apply general population growth rates . Population in such
areas might remain constant or might even decline.
A shopping center, like any other group of co mmercial
facilities, will draw its patronage largely from an area which
can be defined and outlined on a map . The extent of this
trade area and the degree to which it can be accurately
'RI\t>~ ::..~._"'
11 ~"'~"ay
O .S~c.ONo"'"-""'
o "f"<;,.""'IQ..,y
charted vares with a number of fac tors, one of which is a
knowledge of the probable basic character and major
tenancy of the projected shopping center. The term "Trade
Area" is normally defined as "that area from which is ob-
tained the majar portian of the continuing patronage
necessa ry for steady support of the shopping center." In
sorne cases, a percentage of shopping center patrons orig-
inate from areas a considerable distance away from the
center, and beyond the normal trade area. Th is portian is
th e smallest in th e case of a neighborhood center and
probably will not exceed 2-5 % of the total business. A
large regional shopping center, on the otl1 er hand, may
obtain 15-ZO % and occasionally even more of its business
volume from pmch ases made by people living outside a
normal trade area.
\ Vithin the trade area tributary to a shopping center,
the strongest in Auence will be exerted closest to the site.
This influence diminishes graduall y, and in order to take
31
 I<'O.Oi: PltA
SliE Of CE"Ei
1.200.000
SOUlllf r((l - - Hypc thetica l Effect ive ness
' ,of Regional Shopping Centers
'
in their Trcde Areos -
'' \
\
.....
of olstln
oa templ e s

Cent o r Uf e ctly e n e u
\
\
\
\
\
1
SI lE o rc E ~ HR
801l.OOJ
- -.. ...... 1
1
SCUJ.R( F(( T
' ....... 1
"' \
1
1
\ 1
\ 1
\
\ 1
\ 1
SllEOfC ( MTE R
400.000
SOUAREfHT
-' .....
1 1
\ \
\ \
'" .......
\ \
\
\
"" ' "'
' ' ......" ' .......' ...... ......
..........

---
........... ............................

--------~:::: ---
A
IMCaiAS I MG DISTA MCI 111 MIUS & DaiWIMC 111
'

This sketch indica tes various types of barriers to ac-

ccssibility of the loca tion. It also shows features that
facilitate accessibility. Both mu st be weighed in
iudging the loca tion .

this into account. various zones of influ ence mi ght be facilities, plann ing and design ch aracteristics. travel ti me to
identified and weigh ed. In th e case of neigh borh ood or and from th e location, th e existencc of natural or m an-made
interm edia te centers, usuall y onlv a single zone of influence barriers. such as railroads and rivers, which \\'ould influ ence
within its trade area wi ll be establish ed. In analyzing a access ibility eith er in fac t or psych ologically, th e existence
region al center's locati on, h owever, ,arious zo nes m ight and size of com petitive facilities, etc. As a result of th ese
exist, each one extendin g its influence to a different degree factors, th e trade areas for various loca tions will n ot neces-
in rela tio n to th e location . The amoun t of purch asing power sa rilv ass ume similar sizes or shapes.
ava ilable for th e specific loca tion m ust be gauged for th ese T h e character, plann ing and des ign quali ties, size and
va ri ous zones .* tcnancy of a projected sh oppi ng cen ter will also obviously
Th e defin ing fac tors used in delinea ting a trade area influence th e size and shape of the trade area. Even in cases
va ry from center to ce ntcr. T h ev incl ude, but are n ot where a site is prede tcrmincd, variatio ns in th ese charac ter-
lim.ited to, thc size and influence. of the proposed reta il istics will produce ,astly d ifferent res ults within th e area.
This is on e reaso n wh y simultaneous studies by dc,eloper,
cconomist and archi tect are essen tial fro m th e outset of anv
For purposes of simplifi ca tion th e text refers to only one meth od projec t. It is not possible to arrive at a reliable econ omi~
of trade area analysis. Oth crs, including mcthods of consum er
analysis (wh ich must be bascd on th c consideration of th e
rcsearch or the applica tion of th e Rcilly Law of Retail Gravitation
to small segments of population, are in use. E,en th e zones of tra de arca) unlcss the econom ist h as at his disposal certain
influence may be determ ined and analrzed by various methods. informaban concern ing planni ng and design concepts and

L 32
 "'RJ:\0[.1"\R~"'
111 i'll-1"'"~.....
[J <:.cccn<""'<W
O --r~~n",.._y
" imum of 25 minutes, to reach a regional sh opping center.
A effcctiYencss limi ted to 7-1O minutes' driving time. Neigh -
'
Dri1ing time distances for tll e tll eoretical lom tion.
th e projected tenanc y of a centcr (see Part ll, Chapter 1 ).
Experience has indicated that th e degree of acceptance
and popularity one store enjoys within a community as
compared to another of a similar typc influences th e extent
of the trade area. Department stores, junior department
stores and su permark ets, normall y th e major tenants, are
by n o means uniform in their effectiveness in attracting
shopping centcr patron age. Customer loyalty to one store as
compared to anothcr, particularly in th e case of department
stores and supermarkets, will affect the total sales potential
and the distribution of sales potential among \'arious tenants.
It would be fallacious to assume that sales in a shopping
center will be divided proportionately to the size of the
stores. The best way to anticpate differentials arising from
the selection of one majar tenant as compared to another
will be the use of a consumer suryey to check th e relative
acceptance proposed majar tenants enjoy within a given area.
An important factor influencing the determination of
trade area and zones is th e time it takes patrons to travel to
and from th e shopping center location . Jt has been proven
that, all othcr conditions being equal, customers will travel
greater distances to reach a shopping center with outstand-
ing planning characteristics and a grea ter number of com-
parison sh opping fac ilities than they will to one with a
limited ch oice of storcs and poorer planning and design
characteristics. However, therc is a definite limit to the
attracting power of any sh oppi ng center an d to th e length
of tim e shoppers are willing to spend in trmeling to it. A
point is reached wh ere the comenience of sh orter trips out-
weighs th e attrac tions of a large cen ter. The critica] point
at which th e maximum effectiYeness diminishes, as shown by
th e accompanying graph , vares less th an might be expected
in terms of driving distance and driving time for regional
sh opping centers regardl ess of size.
Acceptable travel time may be measured with sorne degrec
of accurac: and th c boundarics of areas lying within th e
acccptable tra\e] time plottcd as illustrated. Generally
speakin g. it has been found that th e vcry large majority of
customers are willing to tra\'el 12-15 minutes, and a max-
In th e case of intermediate sh opping centers, it will be
possible to draw most customers fr om an area lying within
a 15-minute driving time distance. with th e area of greatest
borhood shopping centers would no rmally attract business
from an area not more th an 5 minutes' driving time distant .
lt is important to differentiate behyeen geographic dis-
tance and travel time. To illustrate this point, Jet us
assume th at a regional sh opping center is readily accessible
by a limited access expressway. Residents in areas located
n ear th e route of the cxpressway as far as 15 miles from a
location could reach the shopping center within about 20
minutes' dri\'ing tim e. However, residents living in areas
where access by expressway is not at hand could travel
only 7- 10 miles in 20 minutes' driYing time. ln th at case,
it could be roughly assumed that the trade area would
extend 50 % farther in one direction than in others,
alth ough th e fr equen cy of access points and travel condi-
tions adjacent to such access points are also important.
Th c most reli:1ble method b\' which conclusions can be
drawn co nccrning thc dcgrce to which the boundaries of
a trade area depend on trmcl time, is to und ertake actual
drivin g tests. Th ese tes ts sh ould be made during various
times of day, on various days of the week, and at various
seasons of th c year. Thc results of such dri\' ing time tests
can be shown on a map on which points of equal driving
time ca n be conn ectcd, and thus zo nes of equal driving
time distanccs establish cd.
Once th e boundaries of th e tradc arca and \ari ous zones
h ave been defined, a stud y of population characteristics
within this area can procced. V aluable for this purpose are
th e data prO\ided by the Burea u of C ensus and more re-
cent data th:1 t can b e obtained from local authoritics. " ' ith
th e h clp of th ese tools, it is possible to make reasonably
33
Typical Per Copita Re tail Expenditure Pattern

Individual expenditure patterns lar trade orea residen ts are calculated by stare type
from informotion contoin ed in the 1954 Census of Bus in ess for th e De portment of
labar's 1953 Study al Expenditures by lncame Rang es. The lallawing table illustrates
o typicol per copita expenditure pottern for those types of retai l autlets usually found
in en integroted shapping center. Th e percentoge distributian of per copita expendi-
tur es by store types will vary between the trode orees in accardonce wit h their respec-
tive average incame levels.

Primary Secondory Te rtiary

Trade Ar eo Trade Area Trade Area
Faad 308 $ 290 $ 280
Eating & Drinking 276 142 90
Department Store 331 188 110
Variety 48 27 20
Apparel 208 127 75
Furniture & Appliances 140 90 75
Hardware 48 40 31
Drugs 44 36 38
Other 162 130 125
TOTAl $1,565 $1,070 844

Central Business District's Share of Sales

in Standard Metrapalitan Areas
1948 vs. 1954
% ol Standard
Standard Metropoli tan
Metrapalitan Area Soles in
Area Sa les Cen tral Bu si-
1954 ness Districts % Dil-

Mooho""" '"'""oh, N,'

Ne wark, N. J.
Braaklyn Baraugh, N. Y.
Patersan, N. J.
t-- (in thausands)

$15,433,091
1948

16.9
2.2
2.3
0.7
1954

14.2
1.8
1.7
0.5
f erence

- 16.0
-1 8.2
-26.1
- 28.6
Yanke rs, N. Y. 0.3 0.2 - 33.3

}-
las Angeles, Colil. 9.8 6.1 - 37.8
long Beach, Colil. 6,903,325 2.0 1.8 - 10.0
Pa sadena , Cal if. 2 .1 1.6 - 23.8
Chicaga, 111.
Gary, lnd. }--- 6,898,919
14.0
1.3
10.4
1.0
- 25.7
- 23.1
Detrait, Mich. 4,1 06,958 15.5 9.9 - 36.1

Philade lphia, Po.

Camden, N. J. }- 4,060,541 20.7
1.4
14.9
1.3
- 28.0
- 7.2
San Francisca, Calil.
Oakland , Calif.
8erkeley, Calif.
}- 2,958,649
17.7
8.1
1.7
13.9
6.3
1.4
- 21.5
- 22.2
- 17.7
Bastan, Mass. 2,855,379 20.0 15.2 - 24.0
Pittsburgh, Po. 2,2 12,049 18.9 13.7 - 27.5
St. lauis, Ma. 2,016,650 18.0 12.2 - 32.2
Washington, D. C. 1,981,956 28.9 20.8 - 28.0
Cleveland, Ohio 1,923,462 24.4 19.6 - 19.7
Buffala, N. Y. 1,330,466 20 .2 15.7 - 22.3
Haustan, Texas 1,194,837 42.9 31.8 -25.9
Milwaukee, Wisc. 1,144,58 1 21.4 16.6 - 22.4
Cincinnati, Ohio 1,119,117 28.8 23.7 - 17.7
Dalias, Texas 1,030,850 26.2 16.2 - 38.2
 , accurate estimates of existing population and projected 'IIM>l' 1\<;<.LI'>.
future populati on within the trade area . ID 'i'l.\~P>ooi'I..Y
[J Sl:.~~v
Data concerning income and purchasing power may also
be derived fr om the 1950 census of population and the
o "\..tt.Tif\il.Y

census of retail sales undertaken in I948 and 1954. This

data, correcred tor certain reporting errors, brought up to
date and combined with inform ation secured bv observa-
tion , serv es as a basis for es tablishing a retail e;penditure
pattern similar to th c one illustrated . Population data and
expenditure patterns sh ould be geared to th e year in which
a projected sh opping ccnter is' in tended to be opened and
to yea rs following that date.
In evaluati ng th c potential sales volumes de ri\ed from
the es tablished t ra dc arca, consideration must be given to
1 the strength and effectiv<:ness of oth er retail shopping
facilities with \\'hich th c center will have to compete. Such
consideraban must apply both to existing and to proposed
retail storcs, as presentl y loca ted or as th ey migh t be dis-
tributed in th e future. The com petition th at will influence
te potential sales Yolumc of a location consist s of three
separa te types: oth er existin g sub rban sh opping facilities
within and beyond th e trade area; th e central business
district which exercises a strong th ough varyi ng influence
on residents through out th e enti re metropolitan area; shop-
ping facilities that do not yet exist, but are likely to come
into being. A2
Prior to th e appea rance of major integra ted planned
sh op ping centers, th e central business district and a few
outl ying sub urban store conccntrations along major high -
wa:s provided th e onl y complete, or relatively complete,
Schematic sketch indica ting co mpetition. Tbe let-
sh opping op portunities within our large cities. As down- ters CBD indica te th e central business district; the
town stores expanded th eir operations into suburban areas, numbered dots, existing maior shopping cen ters; the
the opportunity for ch oice widened so that now a sh opper unnumbered dots, shopping facilities that might
may decide betwecn sh opping downtown or at any num- come into being.
ber of suburban sh opping distri cts. In this connetion, it
should be pointed out that up to now, no suburban sh op-
ping center has been able full y to duplica te th e range and
depth of m erchandising operations inherent in downtown
areas, nor to provide th e array of additional business and large metropolitan areas th an in smaller ones. It can be
comm ercial facilities which a down town business district expected that th e growth of th e suburban share will con-
1 provides as a focal point for offi ces, governmental activities, tinue as population grows and addi tional suburban sh opping
professional senices, community ac tivi t ies and tourist at- facilities are opened. H O\\'e\er, efforts directed toward the
tractions. The total amount of suburban shop ping facilities revitalizaban of downtown areas mav slow clown the sub-
increasingly affects the general distribution of retail sales urban growth ratio. .
bet\\'een th e central business district and outlying areas. Anoth er factor to be considered is th e possibility that
This distribution must be recognized and taken into con- future competitive facilities will be establish ed within or
sideration in attempting to measure th e proportion of adj acent to the tra de area. Suneys of consu mer habits have
patronage that downtown stores will attract out of th e sh own that no one store or group of stores can absorb all
total. \ Ve a re refe rring to th e "downtown sh are" and th c the business wi thin a given area, even after allowances have
"suburban sh are" of retail cxpenditures. In determining been made for th e downtown share and th e compctition of
th ese "share" figures, we disregard poltica] bou ndar ies of exis tin g retail facilities. The \'ery fac t th at withi n a trade
city limits. The tabul ation on page 34 shows to what extent area sufficien t sales volume is at h and to warrant the es-
th e relationship between downtown share and suburban tablishment of a new sh opping center will spur oth er
sh are h as changed in a number of cities from 1948 to 1954. retailers to take steps to meet the new competition. It will
Of the total of retail sales transactions, a greater propor- also encourage outside retailers to enter th e area to compete
tion takes place outside of th e central business district in for th e unsatisfi ed sales potential. Therefore, in estimating

35
 Master D ecentralization Plan developed in
1950 for th e T. L. Hudson Company, D e-
troit. Two of these centers, Northbnd and
Eastland, have been cons tructed. No de-
cisions have been made concernin g th e
oth er two.
th e amount of store space for a new loca tion, it becomes
necessary to allow for th e possible development of addi-
tional competition . Establish ed sh oppin g habits also exert
their influence on th e distribution of th e total sh are of
sales potential within the area. This phcnomenon might
be illustrated by th e case of a prvate residential subdivision
loca ted on an island but conn ected to th e mainland by a
toll-collectin g causeway. Th e island was without any retail
facilities until a new superm arket was established th ere.
Because of th e toll, th e supermarket ex pected to obtain a
sales volume of approxi mately 90% of th e total food ex-
penditures of th e island residents . Operatin g experience,
however, es tablish ed th e fa ct that despite th e existence of
this "captive market" th e supermarket was never able to
attract more than approximately 45 % of the food pur-
ch ases made b y th e local residents. l\ Iany residents ob-
viously remained loyal to stores on th e mainland. The
conclusion to be drawn from this and man y oth er similar
examples is th at no one store or gro up of stores can hope
to absorb th e total sales volume attributed to the residents
of a trade area.
When at tem pting to measure th e influence of futur e
population growth , it must be related to th e specific fac ts
of th e particular trade area under consideraban . In fore-
casting th e population trend for ten or fifteen years, con-
36
MASTER DECENTRALIZATION PLAN
Ound., 2000
PERSONS PER SOUARE MJLE b ~~J Our 10,000
- 2000to9999
sideration must be given to factors such as existing popula-
tion den sity, zonin g restrictions, physical or man-made
barriers to the development of new residential areas-
mountains, waterways, industrial areas, public parks, cem-
eterics, airports-a n d oth er land uses th at would forestall
residential de,elopment.
The composition of th e population in the trade area, as
far as racial or eco nomic characteristics are concerned, is
important in ,arious region s of th e co untry. It is sorne-
times unreasonable to expect that various ethnic groups
will be willing to shop together. especially in areas where
strong traditions or prejudices exist. 1t is also unreasonable
to expect that persons of low or middle income grou ps will
patronize a high qualitv typ e of shopping center or, con-
verselv, th at persons in the highest income grou ps will shop
gen erally in centers where medium or low priced merchan-
dise is the chief feature.
Though shopping centers are the product of the auto-
mobile age and depend to the largest degree on customers
arri,ing b y prvate au tomobile, the in flu ence of public
transportaban sh ould not be overl ooked . The use of public
transportaban by shopping center patrons can be en-
couraged by measures discussed in Part IJ, C hapters 3
and 6.
Spccial consideraban must be given to existing suburban
development if a shopping center intends to attract an
important local department store as its maja r tenant. The
choice of a location for the center will be furth er influ-
enced, in that case, b y the location of other existing
branch es of the depar tment store in question. Similiar
problems exist in the location of other majar tenants in
the area. It is not likely that chain stores or local stores
will clase existing branch units, especially if the y are com-
paratively new, in order to become tenants of a new shop-
ping cen ter.
In those cases where department stores or other merchan-
dising en terprises act as developers, the selection of a
location will be influenced by their bas ic long-range plan-
ning and management phil osophies. l\1an y department
stores have embarked on expansion programs, b y means of
suburban branch stores, to rega in business \'Olumes that
have been Jost to suburban commercial developments. Sorne
department stores plan to rin g the central business district
with branch locations in suburban areas in a rder to ensure
adequate representation throughout the metropolitan area.
For th e J. L. Hudson Company in Detroit, for example, a
mas ter plan h as been developed which has spotted loca-
tions approxi mately ten to eleven miles distant from the
downtown business district in various segments of the
metropolitan area. In accordance with the locations indi-
cated on th e master plan, sites we re or are being acqured.
Two centers, namely Northland and Eas tland, are already
in operation. The meth od chosen by the J. L . Hudson
Company is to erect branch stores of considerable size
(between 400,00 0 and 500,000 square fce t ) within regional
shopping cen ters which , together with the d epartment
store, contain approximately 1,000 ,000 square feet of renta]
space.
Other department store organiza tions differ in their
approach . Sorne, for example Carson Pirie Scott & Com-
pany, have adopted the ph ilosophy of building a larger
number of smaller store units spread in numerous loca-
tions throughout the metropolitan area. Anoth er store in
the Chicago area, however. l\ larshall Field & Company,
subscribes to the idea of developing large branch stores,
such as the one in the Old Orchard Shopping Center and
the one in Oak Park.
\ Ve note in passing the contin ua! search by aggressive
merchan ts in all lines for new means of providing service
to their cus tomers.
J. L. Hudson Company has recently opened a 70,000
square foot branch store of their basement operation in a
location not competitive with their majar branch locations.
l\ Iany department stores are considering specialty type
branches for specific departments, branches of the basement
store, warehouse stores, etc.
Similarly, supermarkets during the last ten yea rs have
experimented wi th the operation of large non-food depart-
ments, special services, packaged mea t operations, gourmet
departmen ts, delicatessens, and restauran ts.
Our references to particular philosophies of branch store
operations are not intended to indicate that any specific
method is preferred, or e\'en cxclusively practiced b y a
particular tenant. The fluidity of merchandising techniques
is such that developers of sh opping center properties must,
to sorne extent, be sufficientl y imaginative to anticpate the
trends in store operation.
Once the economic analysis has been completed, and
due consideration has been given to all the points men-
tioned in this chapter, a geographically advantageous loca-
tion for the development of a sh opping center can be
established. In th ose cases where a site has previously been
purchased, it will be feasible to ascertain at this time wheth er
the location of the site is suitable for the de\'elopment of
a shopping center at all and if so, what the size and char-
acter of a shopping center for that particular site should be
to make successful operation possible. Once the question
of general location is thus decided, a furth er investiga tion
of physical characteristics of the site can begin .
37
 PABT J:-CHAPTEB 3
The Site
A tract of land must be subjected to a thorough and
searching investigation to establish its suitability as a
sh opping center site. In th e foregoing chapter we have
examined the requirements which a general location must
meet. Now we will discuss the qualities a tract of land must
possess in arder to be suitable 1) for the construction of a
shopping center, and 2) for th e specific type and size of
center req uired to fulfill the econom ic aims revealed by
the analys is.
Thorough site investigation is essential in all cases:
whether a site is to be selected by a methodical investiga-
tion of al! available land within an establish ed location;
whether the site is predetermined by th e fact of ownership
by the developer; or whether th e site h as been set aside
for a shopping center within the over-all community
development. In all th ese cases it is highly desirable that
the land to be used meet these eleven standard requirements:
l) The si te must be located in the general area established
as most desirable by the economic survey.
2) It must be owned or controlled by th e developer, or its
acquisition must be feasible.
3) The cost of the land must be in keeping with over-all
economic considerations.
4) Existing zoning must permit usage of the site for shop-
ping center purposes, or there must be a reasonable likeli-
hood that rezoning can be achieved.
5) There must be enough land to allow construction of
facilities that will meet the sales potential.
6) The shape of the site must be such that advantageous
planning is feasible.
38
7) The ]and must be in one piece, fre e of intervening
roadways, rights-of-way, easements, or majar waterways, etc.
that would force development in separated portions.
8) Ph ys ical ch aracteris tics of the land must permit advan-
tageous planning an d reasonably economical construction.
9) The surrounding road pattern an d the accessibility of
th e land must allow th e full utilization of the business
potential of the projected center.
1O) The p ossibility of achie,ing visibility of the shopping
center structure from m ajar thoroughfares must be present.
11) Surrounding land uses sh ould be compatible with the
operation, free of competiti,e developments; and should,
if possible, offer contributing an d enhancing character-
istics.
Only rarely will an imestigated site completely fulfill
all the requirements listed abme. In most cases, advantages
will h ave to be weighed and balanced against shortcomings.
If a site is to be selected, then the most logical procedure
is to consider the a,ailable sites within the location,
analyze each of them, and acquire the site that best rneets
the eleven standard requirements.
In most cases, however, th e site already exists. The owner
of a piece of land has concluded that his site, which his
forefathers may ha,e used for farming, railroad yards, or for
the family m ansion, is ideally suitable for a shopping center.
These "would-be" sites are usuall y regarded by their
owners with the same affection that a mother feels for her
children. Unfortunately they do not always li\e up to the
fond hopes of the owners.
It is probable that most poorly operating shopping
centers in the United States are loca ted on such " acci-
dental " sites. H owe\'er, there is always a possibility that the
wishful thinking of the own er coincides with sa tisfactory
location and site conditions. Such " existing" sites will have
to be scrutinized for loca tion requirem ents (see Part J,
Chapter 2) as well as for th e standard site requirements.
\Vh ere entirely new communities are being created, site
selection becomes part of th e over-all master planning
procedure; and developer and plann er find themselves in
the enviable position of b cing able to set as ide, b efare a
single structure has been plann ed or erected, the most
adva ntageous site in accordance with the ele\en standard
rules. In such cases, a great adva ntage exists because sur-
rounding areas and traffic can be planned simultaneously
with site loca tion . If developers and planners act with
wisdom , foresight, and inge nuity, they will h ave the un-
precedented opportunity of creat ing the " ideal" sh opping
center site.
\Ve will now investiga te in grea ter detail the require-
ments inherent in the eleven rul es .
l) Location of Site. \Ve mentan aga in that the correct
location from th e point of view of business potential is of
overridin g importance.
2) The Possibility of Acquisition. Ordinarily, it is pos-
sible to spot severa] sites which would be suitable for a
sh opping center development within the gen eral area of
favorable locati on ch arac teristics. On e of th ese will usually
h ave m ore advantages than oth ers. Th e problem then
becomes one of intelligently ascertaining economic and
physical virtues. Ph ys ical conditions should be considered
in th e light of economics since design and engin eering are
advanced to the point where almost any site can be used,
provided it is large enough and the cost of making it
suitable for construction is not unduly high .
The acquisition of a selected site usually begins with an
inves tiga tion by the prospec tive buyer, or h is broker, of
existing own ership of on e or more parcels of land. In m ost
areas wh ere sufficient potential for a majar center exists,
a substantial amount of property h as already been de-
veloped, leaving relatively few isolated parcels of sufficient
size. Since these locations are generall y wi thin settled
residential areas, property h as usually been subdivided to
such a degree th at fragm entation of ownersh ip presents a
serious probl em . Obviously, sites under single ownership
or large parcels in ideally situated locations are rare.
\ Vhen one attempts to select a site in a predominantly
rural area to simplify acquisition and reduce land cost,
res ults are apt to b e un satisfac tory. Because there is a
maximum sales volume per square foot of fl oor space that
can be realized by a t ypical retail tenant of a sh opping
center, it is necessary to tailor th e entire economic struc-
ture of a project to that maximum. Locating a project in
a rural area will usually tend to lower this attain able sales
volume. Therefore, hmd acquisition must always take place
within th e econ omic framework, wh ich establish es both a
ceiling on the p rice that can be paid for property and a
fl oor under the quality of the location that can be tolerated,
in \'iew of the fact th at building and oth er improvement
costs are li kely to be similar rega rdless of loca tion .
G ood loca tions, even with high land costs, are likely to
produ ce successful pro jects, whereas similar developments
in poor location s, with low land cost, may result in failure
both as m erchandising \'entures and as investments. The
acquisition problem is intensified in the case of regional
sh opping centers because of the need for large tracts of land
-extremely difficult t o fin d in satisfac tory locati on s under
one ownership .
l\1ultiplc ownership of the proposed site frequently re-
sults in protracted negotiations. V ery oft en developers can
acquire control of substantial parts of the site b ut find that
one or two pro perty owners are " h olding out. " The owners
ma y be gen uin ely un willing to sell on any basis (for senti-
mental or other reasons) or th ey may sense that the value
of their paree! might increase substantially if they h old on
to it long enough . Therc are nu merous cxamples of re-
gional cen ters in which such " h old out" parcels exist, even
aft er many yea rs of operation . Sorn e of th ese take the form
of single family residenccs loca tcd almost in the middle of
a large parking lot.
\ Vhate1er the reasons, " hold out" cases fr eq uently occur
and result in greatly inflated prices for port ions of the
total site. H owe\er, because regional shoppi ng centers
probably represen! th e m ost in tcnsive land use that can
be plan ned in suburban areas, it is usualh well within
reason to acquire e\en expensivc single parcels in order t o
complete th c acqu isiti on of a site, prmided th at the over-
all average price of land does not cxcced a fi gnre that can
be justified with in th e econornic framework.
It has b een establish ed beyond a doub t that properties
ad jacent to such majar commercial enterprises appreciate
in value, primaril y by reason of the cen ter's traffic-gener-
atin g capacity. 1l1ese areas can be expected to support eco-
nom icall y office buildings, research and light industrial
facilities, ho tels, motels, recreational fac ilities, ga rden apart-
ments or high rise apartments, as well as add ition al non-
competiti ve retail facilities. Though a great increase in the
value of frin ge p roperty can be anticipated over a period of
one to ten yea rs following completion of a project, there are,
of course. cases wh ere it is either im possible to get com-
plete cont rol, or wh ere speculati,e acti on h as already full y
discoun ted the in\'estmen t ,alue. Cllle land usage of
fr inge properties will be discussed more fully in Part II,
Chapter 4 .)
The need to m inimize acqu isition costs, coupled with the
des irability of obtaining as much property as poss ible in
order to accomm odate frin ge property uses and to pro-
vide for future growth of the sh opping center itself, fre-
qu ently necessitates a compromise as far as loca tion is
concern ed . Because the principal controlling fac tor for
site acquisition is busin ess potential, compromises with
39
 regard to location sh ould be made only if it can be estab-
lish ed with absolute certainty that the economic p otential
of the e en ter wiil not suffer.
3) Reasonable Cost. Virtually all sizes and types of
shopping center, wh ether neighborh ood, intermediate or
regional, are faced with approximately the same acreage
cost limitations, as far as land acquisition is concerned.
However, the extent to which total imestment in land is
justified is often related to the availability of certain
tenants. If, for example, a strong department store tenant
is interested in the center, then the project will assume
regional proportions and the mnimum amount of land
required will be 40 acres, the maxim um 200 acres and
more. For a 40-acre paree], a land investment of well over
one million dollars may be justified. At the other end of
the scale are those projects which could anticpate a super-
market as a dominant tenant and majar traffic generator,
in which case the project might only require five acres
with a m aximum imestmen t in land of possibly $200,000.
Because construction costs, architect ural standards, land
costs, rents and sales potential vary from location to loca-
tion, e\en within the same city and, of course, from city
to city and region to region. it is impossible to generalize
about a reasonable cost for site acquisition. The amount
which can be justified for land acquisition cost depends,
furthermore, on site improvement, building costs and
obtainable rents, and on the proportion of h igh -rent to
low-rent ten:mts within a given project. For exam ple, if the
proportion of department store space in rela tion to the
total building area of th e project is ,en h igh , then a rela-
tivelv lower land cost mav be indicated. In such cases,
man; developers find that they can create a satisfactory
investment only by selling a portian of th e land to the
departm ent store an d thus separate this land cost and
construction cost from the rest of the project.
I\'Iost regional sh opping centers are developed b y en-
trepreneurs prepared to accept a substantial risk under
circumstances where th e ultimate development possibilities
cann ot be predicted, rath er th an by institutional imestors
interested in securing lower but safer returns (see Part T,
Ch apter 1). For high er risks. land must be cheaper. Tt is
not possible t o define th e extent to which the interest of
the entrepreneur differs fr om that of the long-term imestor.
H owever. th e entrepreneur, without a commitment in
advance from a majar tenant, is usuallv unwilling t o pay
more th an one-third of the land value likely to be developed
when the project is completed. T h is probably limits max-
imum lnd costs for such en terprises to less than $40,000
per acre and this price can only be considered for property
th at can be developed immediately.
4) Zoning of Site. A site zoned for commercial use
ordinarily costs more th an one zo ned for residential or
agricultura] use. H oweer, it is not m andatory th at a
selected site be com m erciall~ zoned. since in many cases
40
a logical location can be rezoned (see Part I, Chapter 4).
:tvlajor sites \'ery often are not zoned commercially at the
outset. This mav be du e to the characteristic type of strip
zoning which p'revails in many of our suburban areas or
to the unwillingness of zoning commissioners to grant
unusually large amounts of commercial zoning to any one
owner without knowing in advance the manner, methods,
and exten t of comm ercial developm ent. The effort required
to obtain rezoning is, of course, likely to be time-consum-
ing and cos tly, but both of these factors can usually b e held
wi thin reasonable limits. Experience indicates th at rezon-
ing may be obtained ,,ithin eighteen months after the
exploratory ph ase of the project has commenced if the
zo nin g officials have been notified in advance and h ave
given sorne assurance of a fa,orable attitude. Howe,er,
since th ere is always a certain risk prcsent that rezon ing
may not be obtained. planning \\'Ork sh ould not proceed
too far befare the zoning problem is solved.
5) T he Size of the Site. ln Part JI, Chapter 3 we shall
discuss thoroughly the various elements of a shopping
center and their relative space needs. " 'e also sh all ex-
plore a number of methods by which th ese elements can
be placed, and we will sh ow that great fl exibility exists in
this respect. Theoretically. a shopping center of about
500.000 square feet of renta] area can be placed on a site
ranging anywh ere from H to 66 acres. Qb,iously, how-
ever, smaller sites will forc e unusual arrangements which
result in high capital expenditure and will be found usable
only under specific economic conditions.
The greatest fre edom in th e placement of sh opping
center elements is offered in the large regional cen ter, the
most limited in th e small neighborh ood center. The reason
for this is that stores in a neighborhood cen ter ch arac ter-
istically call for a one-level arrangement. In contras t to
this, in a regional center which contains large retail units,
space elements can be stacked ,ertically, sometimes as high
as fi\e levels.
" rhere,er possible, the size of the site should provide
not o nl ~ for th e initially indicated amount of renta] space
but space for growth as well (see Part TI. Chapter 5). In
most suburban locations th e cost of land per square foot
will be less than th e square foot construction cost of a
parking structure. Land costs for suburban centers will
vary between 1O ~ and $2.00 per square foot. Tf one con-
siders that the construction cost of double-deck parking,
depending on location and oth er circumstances, vares
between S 3.00 and $6.00 per square foot, it becomes ob-
vious that the acqu isition of additional land will n early
always be less costly than the construction of two-deck or
multi-deck parking facilities. T h e most desirable size for
a site, therefore, is one that will perrnit th e construction
of a sh opping cen ter in which all elemen ts can be placed
easily.
There are. of course, th ose cases in which the most de-
sirable site, in the most desirable loca tion and of suffi.cient
 size, simply cannot be found . In such cases, investigation
will have to be undertaken to determine whether an un- ci
conventional arrangement of merchandising operations will
be acceptable to the major tenants and wheth er additional
costs accru ing from unconventional construct ion or multi- Disadva ntageous shapes fo r site. 1) L is
deck parking facilities can be jus tified by th e income disproportionately large in relation to D .
potential. If such inves tiga tion sh ould show a negative
result, the project will h ave to be abandoned or greatl y
reduced, even if a large shopping potentia] does exist.
Before deciding to build a small er center than would
satisfy the existing potential, one sh ould consider care-
full y whether such a decision would lead to inh erent weak-
nesses: the center might not then be large and important
2) Portion marked U made useless.
enough to exert the pulling power necessary fo r e1en the
reduced size, or it might not be able to stand up success-
full y against existing or fut ure competition.

6) The Shape of the Site. The sh ape of the site may

prove to be undesirable in a number of ways. Jf th e dimen-
sion L (Length ) is disproportionately large in relation to
th e dimension D (D epth ), then it may be im possible to
arrive at a successfull and usage plan . If L is the dimension
of the site adjoining the major road, one may fi nd that
parki ng facilities cannot be comenien tl y arranged and that
a strip-like development wi th o1erextended walki ng dis-
tances between stores would res ult. Tf D should be the
dimension of the property along the roadway, then site
planning would suffer on accoun t of poo r access ibility, 3) Irregu lar shape.
poor visibility and overextended driving and walking dis-
tances.
In the case of wedge-shaped or irregular-shaped sites it
is possible that certain portions of the site may have to be
rul ed out in considering the placing of elements of the
shopping center. For example, the portian marked U in
the illustrations may prove useless for either structures or
transportation areas and woul d, for all practica! purposes.
have to be disregarded in considering the size of the site.
12
A

Should the re maining portion, R . still be suffic ient for the

de1elopment of the shopping center, the site might still
be regarded as suitable. However, in any consideration of
irregular-shaped sites, exploratory planning will have to
indicate whether a successful shopping center with the Disad1antageous sites.
specified renta! area can be logicall y placed on the land. 1) Beca use ot di1ision by highll'ays.
Thus, irregular sites, even if their acreage is theoretically
sufficien t, may prove unsuitable because their fui! utiliza-
tion is not feasi ble. In exceptional cases irregular shapes
1 may lead the imaginati1e architect to interesting new ex-
pressions and solutions. Usually, h owever, even the use --- - \
of great inge nu ity results only in forced, expensive solu- 1 1
1 1
tions and the site may have to be declared unsuitable. A 1
1
1 1
7) The Site Must be in One Piece. A site that consists 1
- - - -~ 1
of pa rcels A, B and C wh ich are divided fr om each other J

by high ways number I and 2, is not a site at all; it is

three sites . lf it can be proveo that piece A alone is suf-
ficient to take care of the elements of a com plete shopping 2) Because of existence of right-of ll'a)'.

-fl
 center, then B and e could be used for secondary elernents
- possibly for a secondary rna rket or for non-retail
purposes . An y atternp t to place the rnain elernents of one
sh opping cen ter on the separated pieces A, s and e , is
Section through site on which cut and fill
bound to be self-defeating. Such efforts would create can be balanced.
undesirable and unsafc traf!ic conditions, inter-sh opping
would be irn possible and econornic failure could res ult .
A right-of-wav cutting through a site of acceptable size
and shape rn ay reduce or des troy its usefuln ess . If piece
A, to the left of th e right-of-way, is in itself sufficient to
accornm odate all majar elern cn ts of th e sh opping center,
1 ~1
then B rnigh t be utilized for secondary elern ents like re-
serve parking. O\'erf!ow parking, or perh aps, marketing
Disadl'antageous site needing maior fill
facilities. The disadva ntages of the right-of-way as a foot
importation.
traf!i c barrier may be overcomc by bridging for pedes trian
walks. In sorne cases, addit ional b ridges for the distribu-
tion of parking traf!ic may become necessary. The cost of
such impro\'ements will havc to be carefull y weigh ed in
relation to the 0\'er-all econom ic framework and b efare
deciding to undertakc them, C\'ery effort sh ould be made
eith er to remo1e the right-of-wav or to ch ange its rou ting
towards the periphery. Site requiring maior earth m o1ement with
Similar considerati ons pre\'a il if majar wa terways - por tions marked A remaining unusable.
brooks, canals, arroyos, drainage ditch es, etc.- sh oul d cut
th ro ugh a site. Re-routing, bridging or total covering will
have to be imestiga ted. Th orough in ves tiga tion into the
danger of f! ooding will haYe to be made. If remedi es are 1 2
R
feas ible wi th in th e econorn ic fra mework, or if a portian R
of the site lying to one side of the wat em ay is of suf!icient
size to acco rnm odate th e mai n elements of the sh opping
center, the site will be accep table. O therwise, it will h a\'e Slopin g site wlJich ca n be utilized br two-
to be rejected . Je,e/ arrangement.
Rights-of-way of telephone lines, power lines and other
utilities migh t also diminish th e usability of a site. In the
case of South Bav e enter in Redondo Beach n ear Los
Angeles, for exa ~ple, a largc site was divided into two be relati\'ely si mple if cut and fill can b e balanced. \11
pieces by a broad right-of-way for po\\'er lines . Using the majar earth movern ent operations are costl y and usually
righ t-of-way for roadways was perrnissible, but it could n ot result in the loss of usable land . The illustration sh ows a
b e utilized for parkin g facilities or structures. In this case site in which the portions marked "A" cann ot be utilized
only the larger portian to one sicle of th e power line right- by th e sh opping center; furth errn ore. problems are created
of-way was utilized for a regional sh opping center, while in the transfer of road tra f!ic to parking arcas.
th e smaller porti an was used for recreati onal facilities con- Undesirable topographic conditions are sometirnes cou-
sisting of a bowling alley, restauran t ancl social hall. eer- pled wi th exceptionallv low land costs. In such cases,
tain benefits were gainecl for both sh opping center and the cos t of earth rn ol'ement ca n usuall l' be absorbed with-
recreational facilities because of the possibility for inter- in the econornic frarn ework . Tf land c~s t s n ormal, how-
ch ange of automobile traf!i c bctween the two site portions. eYer, the extent and cos t of such additional si te preparation
The arca under the power lines was att ractiYely landscaped rnust be giYen carcful conside ration. Tf a site slopes slghtly,
to encourage foot traf!ic . (see illustrati on) and its slopc coincides \\'ith the slope of

8) Phys ical eharacteristics. The topography of the land
ca n be an important factor; steep slopes, upwa rd or down-
ward frorn surround ing roadways. n ecessita te un comen-
tion al plannin g. * ExtensiYe gradi ng will be required if a
hill must be cut down and th e cut used to build up a
plateau, or if large filling operations are necessary for which
fill material may h ave to he imported . Th e si tuation will
Two-level or multi-leYel projects present unusual economic leas-
ing and plann ing problems. T hey req uire th orough study and
superior skills on the part of the planning tea m and its assistants.
F urther information, based on opera ting experience, will become
a\ailable in the near future. as a number of such centers have
opened recently. Both positive and negative operatin g res ults
should be ca refullr weighed in the light of oth er preva iling condi-
tions befare judgment is exercised .

-f2
the surrounding roads, then an opportun ity for a two-level
arrangement of buildings might exist. In th is case, Building
Group No. 1 would be one story high. The second floor
of Building Group No. 2 would th en be entered by ramps
or stairs fr om th e pedestrian area, while its first f\oor could
be ente red directl y from the parkin g area . l\ lany oth er
va riations can be developed th rough site plan ning and
architectural design by which apparent disadvantages of
irregular topography can be turn ed into positive advantages.
The chances for succeedin g in this respcct will be grea ter
for large shopping centers than for small ones, greater for
centers with very high incom e potcntial than for those
with lower potential. Sometimes it is feasible to take ad-
vantage of a slope by arranging double-deck parking on th e
lower porti on of the site and store ent rances on two levels.
The illustration shows that Building Group No. l would
be one-story high . Building Group No. 2 would h ave one
floor and basem ent with a portian of the latter used for
retail purposes.
From th e above it can be concluded that, depending on
th e degree of the slope, on th e placement of th e shopping
center elements, on the size of th e center and on its eco-
nomic potential, sites with unusual topography may lend
th emseh-es to de,elopment withou t major sacrifices. In
other cases, th ey can be utili zed onl y by introducing add i-
tional construction fea tures resulting in additional costs..
The magnitude of such add itional costs will be an impor-
tant considera tion whcn decidin g on the suitability of the
subject site.
9) Accessibility. Jn Part 11, Chapter 6, we will discuss the
methods by which peak traffic loads for shopping centers
can be pre-establish ed. The road net su rrou nding a center
must h ave th e capacity to carry such peak loads, as well
as n ormal traffic, without strain . Jf it is found that the
road system cannot carry th e addit ional peak traffic loads
th e center would generate, th en the following must be
investigated :
a) \Vhether auth orities are willing. ready an d able to
implement road imprO\ements to correct this condition.
b) If this sh ould n ot be the case, whe th er th e developer
would be permitted to undertake the necessary im prove-
ments at his own cost, possibly with an agreem ent for
later reimbursement. Calculate the costs of such im-
provement and determin e whether th ey can be absorbed
within th e econ om ic framework.
e) lf a and b sh ould prove to be negative, th en the
existing reserve carrying capacity of the road system
would have to be establish ed and calculations made as
to what size sh opping centcr could be constructed with-
in th e fram ework of this traffic - beari ng capacity. If it
were sh own th at th e shopping center sch eme would h ave
to be reduced to the point where the shrunken renta]
area would render it economicallv unsound; or if it
became ev ident that a sh opping ce~ ter of such redu ced
size could not stand up successfull y against existing or
- R
R
Sloping site which can be developed by
the introduction of doub le-deck parking
on the lower portion.
T
R R
Only t!Jc roofs will be ,isible from sur
rounding roads.
future compctition 1 the site would h a,e to be rejected.
Accessibility is judged not only on the bas is of the carry-
ing ca pacity of the surrounding road sys tem but also
on a basis of smooth and com enient transfer from the
road system to the site. \ Vhere limited-access high way or
topographic conditions restrict such possibilities, orderly
transfer may prove difficult to obtain. It may be possible
to establish satisfactory transfer by the constru ction of
ramps. over passes, cloverleaves, signaling de,ices or sim-
ilar measurcs. The cost of such improvements and
wh ether such costs will be borne bv th e authorities or
by the de,eloper are decisive factor~ in arriving at con-
clusions concerning the suitability of the site.
JO ) Visibilitv. If surrounding roads are located high above
the- main sh opping center leve], visibility may be confined
ent irely to th e roofs of buildings. Jnas much as roofs of
commercial structures are usuall y pierced by ducts, sh afts
and pipes, they tend to be unattractive and create poor
visibility fr om a promotional point of view. Various design
devices like the construction of sign towers migh t b e em-
ployed to coun terac t such ill effects. However, th e cost
and effectiveness of such special structures should be con-
sidered befare accepting th e site as suitable.
The surrou ndin g roads may be located considerably
lower than the main leve] of the site. In that case, drivers
would have a view of grassy slopes an d might easily drive
b y th e sh opping center, unaware of its existence. This
might be counterac ted by attractive signs if they are suf-
ficientl y effectivc to justify their cost.
Onlr th e slopes will be visible from sur-
rounding roads.
+3
 B B
R R
Existing structures conceal tlJ e site from
surro unding roads.
Existing structures, such as commercial buildings, bill-
boards, and residences, may block any view of the center.
The possibility of removing at least sorne of these structures
and the cost of doing so would have to be considered before
accepting the site.
Lack of visibility \\'Ould be most harmful to the small
and intermediate center. The large regional center can at
least par tl y mercome th e disadvantages of poor visibility
by advertising and by the general prominence of the center
in the public's consciousness. However, poor visibility is a
strike against successful operation. A site with extremel y
poor visibility should be chosen only if there are distinct
ad\'a ntages to make up for th is disad\'antage.
H owever, we would like to stress that it is not essential
that each individual store have visibility. The need for
such visibility has been highl y overrated by chain store
organizations and oth er tenants. \Vhat does count is gen-
eral visibility of the shopping center, of its signs, its
lan dscaping and the general contour of its building mass.
This statement gains in validity as the shopping center
increases in size. The success of a large center does not
depend on the ability of dri1ers to identify the names of
individual stores from surrounding roads or even from

NortlJiand SlJopping Center, Detroit. Not e1en tlJe department store features a large sign.
Arc1Jitects: V ictor G ruen Associates. PlJ otograplJ: PlJ otograp} House, Detroit
 surrounding parking areas. Proof of this statement is offered sh ould be acquired by the developers, even if comparatively
' by th e fac t that in one of th e most successful shopping high prices for th e acquisition have to b e paid.
centers, Northland, near Detroit, th e department store \Vh ere retail competition is already in existence in th e
does not feature a sign that can be read from th e surround- immediate vicinity of th e sh opping center, th e effects of
ing areas. The b eneficia] effects of visibili ty are establishecti such competition should be taken into consideration in the
by the skylin e of the building cluster and by th e pleasant economic analys is.
landscaping of the buffer areas, as well as by four landmark Summarizing. it can be concluded that th e selection of
signs placed in strategic places visible from the surrounding
roads. T h e architectural ch aracter which cxpresses size and
J a site poses complex problems. A proper decision in respect
to th e suitability of a particular site can onl y be reached
importance of the institution is, in a regional shopping if al! conditions are properly accounted for and economic
center, vastly more important than the readability of signs effects are calculated in dollars. Tmaginative planning and
from surrou nding roads. architectural design ca n frequentl y compensate for a series
of unfavorable features- provided, however, th at th e gen-
11) Sunounding Areas. Sites (es pecially for larger centers) eral location is suitab le in every respect.
that offer no possibility for controlling the development of
surrounding meas must be regarded as less desirable than This Jist indica tes the reJative im porta nce various factors might
assume in decisions concerning site seJection.
those in which such controls are feasible (see Part TI,
Chapter 4). Tt is most essential to b e able to exercise such SITE SELECTION WEIGHT LIST
control when properties n ear th e sh opping center, either VALUES
l. LOCATION 50
abutting or facing it on the opposite side of the street, are
l. Pcpulction wit hin one mi le- Qucntity 5
commercially zoned or when a strong possibility exists that 3
2. Pcpulction within ene mi le- Quclity
such zoning might takc place in the foreseeable futur e. Tn 3. Populotion within five miles- Qucntity 7
such cases, the probabili ty th at "non-conforming" uses
might develop is ext re mcly grea t. \Ve ch aracterize as non-
4. Pcpulcticn within five miles- Quclity
5. Populotion frcm rural cre e - Qucntity "
2
1
conformin g all uses which " ould interfere with an orderly 6. Populcticn frcm rural oreo - Quolity
7. Pedestrian Traffic Shapping al Adjacent Stares 5
and successful opera ti on of th e shopping center. Enter- 8. Pedestrian Traffic Nearby lar Other Purpases 3
prises which generate an excessive amount of traffic, noise 9. Public Transpartcticn 5
or smells, must be regard ed in this light . \Ve also have 10. Automobile Troffic- Qucntity 4
11. Automabile Trcffic- Avcilcbility 4
to include in this category uses which would create a dis-
12. Directian al Populcticn Growth 7
orderly and ugly appearance. Especially unwelcome is the
possibility that fringe areas might be utilized for competi- 11. AREA 15
tive retail facilities which could assurne th e ch aracteristics 13. Size of Plot 15
of "pirating" en terprises. Such "pirates" are stores that
111. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 25
utilize the su perior faciliti es for parking and access created
14. Shcpe of Plot for Design 4
by a sh opping center and attempt to partake of the center's 8
15. Plot nct Divided by Trcffic lenes
power of attraction with out rn aki ng an y contributions of 16. Lcccticn en Artericls for Ecse ol Trcffic Control 4
their own. Such pirating stores will tend to overburden 17. Ccst ol Clearing cnd Grcding 2
the parking facilities and interfere with th e orderl y traffic 18. Ccst of Utilities cnd Drcincge 2
19. Visibility 3
flo w. T h ey rnay also, because of their inferior and ch eaper
20. Surrounding Arecs 2
structures and facilities, be able to und ersell the tenants
located in th e shopping center and siph on off a portian IV. AVAILABILITY 10
of th e buying potential. 21. Eose of Acquisition ond Time 6
Thus, in cases wh ere commercially zoned or to-be-zoned 22. Ces! 4
fringe properties exist, it is desirable th at such property 100%

45
 PART J:-CHAPTER 4
Zoning
"'h en a site is no t zoned so as to permit the construc-
ti on of commercial facilities. th e developer \\'ill h a1e to
use e1er~ effort to ach ie1e rezonin g. Also. \\'hen portions
of th e su rrounding area are zo ncd for purposes contrary
to th e bes t interes ts of th e sh opping centcr, rezoning efforts
mi ght be indicated.
TI1 e intent of zoning is to brin g a semblance of arder
into dmamic but anarchisticall y cxpanding areas and to
guide th eir gro\\' th along more desirable lines. In the
United States th e idea of zonin g occurred as a reaction
to th c rapid industrialization that took place during the
second lwlf of th e Nineteenth Cen tury. at a time \\'hen
th e separati on of home and facton secmed of greatest
urgency. T cchn ologv \\'as still in its adolescence. and smoke-
belching industrial pbnts cast a p:~ll of soo t, smoke. gri me
and noise O\'Cr th c h omes \\'hich surrounded th em. Zoning
coincided \\'ith th e mass Ai ght from dirt~ citi es and the
birth of su burbia.
TI1 e reaction ag:~i n s t priniti,e technology resulted in
strict sep:~ra ti o n of land usage into industri:~l and resi-
dential zones. As years \\'Cnt by. zoning b\\'s \\'ere furthe r
refincd and communitics ll"erc diYided into residential
zones of \"ar\'ing dcnsit y and magc: commercial zones
co,cri ng a \'aricty of classi fi cat ions: and industrial zones of
num crous t~ pcs. Zoning \\':J~ the first practica] stcp in the
dircction of cit y plannin g hut bccausc plannin g experi ence
was limited. rcgubtions ,,crc frcqucntlv applied \\'th undue
rigidi ty an d more oftcn than not \\'Crc rathcr impractical.
For cxamplc. in 191 6 zonin g for thc ci t ~ of N e\\' York
"\\'ould pcrmit ... a ni ghtmarc of 55 m illion residents and
46
j
Z50 million workers,"* while in th e suburbs commercial
zoning was pro\'ded far beyond thc possible n eeds of the
community. It was com mon practice an d. unfortunately, is
still th e practicc in many communities today. to zone rib-
hons of land along all major submhan roads at a depth of
100-200 feet for commercial use . This type of zonin g ga\'e
birth to ribbo n or strip cJe,elopments with inadequate park-
ing facilities . This created traflic congestion un til n orm al
traflic on th ese suburban hi ghways became mpossible.
As zonng legislation matured. attention \\'as tu rned to
such factors as th e size. sh ape and location of bu ildings in
relation to each other and to lot lines. Zonng is an emi-
nently useful an d mportant planning de1ice . That the
presenation of public \\'elfare s inherent in zoning h as
bcen recognized by the courts of the bnd. The courts
ha,c held that districts crcated through such regulatons,
free from dsturbing conditons, from risks, from detri-
ments to health. \\'ill further th e maintenance of th e Amer-
ican familv. Th e exercise of policc po\\'er that is con stituted
in zoning regulations is del egated to local gm-ernment by
th e state.
The problems \\'hich arise from zoning regulations do
not stem fr om th e basic princples inh erent in th e zoning
concept but rather from th e fact that the deta il ed applica-
ti on and administration of zonin g la\\'s have not kept pace
\\'th technological de1elopments, especiall y in th e las t
thirty years.
From PrefJce to "Proposal for a Ncw Zoning Resolu tion'' by
James Fdt.
 Sm okc-belching industrial plants of primi-
til'e techn ology.

EXISTING ZONING
G o

'4--- -----";;.J....,' ~ 1.....- .- - - ---- - - - - - - - - - -,

~ 1
1
J j
.1

1
l

1
--,
L--.__!

T ypica l co mrn crcial zoHe along submban highii'J)'.

C omtes)' al H arla nd Bartlwlomew and Associat es

47

Today we begin to perceive th at although sorne uses are
obviously incompatible, there are many others which can
and should be arranged clase to each oth er as integral parts
of communitv life. In other words, all types of non-resi-
dential ac tivities are not necessaril v undesirable in pre-
dominantl v residential areas. Sh ops and stores provide an
essential s~rvice for residents, somewhat akin to schools
and librari es. \Vorking places that do not create disturbing
noises, smells or sights - ofli ces for doctors and dentists,
general o!lices, techni cal laboratories and even light in-
du stry - can be an asset, if properly arranged, rather th an
a disadvantage to nea rby residences. Their proper location
as an integral portian of a residential community will
sh or ten or eliminate drivin g time and thus contribute to
an easing of our traflic problems. Regional application of
zoning ordinances h as created vast stretches of suburba n
"bedroom" towns far d istant from places where th e resi-
dents ca n work, shop, seek professional advice or satisfy
th eir need for entertai nment, social activities or cultural
enrichment. Zoning standards, now based more or less super-
ficially on categories of buildings, must be modified to in-
elude perform ance and use standards for va rious types of
structures. These regulations will h ave to prohibit place-
ment of any structure th at creates nuisances such as odor,
noise, dirt, etc. in areas used for residential purposes or for
an y other purpose th at requires qui et and restfulness.
The conviction is growi ng in all parts of the cou n try
that th e application an d administraban of zonin g regula-
ti ons must ch ange in th e direc ti on discussed. Progressive
planners. planning commissions and zoning b oards are
generally receptive to considera tion of these facts.
The modern sh opping center which integrates com-
mercial, business, entertainm ent and cultural facilities with-
in a carefully planned framew ork, which separates various
mod es of trafli c from each oth er, and which provides for
th e protecti on of surrounding residental areas from any
objectionable performan ces. h as made a significant con-
tribution in this direction.
Th e shopping center dcveloper who h as selected a site
m ay enco unter one of th e following situations so far as
zonin g is con cerned: l ) The si te is commercially zoned,
or zoned for a " lower" use, and there is no problem. 2)
The si te is located in a community which h as not yet
adopted a zoning m as ter plan. In that case, it is likely
th at the local planning board will consider a developer's
indicated preparedness to proceed with th e development
of a well-planned shopping centcr and will be willing t o
grant corresponding zonin g. 3) Only a small portian, usu-
all y a narrow strip along the h ighways, is zoned for com-
mercial usage. The remainder is zo ned residentiall y or else
th e entire si te area is zoned rcsidentialh-. In this case, the
owner will have to appl y for rezoning ~f a portian of th e
site or of the ent ire site.
Even where co mmercial zonin g does exist, regulations
dcaling with set-backs and building heights could create
difli culties for a well-planned shopping center; in such in-
48
\\'
stances application for m odifi ca tions m ay h ave to be m ade. 1
Off-street parkin g requirements. oft en con tained in zoning ,
ordin ances, usuall y call for parking standards quantitatively 1
below th e ones a good sh opping center would n ormally :
provide; thus di!liculti es are, in this respect, only rarely '
encountered. 1
The ~akeup of_ a_zoning ofli ce _vares. ln th e sm all ~ity 'J
the zon mg commlSSIOner both _r:v1ews and checks a ppb~- 1
tions and acts also as an adm m1strator. In th e larger Clty ~
orga nization the zoning ad~in istrator's ~ol~ function is to
settl e variances and exceptwns; the bmldmg depar tment :
l
handles all cases imolng th e enforcement of zoning !
regulations; and the receiving of applications and reviews l.
is vested in a planning staff. 1
The responsibility of th e zonin g agency lies entirely :
wi thin the following sphere of activi ti es: i) To receive ;md .1
review zoning applica tions. ii ) T o review building plans in
th e light of compliance with zoning regula tions. iii) To 1
inspect existing conditions and prosecute violators of ard-
nances. iv) T o proccss zo ning ch ange application s. v) To 1
adse the governing bodv or oth er oflicials concern ed about
zonin g matters. vi ) To defend existing ordin ances and
decisions. ,-ji) T o es tablish and admi nister rules and pro-
cedures for the application . processing, and d isposition of 1
zonin g problems.
Normally, zonin g actions and decisions ma y be appealed 1
to an Appellate Tribunal with th e ultimate possibility of
appeal to th e courts, so th at th e interests of both com-j
mu nity and individual are safeguarded. It is n ormal pro-
cedure for the zoning applicati on to be publish ed. Zoning .
investigators examine conditions in th e field and a report t
is made. A public h ea ring notice is then published and
affected property own ers within a certain distance of the
project are, as a rule, notifi ed by m ail. Norm ally the hear-
ing is condu cted befare th e Zoning Board . At th at time
th e propon ents and any op ponents of the zoning change
will be given an egua] op p o rtunit~ to be h eard, to present
witnesses for or against th e ch ange and to bri ng to bear
all evidence which might be of interes t to the coun cil or
commission in making its decision. After the h ea ring, the
material present ed is reviewed and a decision rendered-
in sorn e cases, th e applica ti on is gra nted in part and denied
in anoth er part. During th e legally required public h earing
any residents within the affected area have th e right to
be heard and the grantin g of the zon ing applica tion may
be infl.uenced by their testimony. Therefore, it is advisable.
to es tablish good public relations, in advance of the h eari ng,.
within th e entire area not only from the point of view
of favorable results for th e zoning application, but also
in a rder to es tablish a favorable climate for th e future
operation of th e sh opping center.
!'dore often th an not an application for a large or
rn ediurn-sized sh opping center will arouse unfriendly re-
ac tions in residents of surro unding areas arising from
,arious fears and anxieties: shopping center traflic.
might invade quiet residential streets; blatant signs and !
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other expressions of poorly designed commercial structures Brochure prepared by Southdale Shopping Center.
may mar the charac ter of the area; res iden tial streets may It was distributed to area residents befare a zo ning
be used by shopping center visitors for curb parking, etc. meeting.
Such concerns are understandable because the average per-
son is familiar only with the unplanned commercial strip
development. One of the most important tasks for the
developer is to convince all interes ted parties that his shop-
ping center will not bring about any of the disturbances
usually connected with inferior commercial development
and that it will, by careful planning, achieve harmonious
integration with the neighborh ood. H e should also explain
the advantages his project will bring to the community:
tax income to the municipality; complete sh opping facili-
ties near the residential area; landscaped pedestrian malls
with park-like treatment; recreational and community facil-
ities such as auditoriums and meeting rooms. This informa-
tion should be disseminated a reasonable time befare the
public hearing. Printed brochures \\'hich describe the char-
ac teristics of the project, lectures befare civic orga nizations

-+9
 and service clubs showing slides depicting the features of
the project, articles in local newspapers, etc. are sorne of
the instrurnents that can be used effectively. It would be
wise to contac t the Charnber of Cornrnerce and other in-
terested parties who rnight be affected b y the decision, to
explain the plannin g of th e project in detail. . District. The conditions of this portian are designed, on the
At th e public h earing th e developer should present h1s
case in a forceful but dignified rnann er. H e should support
his presentation by illustrations, slides, rnodels, etc. He
sh ould be prepared to answer, in a clear and friendl y rnan-
ner, questions and even attacks frorn the audience. He will
undoubtedly be asked what effect th e sh opping center will
h ave on th e \'alue of residential property in th e surround-
ing area. He sh ould, th erefore, be prepared to present
factual proof that residential real estate values in areas sur-
roundin g well planned shopping centers grea tl y increase in
value. The developer rnay fin all y be asked what would h ap-
pen if, aft er cornmercial zoning for th e site h ad been
granted, h e sh ould change his ideas or sell to another
developer whose aims and meth ods would be less lofty.
This question could be answered by citing a number of
special ordinances for regional sh opping centers which h ave
been proposcd and adopted. These go far bcyond the fr ame-
work of the usual commercial zon ing ordinance in setting
forth qualificati ons land usage h as to rneet.
In the case of Southdalc Ccn ter. located in th e Village
of Edina, l\ linnesota, a special Regional Shopping District
was established. TI1e follo\\'ing restrictions are part of th e
new ordinance:
1} Parking and Traffic Facilities. Na building permit shall be issued lar
the erectian, alteratian ar movement of a building within o regional
shapping district unless after th e erectian, alteratian, ar mavement af
such building, such regional shapping district shall cantain adequale
facilities for th e parking af autamabiles and ather motar vehicles used
by th e persans emplayed ar daing busin ess in such district and shall
pravide an infernal system al rcads and walks which will adequately
pravide far pedestrian and vehicular traffic. In d e termining the adequacy
af such parking and traffic faciliti es, na consideration shall be given te
facilities available an adjacent public streets.
2} Height al Buildings. Na building shall be ere cted la a height grealer
than 40 lee! abave the surrcunding graund leve l, e xcept a building may
be erected la a height na! greater !han 70 lee! abave the average
surrounding graund level if the awn e r af the graund an which such
building is situated abtains th e written cansent af the awners af three -
laurths al the praperty lacated within 500 feet al the auler edge al
such building in all directians and il th e par! al such building exceeding
40 lee! in height is na! less than 250 lee! lram the cenler al any public
street or any property zan e d as an apen development district. Na portian
al any building more than 40 lee! abave the surraunding graund level
shall be used lar dwelling purpases.
3} Area and Size al Building. Na building permit shall be issued lar
!he erectian al any building in a regional shapping district having less
!han 125,000 square lee! al flaar space al !he first floar level ar less
than 3,000,000 cubic lee! al conlent until a building permit ar permits
lar canstructian al a building ar graup el buildings substantially can-
tiguous la each ather cantaining na! less !han 125,000 square lee! al
floar space al the first flaar level and no! less !han 3,000,000 cubic
feet af cantent shall hove been issued and construction undertoken or
definitely pravided lar.
50
4) Setback. Na building ar slructure shall be erected, altered ar moved
sa that any portian ar par! thereol is nearer !han 40 lee! lo !he nearest
property line al a public street.
Another part of the new zoning ordinance deals with the
restriction of the n ew classification: A Regional Shopping
one hand, to protect th e community against over-zoning
for commercial usages and the connected accurnulation of
traffic, and on th e other hand, to sa feguard the developer
and th e tenants against undue cornpetition which, in its
end effect, would crea te marginal business and decrease the
tax incorne for the cornmunity. Th e restrictions on classifica-
tions state:
1) No praperly lacated within anehall mi le al any praperty theretalare
zaned as a Regional Shapping District shall be zaned lar any use other
thon Open Develapment District.
2} Na praperty shall be zaned as a Regional Shapping District unless
such praperty cansists al a single trae!, divided, il al all, anly by public
streets and cansisting af nat less than 50 acres.
3} 1t is hereby declared la be the palicy al ihe Village la restrict the
rezaning af property so as ta canstitute a Regional Shapping District ta
those situatians in which, in the apinian af the Cauncil, the creatian af
additianal Regional Shapping Districts is lar !he bes! interests al !he
entire Village.
Because shopping center development represents a rnajor
il1\'es tment and considerable effort , ( see Part l, Chapter 3
and Part 11, Ch apter 4) it is essential th at the developer
make every effort to prevent usage of th e surrounding areas
that would be detrimental to the project. \Vherever the
owner can acquire adj acent land, h e should seek zoning
that will perrnit complementary usage. This rn ay take the
form of office facilities, medica] and dental buildings, re-
search facilities, etc. \\There such properti es are residentially
zo ned the developer rnay apply for an ERO (Education,
Research, Office) zoning classifica ti on. This type of zoning
provides sufficient flexibility to include buildings for certain
types of light industry, research, and offices of all kinds.
It is generally desirable to apply for zo ning for the sur-
rounding areas simultaneously with the application for the
sh opping center and to do this on th e basis of an integrated
over-all master plan. If th e effort to insure zoning for sur-
roundin g areas is postponed until a later date, there is
alwa\s th e risk th at th e Zoning Commission 1\'ill refuse it,
in which case such land usuallv reverts to residential use or
is left vacant. \Vh ere th e sh opping center developer is un-
able to acquire property in surrounding areas or where he
is able to acquire only certain portions, he rnay still proceed
with th e development of an 0\er-allland-usage master plan
and, after negotiation with th e owners of such land, apply
for rezoning. This is often tirne-consuming. but is well
worth the effort since an agreement will usu allv benefit all
parties. A typical zoning ordin ance for an Ed~cation, Re-
search , Office zone permits:
1} Any use permitted in any residential district pravided that su eh
use shall camply with all al the zaning regulatians al the highest
residential orea ta which it is adjacent.
 2) Any usoge charged with the principal function al research and
technicol training.
3) Uses re>ulting fram any of the following occupations: executive;
administrative; professional; accounting; bqnking; writing; clerical;
stenographic; drafting and sales; provided that there shall be no exterior
orea for the display of ony actual product for sale, no outdoor storage
of goods ond no warehousing or indoor s.torage of ony materials beyond
that narmally incidental lo the above permitted accupotions.
4) Hospitals, clinics, convents, convalescent homes, public recreation
uses, clubs, ond similar institutions.
Permitted Acces>ory Uses:
1) Oormitories for ludents enralled in and quarters for inslructors
emp1oyed by a non-prafit institution offering technicol education.
2) Off-street parking lot in accardance with following requirements:
a) Bonks, business or professionol offices of lawyers, engineers,
architects, or similar or ollied professions, one car for 400 square
feet of building area.
b) Professional office of dactors and dentists, one cor per 100 square
feet ol building orea.
Permit f rom Board of Appeo1 Required for:
1) Such baak and >luden! supply stores, re>lauranl, caffee shop,
pharmacy, barber shop, beauty hop, and florist shop, ond similar or
no more objedionoble uses as are normally incidental to and are to
serve the employees and other persons normally connected with the
permitted principal uses of the premises.
2) Business signs in character with the development ol the district.
Summarizing, then, it is evident that the developer
should not regard zoning simply as a difficulty which some-
how has to be overcome. Zoning is basically a device to
bring about order and to protect property owners and
residents from disturbing influences and, if properly under-
stood and applied. can be utilized in the best interest of the
deye]oper's imestment. Beyond that, zoning protects the
communities surrounding the shopping center and thus
safeguards the stability and well-being of the center's future
customers.

Plau preseuted with zoniug application. l\1:Jryvale Shopping City, Phoenix, Arizona .
Arch itects: Victor Gruen Associates

__

R-1
~ R-3
1oMJ1# R-5
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51
 PART J:-CHAPTER 5
The Tenants
The character of a shoppin g center determines, in large
measm e, th e character of th e tenan ts it will attract. By the
same token, the type and ch aracter of th e sh opping center
will usually reflect the kind of tenants available to it.
Regional shopping centers are those in which the loca-
ti on and size of th e development ju stify the participation
of one or more department stores.
Community or intermediate sh opping centers justify the
establishment of stores with an aggregate !loor area of be-
tween l 00,000 and 350,000 square feet, including possible
limited line branch department storcs, junior department
stores, or majar variety stores. or a combination of these
store types.
Neighborh ood shoppin g centers are limited to a size of
100,000 square feet, and are suitable for supermarket or
variety stores as majar tenants.
Regardless of the size and ch arac ter of the center, certain
principles are applicable to th e relationship b etween the
lan dlord and th e tenants in each type of project.
l) Role of the Key Tenant. In any center the availability
of a key tenant is th e n eccssary start ing point in th e renting
operation. The important factors in obtaining a key tenant
are th e strength of th e location, the policy of the available
key tenant, and th e extent to which its branch store
program makes it available as a prospect.
If th e projected center is in a prime location . and espe-
cially if two or more stores of each key type are available
with policy and location principles th at establish their in-
terest in th e specific location, th e chances and terms for
obtaining th e key tenant may be relatively favorable to the
developer. If th ese conditions are not present, substantial
inducements may be nccessary in th e for m of lease terms
52
1
1
or other concessions. in arder to obtai n the necessary key 1
tenant or tenants. The owner who makes his own investiga-
tion of th e factors likely to lead key tenants to a favorable 1
decision is in th e best possible position to negotiate :
satisbctory terms. !
The extent to which kev tenants take the initiative in 1'
de,eloping their own locat i~n s and acquiring land for th eir '!
own purposes will h ave a substantial bearing on the
strength of th e bargain ing position of the developer seeking ~,
th em as key elements in the project. In many cases key 1
ten ants will construct th eir own sh opping center projects :
or develop free standing buildings on property they acquire, .
partly in arder to obtain lower occupancy costs, and partly .
to ass m e th e availability of branch stores in loca tions con- 1.
sistent with their total expansion policy and requirements.
Regardless of such competitive factors, cert ain general
ch aracteristics of the tenant relationship are worth examin-
ing. A brief discussion of the specific area, location and
renta] factors applicable to certain types of ten ant is con-
tained in the chapter on leasing in Part II , Chapter 1O.
2) Investigation of Opportunity. Certain key tenants,
particularl y the experienced ch ain stores, make their own
inves tigation of locations and are little influenced by
promotional materi al prepared by shopping center devel-
opers. Tn tha t case, the primary use of this material is to
identify the location and to define the natme of the de-
velopment th e owner propases for his property.
Tnvestiga tion of economic opportunit y by the developer
is useful to him in suggesting the size of the store that can
b e efficiently operated by the prospective tenant. Such
studies have a two-fold pmpose: first, to avoid merbuilding
for certain prospective tenan ts, with resulting low produc-
tivity of percentage rent; second, to ascertai n th e volume
opportunity available to the tenant. This gives the de-
veloper a bas is for determining his bargaining strength in
the negotiating procedure.
Prospective tenants, p :u ticuh~rl y department stores, may
require the developer to pursue at least a preliminary inves-
tigation of business opportunity. The majority of depart-
ment stores are offered so man y locations that the cost of
preliminary investigaban becom es a serious mat ter. This
type of stud y will differ substantially from the general
economic study; it will relate specifically to the outlook for
the particular department store under consideration.
Tenan ts occupying smaller space, who depend on the
pedestrian traffic created by the key tenant and other large
space users, are unlikelv to require an imestiga tion of oppor-
tunity as a preliminary stcp. The interest of the tenant will
hinge chiefly upon the presence and location of larger
stores in the project. H owe,er, il1\'estigation of th e business
opportunity is still important to th e developer for planning
and negotiating purposes.

3) Attitude toward Plans. A similar variation in attitude

toward architectural and other physical planning aspects of
the center will be found among tenants. D epartment stores,
especially those of broad experience, will takc a keen inter-
est in the o,er-all architcctural plans for the projcct. They
will be interested not onlv in the specific loca tion for their
own store, but in the efficiency of the plan as such . This
interest will be predicated in most cases on the conviction
that the project as a whole must be successful, and th at
their location must not only be suitable for their own use,
but should be such as to contribute strength to the other
tenants in the center. This attitude has developed during
recent years as their experience in similar projects has grown
and it is a refl ection of th eir attitude of enlightened self-
interest. Such stores will also take a lively interest in the
location and extent of parking as well as in the studies of
traffic and traffic con troJ devices.
This intelligent interest in project design will also be
shared by supermarkets, majar restaurant operations, and
large specialty stores, which by experience have found that
these factors are important to their own and the project's
success. There is little likelihood of a clash of interest
among these store types. Experience has shown that the
role of th e key tenant or tenants in each project is generally
recognized by other important merchants, and the sound
objectives of all can be harmonized wi th the best interests
of the owner through intelligent planning by experienced
architects.

4) Single Purpose Buildings. Certain store types, such as

department stores, majar specialty stores ( especially th ose
handling higher quality merchandise), majar restaurant
operations, and food stores, are likely to ask for and even
insist on single occupancy buildings. This stipulation is
based in part on a desire to maintain the special identity of The Key T enan ts

53
 the individual operation; it is also based in part on the
specific requirements for exposure to parking.
One of the functions of planning is to harmonize these
and other tenant objectives with a sound program for the
developer, including the distribution of the customer pedes-
trian traffic created by these special purpose buildings in
such a way as to provide maximum business for the center
as a whole.
5) The Role of the Supermarket. Differences of opm10n
ha,e developed concerning the role of the supermarket in
the shopping center. That the presence of the supermarket
in the neighborhood center is of prime importance both for
the center itself and for the supermarket, is fairly obvious.
In such projects there may even be justification for the in-
clusion of two supermarkets, since experience has shown
that no one supermarket is capable of handling more than
a limited share of the business available from the residents
in the trade area.
In the larger or intermediate shopping center, the role of
the supermarket undergoes a change and, in the very large
regional project, it is doubtful whether it will achieve even
as great an impact on the typical supermarket trade area
immediately tributary to the regional shopping center loca-
tion as it would in a smaller project at the same location. A
supermarket located across the street from such a regional
center may, in fact, achieve a higher volume of trade from
customers residing within a two-mile radius of the location.
This may be due to the greater acces,ihility and parking
convenience in the separate location, as opposed to the con-
gestion an d greater walking distance involved in the typical
regional parking lot. On th e oth er hand, location within
th e regional center provides a "signboard" for the super-
market. In such a location the supermarket branch can
count on a substantial volume of fo od business from
customers who travel to the cen ter from areas beyond the
normal supermarket trade area. The supermarket within the
regional center is th erefore likely to achieve approximately
the same volume as the supermarket in the same general
location, but outside the center's boundaries. The nature
of the business will be somewhat different and it is possible
that the renta] cost within the regional center may be some-
what higher than in th e separate location. Supermarkets
ha,e in many cases taken the attitude that higher renta]
costs within ce1tain limits are justified beca use of the in-
stitutional character of the publicity obtained by the
regional center location, in addition to the business actually
transacted.
There does, however, appear to be sorne question as to
whether or not two supermarkets in a regional center are
necessary or justified. The argument in favor of the two
markets is based primarily on the competitive influence of
the second market, and the likelihood that it will eliminate
the possibility of poor senice to customers of the center
through inefficient operation of a single market. The argu-
ment agai nst the inclusion of the second supermarket rests
54
upon the resultant congestion in the parking area because
of the characteristically greater requirements of markets
(movement of pushcarts carrying purchases to cars at sorne
distance, larger amount of parking traffic and quicker turn-
over); the problem to th e customer of carrying supermarket
purchases to a car parked sorne distance away; the fact that
consumer studies indicate that a large proportion of super-
market buying is done on a separate shopping trip so that
the purchase of apparel or other types of m erch andise is
unlikely at that time.
As with practically all questions in shopping center de-
velopments, there is no single answer to this problem. In
the final analvsis, the selection of the number and type of
each class of. tenant, and the solution to the question of
effective use of single purpose buildings will depend upmi
the circumstances in each case.
6) Tenant Needs. The dissimilar requirements of various
tenants must be taken into consideration in arriving at a
fair renta] and in diocussing planning specifications. 1t will
be obsened, for example. that the vertical transportaban
requirements of tenants operatin g sales space on more than
one leve] will be totally different from thos e operating on
one leve] only. The nature of the solution of this and other
related problems will vary not only with the type of tenant,
but also with the relative bargaining strength of developer
an d tenant. This will depend in large measure on the
strength of the location of the project and the presence or
availability of other tenants, also on the volume of business
expected from the particular store under consideration.
Generalities are likely to be as misleading in th is field as
in any other. From th e above it will be seen that one cannot
rely on a set of ready solutions, applicable to any tenant in
a specific category. As a further example of this, certain
chain store tenants expect and demand relatively complete
stores except for trade fixtures. Other ch ain stores and many
local tenants, particularly those who maintain their own
architectural departments and ha,e experience in the build-
ing of branches, may accept relatively unfinished space in
arder to finish it accord ing to their own design and specifica-
tions. These variations in practice will be adjus ted within
the range of bargaining procedure between developer and
tenant; and the extent to which the desires of each will be
achieved, as well as the financia] arrangements, will depend
upon the strength of the location, not onl y in terms of its
inherent advantages, but also by reason of the qu ality of the
planning and the availability and interest of key tenants.
7) Availability of Tenant Types. \ Vhether or not certain
tenant types are available :for a particular project will de-
pend not only on the size of the project and the quality of
the location, but also on merchandising practices and con-
sumer buying habits in the city under consideration. Cer-
tain types of stores characteristically found in one part of
the United States may not be encoun tered in another. An
example is the notable rarity of millinery and men's hat
 stores in Florida, and the relatively large number and
va riety of stores handling sports appa rel for men and
women in resort areas all over th e United States.
Ag,in, lot "' comid tho c"no~ ' '"'' tho lnwge
sporting goods store, and oth er similar specialized
tions. Jn any one of these fields, a local merchant may con-
~
:~
T ypical of the second qualification , concerning mer trol a very high proportion of the market and may there-
chandising practices, is th e variation in the proportion of fore become very important to th e shopping center as an
department-store-type m erchandise h andled by different operator of th is particular store type. C onversely, th e non-
storekeepers in va ri ous cities of th e United States. Th e al'ailabili ty of such a dominant tenant, or possibly the
following table is intended to indicate th e extent of this strength of the department store in that special line of
variation , an d th e fact th at th e size and number of apparel merchandise, ma v rule out that particular kind of specialty
stores available to suburban shopping centers depends not store for th e project. Jn still oth er cases such sh ops, th ough
only on the extent to which department stores have de ava ilable, may be very poor tenant risks from th e landlord's
veloped a greater or lesser proporti on of th e market in each standpoint.
particular city, but also on th e extent to which the depart- T h e economic study sh ould be designed to indicate the
ment stores ha1e del'eloped suburban branches of eith er desirability or otherwise of specific store types for the
specialty type stores or full-line stores. project in qu estion . Such a study, to be of maximum use-
fu lness to the owner, would probably include a consumer
Expenditure Category
Furniture type surv ey. For cost reasons it would n ot be justified as a
Department and preliminary investigaban of th e site, but it is likely that it
Sto re Variety Apparel Applionces TOTAL would be th oroughly justified before renting is und ertaken
New York 23.4 6.3 45.6 24.7 100.0
because of its usefuln ess in improving the quality of the
Chicago 38.3 5.9 35.1 20 .7 100.0
renting operatio n and raising th e I'Oiume of business th at
St. Poul
Minneapolis 46.1 5.3 28.1 20.5 100.0 may be anticipated.
New Orleans 36.3 8.9 36.0 18.8 100.0 Bea rin g in mind th e qualifications discussed above, the
Seottle 50.6 6.2 24.1 19.1 100.0 followi ng listing is intended to indica te the types of ten-
Denver 45.9 7.1 22 .4 24.6 100.0
18 .2 100.0
andes ava ilablc for regional center purposes . The extent to
Columbus 49.6 6 .0 26.2
Nashville 35.7 6.9 40 .2 17 .2 100.0 which these store types would be included in smaller projects
Colculoled from Standard Metropolitan Area s 1954 Censu s of Retail Trode. would depend upon the circumstances in each case.

TENANT TYPES

Food Oress Shop Furniture ond Home Furnishings

Supermarket Wome n's Shoes Furniture
Oelicotessen linge rie Applionces
Fish Foundotions Oroperies
_ Bokery Hosiery Lomps & Shodes
Condy Women's Acce ssories Chino & Glass
Bags & Gloves Floor Covering
~
Nut Shop
... ~ Produce Millinery Antiques
Furs Modern Design
Meats
Fruit Shop Mate rnity Pottery
Me n's Weor Radio & TV
Dairy Products
Men 's Shoes Interior Decoroting
Carry Out Foods
Custom Shirt Shop Speciol Furniture
Beverage Store
Bor & Polio
Health Fo~ds Men's Accessories
Spices & Condiments Ties Hardware
Youth Shop Hardware
Department Store l een Shop Point & Wollpoper
Mojar Deportment Store Childre n's Wear Home Equipment (Do-ltYourself)
Junior Deportment Store lnfonts' Weor Plumbing Supplies
Children's Shoes El ectricol Supplies
Voriety
Family Apparel
Family Shoes Drugs
Apporel
Women's Apparel Cosuol Weor Super Drugs
8eoch Wear Drugs
Women's Specialty
Cotton Shop Phormocy
Women's Sportsweor
 Eating & Drinking Camero Shop Reducing Solon
Snack Bar Silver Photographer
Cafeteria Stotionery Trovel Agency
Restaurant Sewing Mochines Toilor
Coffee Shop Toys Service Stotion - Gos & Oil
Cocktail lounge Stomps & Coins Airlin e Ticket Office
Fountoin Lunch Porty Supplies
lnstitutions
Other Stores Sporting Goods
Bonk
Gilts & Cards Hobby Shop
Post Oflice
Religious Goods Gome Room
Loen Office
Art Supplies & Frames Tropical Fish Supply
Stock Broker
Music & Records Pet Shop
Medicol ond Dental Offices
Credit J e welry Auto Accessories
General Oflice
Costume Jewelry Tir e s & Botteries
lnsuronce
Fine Jewelry Garden Shop
Real Estote
Florist Key Shop
Accountonts
Fobrics lending library
Public Utility collection offices and display
liquor Souve nirs
rooms
leothe r & luggoge Services
lmports Borber Recreational
Perfume & Cosmetics Beouly Salan Th eoter
Smoke Shop Shoe Repoir Auditorium
Tobacco & News Cleoner Bowling Alle y
Knil Shop Loundromat Kiddielond
lmported lace & linen Optometrist

It will be obserYed that this listing includes not only banks, post oflices, and similar activities designed to en-
rctail tenancies, but sen'ice fun ctions, such as beauty shops bance the attractiYeness of the project to the customer, as
and shoe repair faci lities; also such non-retail activities as \\el ) as to produce maximum ren ta) revenue.

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56

PART J:-CHAPTER 6
Financing
A-Require:ments
A number of elements, both intrinsic and extraneous,
will determine the extent to which satisfac tory fin ancing
can be obtained for a shopping center, the principal ones
being th e following:
l) Location . The fund amental quality of the location and
the likelihood that sufficient business can be attracted to
the center to provide a profitable volurne of business for
the tenants. The quality of Jocation would be shown b y
the market stud y (Part JI, Chapter 2) and would depend
on competitive factors as well as on population and pur
chasing power.
2) Tenants and Rents. The availability of suitabl e tenants
prepared to pay satisfactory rents.
Tt sometimes happens that very strong locations cannot be
developed regardless of their strength, as is the case where
suitable tenants are not available because they are already
located in competing projects, or because they are pre-
vented by the existen ce of certain corporate. policies .
3) Economic Value. The economics of the project ex-
pressed in terms of capital costs, prospective revenues from
both guaranteed and percentage rents, th e probable oper-
ating costs, including taxes, management expenses and
promotion .
1
1
1
i
4) The D eveloper's lnvestment. \Vhen factors l -3 are
fa\'orable and when the mortgage market is in a healthy
condition, it is possible that the developer of a project may
obtain 8 5-100 % of the cost of the pro ject (generall y exclud-
ing land cost ) in the form of a first mortgage at competitive
interest rates and with suitable repayment conditions.
Should these conditions not be present and if the mortgage
rnark et is in a period characterized b y a shortage of funds,
the extent of ava ilable first mortgage financing will be pro-
portionately reduced.
Certain experienced inves tment institutions require that
th e developer make a substantial cash equity investment in
addition to ownership of the land, as a conclition of first
mortgage fin ancing, primarily in arder to make certain that
the pro ject will h me stron g and interested rnanagement.
This is oft en done regardless of the economic value of the
project or the extent to which principal and interest re-
quirements on fi rs t mortgage fin ancing may be covered b y
revenue from executed leases after suitable allowance for
expenses.
B-Types of Financing
Financing is basically of two types: mortgage fin ancing
and equi ty fin ancing.
l\I ortgage fin ancing, generally speaking, consists of either
first or second mortgages at interest rates depending on the
57
 availabilitv of funds and the interest rate current in the
market.
The equity investment may be represented by ownership
of the land and cash investment on the part of the de-
veloper or, in the case of corporate ownership, may be
represented by investment in preferred andjor common
shares.
The proportion of capital invested in these various t ypes
of financing depends upon the factors indicated in the first
section of this chapter and on th e strength and financia]
policies of the developer.
Beyond these basic types of financing, certain special
techniques h ave been developed to facilitate the financing
of large projects of this character:
1) Split mortgages, by which prospective mortgagees m ay
loan on portions of the project rather than on the project
as a whole. (This invoh-es special easements with respect to
parking, deli,ery facilities and other common areas, but
these have been worked out in actual practice so that they
present no real difficulty.)
2) Parti cipati on in a single blanket mortgage by more than
one insurance company or other mortgagee. (A variation
of th e device in the preceding paragra ph by which two or
more mortgagees may obtain a participation in a single
blanket mortgage.)
3) Sale and lease-back by which the property may be sold
to a prospective investor and leased back to the developer,
who will guarantee a certain return on the capital invest-
ment in th e project and may possibly agree to divide' the
surplus earnings with the investor.
-1) Sale or ground lease of th e land upon which the depart-
ment store or any other principal tenant is located to such
tenant; and construction of th e building or buildings for
th e use of such principal tenant by the tenant himself
rath er th an by th c developer. (This h as th e effect of re-
ducing th e total imestment to be made by th e de,eloper
and relieves him of th e construction work of a certain por-
tian of th e project.)
5) Ground leases, by which owners of property lease it to a
developer on conditions which may permit the subordin a-
tion of the ownership in the land to the mortgage; the ex-
tent to which such ground leased property may be suitable
for typical first mortgage fin ancing depends on the cir-
cumstanccs.
C-Sources of Financing
1) The Mortgage Broker. The most fl exible source of
fin ancing is th e experienced mortgage broker who will have
up-to-date information concerning th e ava ilability of financ-
ing from insurance companies, pension funds, educational
institutions, financing syndicates, and other corporations
interested in the particular types of financing which, taken
togeth er, will be adcquate for the capital requirements of
the shopping center project.
58
2) Insurance Companies. Many of the insurance companies
maintain regional mortgage of!ices which solicit financing
for shopping centers and other projects directly from
prospective owners. Direct application to one of these
insurance companies may provide the solution, to the ex-
tent that first mortgage financing, or, in sorne cases, sale
and lease-back fin ancing, is required.
3) Pension Funds. Administrators of pension funds of cer-
tain department stores, industrial companies and labor
unions are taking an increasing interest in the financing of
commercial properties, including shopping centers.
4) Educational Institutions. These institutions are occa-
sionally interested in investing their reserve and endow-
ment funds in real estate projects, often in shopping ,
centers.
5) Financing Syndicates. Syndicates of experienced real
estate investors are often interested in taking parta] owner-
ship or full ownership of shopping centers and will provide
the equity capital as well as the know-how required for de-
,elopment purposes.
6) Real Estate Companies. Various real estate corporations
h ave been organized during the last fift y or sixty years, and
especially during th e last five or six years, which are specifi-
call y interested in th e acquisition and development of
sh opping center properties. In sorne cases they are inter-
ested in acquiring a partial ownership in projects requiring
cquity capital or secondary capital to close the gap between
ava ilable first mortgage financing and the equity in the
owner' s possession.
D-Timing
Prior to contact with fin ancing institutions the project
owner's imestigation of h is pLOperty is typically carried for-
ward to th e point where he h as achieved a general grasp of
th e scope of th e project and feels reasonably ass ured of the
probability that it will proceed. This h as been accomplished
by means of a market studv. exploratory architectural plans,
and by contact with possible major tenants.
At this point, it should be possible to make preliminary
estimates concerning the extent of the investment required
and possible return. Such estimates should be made on the
ass umption that a development could be accomplished
along the lines indicated by th e market study and the
in terest expressed by th e prospective key tenan ts.
Before undertaking a h eavy leasing program or further
architectural work, a preliminary su n ey of th e financing re-
quirements and the availability of funds should be made.
The precise am ount of equity required cannot be ascer-
tained until th e working drawings are prepared and the '
bids for construction h ave been obtained. However, a t
general estmate of th e amount mailable should be possible
 at a much earlier date, and equity capital requirements
could at least be estimated.
The exact extent to which leasing must be carried forward
befare permanent financing can be negotiated will vary, de-
pending upon the source of the mortgage fin ancing; the
strength of the project, including acceptance by key ten-
ants; and the condibon of the mortgage market.
In a majority of cases application for permanent financ-
ing should probably be made as soon as four or five of the
majar tenants are definitely available and when negotia-
tions have reached the point where acceptance h as been
obtained from tenants who will occupy at least 50 % of the
space, whether formal leases ha ve been executed or not.
1t may require a mnimum of from two to four months
to negotiate the perman ent fin ancing commitment. These
negotiations should be undertaken while other leasing is
going forward and while preliminary drawings are being
prepared.
If such fin ancing is approved, a binding letter of commit-
ment will ordinarily be issued by the lending institution,
subject however to the performance of various conditions
by the de,eloper. This letter of commitment is suitable as
security for obtaining temporary fin ancing which should
be arranged befare the construction contract is signed.
In typical circumstances the first mortgage fin ancing will
not be paid out until two or three months after completion
of the building of the project; thus, temporary finan cing
through a bank or through a syndica te of banks must be
negotiated against the security of the permanent financing
commitment . Arranging temporary fin ancing sh ould be a
relativel y simple matter. 1t is a normal banking procedure
-provided the developer is known to the bank, and pro-
vided satisfactory ass urances of meeting the stipulations of
the fin ancing commitment and completion of the project are
obtained. This may be in the form of a surety bond guar-
anteeing completion of the project without liens. T em-
porary finan cing should, however, be negotiated either at
the time construction bids are called for, or certainly befare
the building contract is awarded.
E-The Mortgage Application
1) Form of the Application. Each institution h as its own
mortgage application form in which the bare essentials of
the project have to be stated. In most cases, the developer
will be required to provide a market study. H e will always
be required to provide architectural plans indicating the
location of the stores, the dimensions of the project, the
extent of the parking, and other factors, including the
delivery system, together with a schedule of rents indicating
proposed tenants, amount of space they will occupy,
amount of guaranteed rent, and percentage rent terms. Also
required is an abstract of the leasing program indicating the
general nature of the leasing commitments, accompanied
by the lease document proposed for use in tenant negotia-
tions. In addition to this, the developer will ordinarily be
asked to provide a profit and loss estmate indicating the
amount of rent expected, together with the budget of
expenses for the project and net income figures. These
will be used by the fin ancing institution to determine the
economic valuc of th e project after having been checked
throu gh the institution's own sources.
2) Appraisal Procedures. The project will be appraised by
the appraisers of the fin ancing institutions who may agree
or disagree with the market study and renta] estimates.
In the fin al analys is it is the appraisal by the fin ancing
agency, whether for mortgage purposes or for equity capi-
tal, that will be the controlling fact or in the decision of
the institubon as to whether or not it will provide the
requested financing.
3) lnterest Rate. Substantial flu ctuations in interest rates
have taken place over the past three or four years. Some
finan cing commitments have been issued on first mortgage
fin ancing at 4 percent or less, while others, at a later date,
have required 6 percent or more. This, however, has rep-
resented the ra nge of flu ctuation during this three or four
year period, with present rates (as of November, 1958 )
being somewhere in the upper part of the range.
4) Capitalization Rates. Since the capitalization rate ap-
plied by the appraiser to the estimated net income largely
cont rols the economic valuaban of the project, the most
economical construction consistent with preservaban of the
renta] structure may provide the greates t amount of financ-
ing. This is due to the fact that depreciation on an eco-
nomical building structure will be less than on an expensive
one. Consequently, against the same rents, a higher loan
may be obtainable on a less expensive building than on a
more expensive one. 1t is possible, however, that this will
be modified by the atbtude of the appraiser, who may
conceivably capitalize the income from the more expensive
project at a slightly lower rate on account of the prospective
longer life. There may also be the feeling on his part that
the amenities provided by the higher cost project justify
a lower capi talizaban rate. Part of the additional cost may,
under these circumstances, be obtained in the form of
additional first mortgage fin ancing.
5) 1\iortgage Documents. \Ve would like to stress the
necessity for careful scrutiny of all preliminary commit-
ments for fin ancing to make certain that the terms and
conditions are thoroughl y understood. Of course, the final
mortgage documents must be scrutinized with egua] care.
F-Stipulations
1) Credit. ~ los t insurance companies and other mortgagees
are inclined to be influenced heavily by the amount of
space that is rented to retailers with strong national credit,
on th e assumption that such renting will provide the
maximum protection for th e amount that is being loaned.
59
 This insistence that a large proportion of space be rented
to companies of high credit rating may appear to have a
tendency to strait-jacket the developer; it necessitates his
renting to companies of high credit regardless of whether
local tenants or other tenants with lower credit rating
would provide a better shopping atmosphere and a better
complement of shopping amenities for the customer. It
should be recognized, however, that the lending institu-
tions are in the position of acting as trustees, and in that
capacity must necessarily ac t with the utmost care.
2) Mnimum Requirements. l\1any of the lending institu-
tions operate under policies by which they will only issue
a commitment when a minimum percentage of the space
has been rented to satisfac tory tenants and at satisfactory
rentals, on leases the form of which the lending institution
approves. They will similarly make a stipulation that the
letter of commitment when iss ued is only binding pro-
vided a certain major amount of space, possibly 65 or 70
percent, shall have been rented within a period of six or
twelve months from the date of the letter of commitment.
They may also stipulate that befare the funds are paid out
possibly 85 to 90 percent must be rented.
Ordinarily the lending institutions will also stipulate the
types of credit th ey are prepared to accept and the length
of leases. G enerall y speaking, they will require the repay-
ment of the loan within a term that corresponds to the
length of lease by tenants of satisfac tory credit occupying
about 40 percent of the space, but on the further a.ss ump-
tion that the department store has a thirty-year lease and
that one or two other tenants of strong credit have leases
of similar length.
The experienced mortgagee will ordinarily stipulate that a
certain number of dollars of rent must be obtained from
tenants of satisfactory credit with leases of not less than
twenty or even thirty years and that other stipulated
amounts of the rent must be obtained from tenants with
leases of not less than fift een years, and so on.
This requirement, dealing with the dallar renta], credit,
and length of lease applicable to the tenants under con-
sideration, will set up a concept of leasing which is very
important in controlling the activities of the developer
along these lines. Planning the leasing in arder to insure
a strong project of maximum dominance and fl exibility
over a period of yea rs will, obviously, require intelligent
application and foresight on the part of the whole planning
team. This becomes very apparcnt when one realizes, for
example, that within a certain number of years sorn e of the
tenants may be expected to develop a larger volume of
business and will want to expand. It is generally desirable
for the developer to consider the probable future needs of
such expanding operations when negotiating the leases of
60
adjacent stores, so that adjoining space will be available to
the expanding stores .
3) Negotiation Procedure. Ordinarily the procedure is to
make a mortgage application either through a mortgage
broker or directly to th e institution with which one pro-
poses to deal. The institution will then appoint an ap-
praiser who will make a ph ys ical inspection of the property
and an appraisal of value against the background of his
own concept of th e strength of the market, the leases
available, the types of tenants, the rents and the probable
costs for taxes and management.
He will make a report directly to the mortgage institution
wi thout notice to the developer. U pon that appraisal report
and upon th e judgment of the lending officers in the in-
stitution, a recommendation will be made to its lending
committee- a board of directors or a real esta te com-
mittce- and the developer's application will either be ac-
cepted or rejected; or the developer will be invited to
discuss the application wi th a view to arriving at terms in
respect to interest rates and maturity -possibly also in
respect to the amount of the loan and the stipulations that
would be made befare the application is finally accepted.
G-Collateral Issues
There are other matters that should receive the attention
of the de\'eloper as he is planning his financing, such as:
1) D epreciation policies and their relation to the financing
of the project, and the desirability of maintaining a cash
flow aft er income taxes which will allow for repayment of
financing obliga tions as th e~' come due.
2) The tax structure, both federal and municipal, and the
implications of both these form s of taxes as regards the
ill\'cstmcnt quality of the project and th e flow of cash.
3) T he federal tax on corporations and the fact that the
current tax rates ordinarily make the holding of real estate
in corporate form relatively unproductive after the high de-
preciation rates have lost effect. (This may ordinarily be
anywhere from SC\'Cn to twelve yea rs) . Due to the implica-
tions of the fed eral tax on corporations, this fac tor should
be examined carefully befare the project is finall y com-
mitted to corpora te form.
4) The special financing available under certain federal
regulations in connection with the development of urban
renewal projects. The owners should look into the possi-
bility that the shopping center-to-be may qualify under
this type of financing.
Eastland Shopping Center near Detroit.
Viell' o one o the pedestrian ports at Eastland Shopping Center
near Detroit.
Arcl1itects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Alexa ndre Georges
 11
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1 :

1
i

PART 11

PLANNING

Planning e1nbraces 1nanifold activities

in the physical, econo1nic,

sociological and organizational fields.

1
1

63

PABT J:J:-CHAPTEB 1
The Planning Team.
\Ve belie"e that the planning of a sh opping center, like
any other complex planning task, can be most successfull y
carried out bv th e establishment and consistent operation
of a tightl y knit, integrated planning team.
Depending on th e size and complexity of th e project, this
team might, in neighborhood and intermediate centers,
consist of th e developer, th e architec t and, in sorn e in-
stances, a leasing consultant or lease broker. In projects
of greater complexity and size, however, as in regional
shopping ccnters, it may be important that an experienced
consultant in real es tate matters, well \'ersed in shopping
center economics, be added to th e team.
In a rder to prove our point Jet us consider for a moment
a case in which th ere is no such team. This is, of course,
a purely ficti onal case and an y similarity to dozens of actual
cases is purely coincidental.
In our fictional case an inexperienced entrepreneur has
bought a tract of land because he drives bv it on th e wa\'
from his residence to his offi ce and has noticed th at man ~
other people also drive by the si te. \ Vith th e ass istance o.f
an acquaintance in an advertising agency, h e de,elops a
promotional brochure in which it is comin cingly stated
that his is th e h ottest site in the fastest growing countv of
the United States. He then asks an architcct, wh o added
a bedroom wing to his suburban home, to draw an artist's
conception of a shopping center. Beset by th e superstition
that his architect, like architects in general, is just an artistic
dreamer, h e shields him carefully from all information con-
cerning possible tenancy, traffic conditions, and any oth er
1
;
1
!
unpleasa nt realities. Later on , under the press ure of sorne
of the maja r tenants, he retains a traffic expert and a real
es tate consultant but he carefu lly guards aga inst the possi-
bility th at his \'arious professionals might get acqu ainted
with each oth er. In his opinion this would onl y confuse
th em. H e thcn retains a leasing broker, who proceeds to
conclude th e lcases un aware of the ac tivi ties of the spe-
cialists. H e follows th e old rule, "First come. first served."
The day arriYes when a sufficient number of leases have
been closed an d construction is abou t to start. The owner
th en d iscovers, to his dismay, th at th e architect's plans must
be completclv changed in arder to lit th e ]cases and th at
there is a huge discrepancy between th e contrac tor's esti-
mates and th e real estate consultant's capital cost projec-
tion. H e also is sh ocked to find that th e income from
rents. based on concludcd leases, h as not th e slightest
resemblancc to th e income projecti on of the real estate
consultant ancl th at th e traffic expert's road requirements
cann ot be attained in th e fr amework of the architect's
plans. At this mom ent the deYeloper logically concludes
that all th e professionals h e has cmployed just don't know
th eir business. He fires them all and starts construction,
trusting his 0\\'11 judgment and th e ass urances of th e con-
trac tor that evcrything will turn out for th e best . Later on,
th e requiremcnts of individual tenants cause a ch ai n of
extra cos ts; adclitional capital has to be obtained on second
mortgage ancl when th e center finall~ opcns, business
volume proves to be greatly disa ppointing. In due time
th e company h olding the second mortgage takcs possession
65
 TH E PLAN N ING TEAM
THE
COST
ESTIMATI NG
SUP ERVISIO N
and the de\eloper concludes th at he has been a victim of
the incompetence of experts.
Our legend::uy de\eloper could, in all probability, have
been the proud owner of a successful shopping center if
he had selected qualifi ed and expericnced organiza tions for
the task and if he had worked in clase cooperation with
th cm fro m thc outset, befare buying that fabulous site.
Thus, in the case of the inexperienced de\eloper desiring
to crea te a successful regional shopping center, the \\'Orkin g
tea m should consist of at least th ree permanent members:
th e developer as the initiatin g force, the real estate con-
sultant to establish the economic basis and operational
methods, and the archi tect to create th e plann ing coneept
which gives th e pro ject physical shape and form. E ach
member, backed up by his own orga niza tion, must " know
somethin g about e\erything and everything about some-
thing."
Aga in , the en trepreneur soph istica ted in real estate
developm ent may, depending on the scope of h is project
and th e experience he brings to it. have little, if a n~. need
for th e scnices of the real estate consultan t and this should
66
ANALYSIS
ECONOMIC
PLA NNING
FINANCING
INSTITUTION
DEVELOP ER'S
ORGANIZATION
ARCHITECT'S
ORGANIZATION
REAL ESTATE CONSULTANT'S
ORGAN IZATION
- DEVELOPER'S CO NTACT LINES
- ARCHIT ECT'S CO NTACT LINES
o
- REAL ESTATE CO N SULTANT'S
CONTACT LI N ES
OUTSIDE ORGANI ZA TI O N
be kept in min d in the discussion \\'hich follo\\'s.
Th e economist or real estate consultant wh o has full
un derstanding of th e problems of planning and architec-
ture. th e archi tect wh o fullv comprehends the laws of
economics and the owner \\'ho appreciates and gi\es careful
consideration to both \\'ill make good teammates and their
cooperative cffort \\'ill be frui tful.
T he qualifi cations clemanded of team members and their
organ izations \Yill, of course, be graded in accordance with
the size and complcxity of the task at h and . Bu t even for
thc planni ng of neighborh ood or intermediate sh opping
cen ters the h ighest qualifications will be beneficial. \ Vhen
it comes to th e plann ing of regional sh opping centers it is
essential that all members ha\e the high est qualifications.
T he archi tcct should b y no means be a so-called "spe-
cialist." O n the co nt ra r ~, he and his organization must be
\'ersed m shaping all aspects of th e human environment.
T hat this should be so becomes obvious \\'hen one realizes
that majar shopping centers contain many building types
such as office buildi ngs. medica] buildings, h otels, public
b uildings, t ransportation terminals, theaters, central power
plants, restaurants, community buildings and. in their sur-
rounding areas, residential structures of every variety.
The architect must be able and experienced , not onl y
in designing individual structures. but in sh aping and de-
signing tl1 e spaces between th em. He must be fully
equipped to unders tand and coordinatc his work wi th the
dozens of specialists wh o play a decisive role in shopping
center planning. lf h e wish es to attempt regional shopping
center projcc ts. his organization must b e of con siderable
size with a large core of experienced staff members repre-
senting every fi eld of planning. design, and engineering.
E\'en though h e intends to work with special consulting
firms in some cases, his own organization should h ave
highly trained and ex perienced men representing every
fi eld invohed. This enables th e architect to develop a
suitable concept and to coordinate his work meaningfully
with th at of th e various specialists. Thus, the architect's
organization should either embrace, orbe closely connected
with, a strong planning dep:utment, a store-design group,
and m en experienced in traffic planning, economics, land-
scaping, cost es timating and graphic design, in ad dition to
complete architectural and engineering divisions.
The real estate con sultant's organization must also b e
of the widest scope. lt should include res earch ers and
statisticians, market analysts, merchandising planners, fi-
nancing experts, leasing specialists, and men experienced in
store operations and real esta te management. Jn sorne of
these fi elds specialists may be called in ; ne,ertheless, people
with basic experien ce in these fields must be an integral
part of th e economist's office. The experienced economist
h as an essential resenoir of information at his disposal:
population data, income statistics, leasing ch arac teristics,
and finan cing methods. He must also h a\'e a thorough
understanding of planning and architectural proceedings,
of construction m ethods and costs, of the principies of
physical site requirements and traffic planning. (The de-
veloper and his orga nization have been introduced previ-
ously, sec Part J, Chapter 2.)
The team, as far as regional sh opping centers are con-
cerned, should not be reduced in size below three perma-
nent members; nor sh ould it be enlarged beyond these
three if it is to function efficien tl y and effectively. The
three plan nin g-team members should sh are fui\ control an d
full rcsponsibility. During various phases and for specific
aspects of the 0\'er-a\l planning task they wi\1 enlist the
assistance of specialists. Sorne of th ese might be m embers
of th e teammates' organizations, oth ers may be independ-
en t consultants. Such tem porary associates will be leasing
managers, real estate brokers, lawyers (corporation, lease
and tax), suneyors, market research ers, contractors, me-
chanical, electrical, and structural engineers, soil experts,
found:Jtion experts. landscape architects, traffic engineers,
goods handling experts, estimators and so on.
The planning team should be establish ed at the very
inception of th e project and sh ould operate continuously
throughout the planning and construction period until the
shoppin g center is successfull y established in its operation.
The m embers must proceed in their work together, step
by step, in synchronized fashion.
lnasm uch as each of the three team m embers represen ts
a sizable organizaban it is desirable th at each nominate a
coordinator within h is organization fully responsible for
the particular project. Coordinators should be in constant
con tac t wi th each other. Regular meetings should be held
at least once a month . and in times of great ac tivity at
shorter in tcnals. All findings and decisions sh ould be re-
corded.
During th eir close cooperation th e team m embers should
state th eir individual and independent viewpoints strongly,
kn owing th at in an atmosphere of mutual respect and
trust a system of give and take, of chccks and balances,
wi\1 evohe. F illed wi th the conviction that sh opping center
pbnning rcpresents comparatively new problems, their
over-a\1 approach sh ould be one of open-mindedness, giving
ample o pp o rtunit~ for new ideas, for creativity and imagin-
ation.
67
 PABT J:J:-CHAPTEB 2
The Planning Schedule
Developing a shopping center cannot be done in a swift,
breezy way, regardless of th e fac t that many announce-
ments appearing in ne\\'spapers may give that impressiono
Typical of such an announ cement is the following:
The XYZ Company has pur-
chased a 60 acre tract of land
loc ated on the comer of two
of our busiest hi ghways. Con-
struction will start immediately,
if zoning should be granted.
1t is expected that the center
will be open in sLx months.
lt is rumored that a leading
department store is interested
in establishing a branch in the
XYZ Shopping Center; how-
ever, its name cannot be dis-
closed. An architect is about
to be appointed. The shopping
center will be the largest in
this part of the U . S. A. and
will have parking space for
12,000 cars. There will be heli-
copter landing fi elds. moving
sidewalks and many other in-
novations. The cost is ru mored
to be about fift y million dol-
lars.
Such announ cements are made for a number of reasons,
primarily to discourage competition and to convince anyone
else who might be planning a shopping center in the same
68
general area that he has n't a chance. Second, this free
newspaper publicity is used to attract tenants; and third,
it flatters the ego of the developer. However, in the long
run. this kind of irres ponsible publicity will not benefit
the specific shopping center, and it will certainly be detri-
mental to the cause of shopping center planning as a
\\'hole, because it belies the facts.
Shopping center planning is a lengthy process in which
all steps must logically follow each other. Impatient snap
decisions may result in catastrophes. From the moment of
conception. which means the moment when the idea of
building the shopping center in a certain location is born,
to the moment of opening the doors, considerable time
must elapse. For regional centers this time interval will
be thr ee years in the most favorable cases, in average cases
four years, and in cases \\'here complications occur it might
be as much as six to eight years.
Let us no\\' discuss in some detail the phases of the
project and the \\'Ork that has to be performed by the
separate planning team members. First. a tentative plan-
ning and construction schedule is outlin ed \\'hich mav be
divided into five main phases. o
Exploratory Phase Construction Phase
Preliminary P hasc Open ing Phase
Final Planning Phase
For regional centers, each of these phases and stages
is likelv to be clearh- defined; for smaller centers the ac-
tivitv ~1av be consolidated into fewer staaes.
o b
 A-Exploratory Phase

"To be or not to be, that is the question" wh ich must

be answered during the exploratory phase. Because the
answer might vcry well be negative, the developer often
h esitates to imest a sufficient amoun t of time and money
durin g this period. H owever, hasty or incomplete inves ti-
gations by the planning team could have ruin ous results.
During the vari ous stages of the exploratory phase all
pertinent circumstances and conditions are thoroughly
probed and th e conceptual image of the shopping center
is established.

1) Feasibility Study Stage. D epending on circum stances,

this first stage will start with a search for a Ioca tion and
within that general loca tion for a site; or, if a site has
already been decided upon, the study will begin by probing
its suitability from the economic and plan ning points of
view. Economist and architect will start b y assembling all
pertinent informa tion and analyzing such research data.
In the economist's case this will be directed toward arriv-
1
ing at the establ ishment of the business potential, with
due consideration given to existin g com petition and the
1

probable availability of key tcnants. In the arch itect's case

the phys ical suitability of the site and its accessibility will
have to be proven. Good judgment, based on experience,
will enable the team members to restrict their resea rch
and analys is during this stage to essentials and to avod
work on nsignificant details, keeping in mind that their
effort during this stage is only a means to the end of
proving feasibility and not an end in itsclf.

2) Conceptual Planning Stage. This is closely tied in with

th e Feasibility Study time-wise and fun ction-wise. T he con-
ceptual image created at this time will be inAu enced by
the res ults of the economic analys is but, by the creation
of outstanding planning fea tures res ulting from an imagina-
tile approach, may 1ery well increase the attrac tive force
of th c center and thus modify th c analys is of the business
Conceptual sketches developed during the
potential. Ideall y, the work of economic analysis and Feasibili ty Study Stage for Southda le
architectural study should, at this stage, p rocced in the Shopping Center near llfinneapo lis.
most closely related manner possible. Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates

3) P resentation Stage. Once th e team members h ave agreed
cond iti onall y on th e res ults at tai ned in th e C onceptual
Planning Stage, architect and economist document the
results th rough an effecb ve and easil y un derstandable pre-
sentaban, th e third stage. The documents which are com-
pleted durin g th is stage will consist of land usage plans,
fl oor plans and basic traffic plans. Visualization of the
pro jcct will be facilitated th rough a number of colored
and black-and-white perspective renderings, including a
b ird' s--eye view, views of th e pcdestrian areas and views
from th e surroundi ng h igh wa ys. l\ Iost helpful are models
which , in th e case of compl ex sch emes, m ay b e built in
such manner th at sections or fl oor levels can be rem oved
in a rder to give potential tcnants a clear concept of th e
spatial arrangements of th e center. Anoth er produ ct of th e
Presentation Stage will be a printed brochure conta ining
all economic and planning data in clear and concise form .
Armed with this material th e plannin g team is ready fo
go on .
4) Development Stage. D urin g this stage the concept will
be infl uenced by exposing it to the various agen ts, institu-
tions. and business interests whose assistance will h ave to
be ass ured if th e shopping ccnter is to come into b eing.
T h e coo peration of auth ori b es will h ave to b e obtained
wh ere problems of zonin g. building permits, road con-
70
R end erin g deve loped fo r Prese nta ti on
Stage. 1\ Iaryvale Shopping City, Phoenix,
Arizona .
Arcllitec ts: Vctor Gruen Associates
structi on and traffi c control are concerned . l\ Iajor tenants, '
es peciall y th e departmen t store, junior department store.
an d supermarket, will b e familiarized with th e plan and
the econom ic data. and a leasing commitmen t fro m th e
department store tenan t , at leas t. will be procured. F i-
nancing institutions may be approach ed in arder to de-
termine th e charac teristics of th e current market.
The deYeloper's orga niza b an cooperates with th e eco-
nomic and legal ad\'isors in establishing the corpora te struc-
ture of th e undertaking and in writing leas ing documents
and leasing specifications. The architect readies outline
specifications and a preliminary cost estimate. Thus, at the
completion of this stage th e basic budget is available,
guidance fo r leasing terms h as been worked out, acceptance
by th e department store tenant is assured, general willing-
ness of oth er majar tenants to join the center h as been
manifested and all majar features ha\'e been approved b y
auth orities, such as th e plannin g commission, th e building
department, highway department, etc. The shopping center
is now ready to enter into th e next ph ase.
B-P relimina l.'Y P hase
1) Adjustment Stage. T h e results of th e preceding evolu-
tionary period are now consolidated and incorporated into
th e presentation drawings. Negotiations with other majar
J\1odels deteloped during Presentation
Stage.
Bay Fair Shopping Center, San Leandro,
Californ ia (abo ve).
Southdale Shopping Center near 1\Jinne
apolis (below). Because of the multi-
level character, the model was so con
structed that various levels can be lifted.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates

tenants are entered into on the basis of a pre-merchandising

plan for thc entire center and any necessary adjustments
are madc . Negotiations wi th finan cing institutions and
authorities ma y be con tinued.

2) Consolidation Stage. Economic and physical data are

brought into fin al shape during this period. Leasing nego-
tiations with a broad selection of tenants are undertaken.
Preliminary drawings indicating all architectural and engi
neering aspects are ccmpleted. Preliminary specifications
are written and a reliable preliminary cost estmate is
arriYed at, prcferably in consultation with a general con-
trac tor. By the end of th e Preliminary Phase, construction
methods, material selection, engineering principies, and
landscaping are full y established. All design elements are
fro zen so that the time- and money-consuming phase
which comes next can be undertaken with a mnimum of
delays and changes.

C- Final Planning Phase

During this phase the developer clases leases for a sub-

stantial portian of the remaining space and completes the
fin ancing arra ngements. A staff for the vital work of plan-
ning coordination with tenants is employed and trained.
The archi tect translates preliminary plans into complete

71
 MAIN PHASES J:iOl (20) (4) (<O)Tift ln(iO)weoc% (O) {9G) (Oj ~@

f\;
Feasibility Study

Conceptual Planning

Presentatian Stage

Develapment Stage
_e
."',..z Adjustment Stage 1',

~
.
~

Cansalidatian Stage

FINAL PLANNING u ~ A theoretical planning sc hedule based on

rninim um time requirements.
1

Bidding

1
1
',
Building (anstructian L J '1
,~
Tenant (anstrucrian

... 1
eal Estafe Consultanh
Archltect

working drawings and specifications, thus establishing a
reliable basis for competitive bidding and for construction.
Final building permits are obtained and invitations to bid
a re wri tten.
D-Construction Phase
l) General Building Construction. Bids are called for and
contrac ts are awarded. The length of the bidding period
depends on the size of the project, but it should be borne
in mind that too brief a bidd ing period may rob the de-
veloper of the advantages to be gained by carefully calcu-
lated competitive bidding.
During the Construction Phase th e shopping center plan
takes three-dimensional form. The duration of this phase
depends on climatic conditions (it is, of course, possible
to build fas ter in a mild climate than in a cold one) and
on other circumstances outside the control of the planning
team as well as of the contractor, such as material short-
ages, strikes, etc. Scheduling the entire plan ning process,
especially during the Construction Phase, is often strongly
influenced by the desire to open at the start of an im-
portant business season, such as two or more months
befare Christmas or two months befare Easter. However,
it is wise to be extremely conservative in the scheduling
of construction because it is in this phase that uncon-
trollable fac tors are mos t likely to appear. Over-optimistic
scheduling is likely to require expensi\'e overtime work for
which, as a rule, no allowance has been rnade in thc con-
struction budget or financia! plans.
During the Construction Phase the architect is engaged
in general supervision, supported by clerks-of-the-works

,_
'"'7
who are usually retained by the developer. The architect circumstances . The following tabulation gives ti me ra nges
also chooses materials, selects colors, and integra tes land- for regional projects proceeding under normal cond itions:
scaping as well as works of art, etc. D eveloper and econ-
omist are both active in completing the leasing, in welding
A Exploratory Phase
the opera tional appara tus of the shopping center into its
Feasibility Study 8 lo 12 weeks
fin al shape and in preparing for the day of opening. Conceptual Planning
Stage 4 lo 6 weeks
2) Tenants' Buildings - Interior Construction. This phase Presentction Stage 4 lo 8 weeks
of the project commences when the bas ic construction Development Stage 10 to 30 weeks
Total Time Span for
work is essentially finished. It could justifiably be referred Exploratory Phose 26 to 56 weeks
to as "the forgotten phase." B Prelminary Phase
The desire is, of course, to have as many stores as pos- Adjustment Stage 4 lo 10 weeks
sible ready and in operation on opening day. However, Consolidation Stage 6 lo 12 weeks
Total Time Span for
each tenant not onl y has to furnish and decorate his store, Preliminary Phase 10 lo 22 weeks
he must also acquire, display, and store his merchandise e Total Time Span for
as well as hire and train personnel before the store is Final Planning Phose 20 lo 30 weeks
ready for operation. D Construction Phase
Bidding 4 lo 6 weeks
Shopping cen ter management also urgently needs this General Building
period, for it is during this phase that the center's tech- Construction 52 lo 100 weeks
nical apparatus is gea red for full operation. Personnel for Tenanls' Building -
central heating plants and air-conditioning plants, for 1nterior Construction 6 to 8 weeks
Total Time Span for
traflic police work and maintenance must be trained. If Construction Phcse 62 lo 114 weeks
insuflicient time is allowed for such preparation, the shop- Total Time Span for
ping center will open wh ile work is still going on in a Planning and
number of stores, and management will have no reasonable Construction 118 lo 222 weeh
or
certainty of smooth operation during the opening days. 27 ta 51 month
Opening week customers may come with great expecta-
tions - only to be driven away by traffic jams and bad
handling of parking arra ngements; they will be sorely dis- For intermedia te centers of from 100,000 to 300,000
appointed by the incompleteness and inefficiency of the square feet the tota 1 time span is likely to range from 18
center. to 40 months; for neighborhood centers the time span,
depending largely on tenant availability, is likely to range
E-Opening Phase from 12 to 24 months.
The chart indicates a work and time sch edule for a
The next and fin al phase is the opening, which we theoretical regional shopping center, denoting also the
discuss in detail in Part III of this book. work to be done during each phase by the team mem bers.
Any attempt to estmate time periods necessary for each lt may look over-complicated and the time indicated may
phase and thus for the enti re plan n ing and construction seem too long to the inexperienced reader. H owe,er, the
period is difficult because of flu ctuations in the size and experience of the au th ors has indicated that a realistic
complexity of projects. availabili ty of major tenants, avail- understanding of these phases of the work will result in a
ab ility of financing, climatic conditions and man y other saving of time.

73
 PART J:J:-CHAPTER 3

Planning the Site

Th e architect's work starts wi th th e planning of the site. facilities ( community center, auditorium, exhibition
For this task h e must have at his clisposal the finclings of space, ch ildren's play areas, etc.).
the economic analys is which establish es the total renta]
area th at can be supported by th e shopping potential, 2) Car Storage Areas
broken down for various main merch andising categories. a) Surface parking lots.
H e must have som e idea of other uses to which the lancl b ) Double-deck or multiple-deck garages.
should be devotecl. He should at least h ave an inkling of
probable zoning problems. On the bas is of feasibility 3) Pedestrian Areas
studies h e has a general idea of traffic and accessibility con- a) I\Ialls, courts, lanes, plazas.
ditions. H e has full information about ph ys ical conditions b ) Covered peclestrian areas. such as public corridors,
of th e site including a topographic survey ancl, as a result co1ered malls or courts, etc.
of test borings, ab ou t soil conditions. In many cases h e also
kn ows the basic requirem ents of th e potential majar tenant 4) Automobile Movement Areas
or tenants. a) Distribution road system on site.
Armed with this information h e begins planning by care- b) "t\lagazine roads, etc.
full y allocating portion s of th e land to specific usages. These
fall into scven b as ic categories: 5) Public Transportation Areas
a) Bus roads, bus terminals, taxi stands. etc.

6) Buffer Areas
l) Stmctures a) Landscaped areas separating car storage areas or service
a) Structures for retail purposes (retail areas). areas from th e public roacl system. or areas separating
b) Structures for service purposes (heating and air-concli- parking areas from each oth er or parking areas from
ti onin g plants, electric substations, maintenance shops, se r~ice areas .
truck roads, loacling docks, equipment storage, etc.).
e ) Structures for other commercial usages ( offices, recrea- 7) R eser~e Areas
b anal facilities, etc .). a) Portions of site to be held in reserve for the planned
el ) Structures for public usage such as civic and social growth of the shopping center.

7-f
Site Planning Principies
The alloca tion of space for th ese and possible oth er
usages sh ould be guided by certain planning pri nciples in
order to attain th e highest feasible productivi ty of th e land
over an extended period of time : 1) to safegua rd surround-
ing areas aga inst blight; 2) expose retail facilities to m axi-
mum foo t traffic; 3) separate va rious mech anized traffic
types from each oth er and from foot traffic; 4) crea te a
maximum of comfort and convenience for sh oppers and
m erch ants; 5) achieve orderliness, unity, and beauty.
1) Safeguardin g Smrounding Areas. T h e areas surroundin g
the shopping center have a strong influence on its economic
health . Obviously, economic success cann ot be maintained
over a long period if planning does not take in to full est ac
count th e protection of these areas, usuall y preponderantl y
residential, which sm ro und it. The desperate pl ight of sorn e
of our existing rc tail facilities in downtown areas is, to a
large degree, th e result of th e deterioration of resident ial
areas surrounding th em , which in turn is direc tl y traceable
to lack of planning. or to poor plann ing. Similar occm-
ren ces are clearl y detectabl e in sorn e submban sh opping
areas, es peciall y th ose usually referred to as "strip develop-
ments." There are many cases in which th e initiall y existing
economic potential has been severely damaged or destroyed
by the growth of blight conditions O\ er ever-s preading por-
ti ons of adjacent land. In order to prevent such neighbor-
h ood deteriorati on (sce Part TT, Chapter 4) th e greates t care
must be exercised to achieve the following: a ) pro tecti~n
again st infiltrati on of c;:o mmercial traffic into -reSdential
s~b ) pro tection from noise created by commercial
r iities; e ) pro tection from ul}sightliness oft en created by
s. rear elevations of buildings, loading docks,
alleys .- m ech anical equipment of all typ cs, dangling wires,
d1sord_:rlin ess, trash , etc.: d ) pro tection fr om fum es and
The most effecthe way to safeguard resident ial and oth er
areas that surround a shopping center is to incorporate
such areas, from th e start, within th e planning concept of
the project.
SH OPS
>-----< PARKING
A row of stores along th e highw ay.
A well exec uted strip center with curb parking.
Photograph: Gordon Sommers
2) Exposure of Retail Facilities t o Maximurn Foot Traffic .
A second plann ing principle is based on recognition of th e
fact that expos ure of all indhid ual stores to the rnaxirnurn
arn oun t orfOOt traffic )s the best assurance of n igh sales
\'Olum-e.- - --
- Th is -simple truth has unfortunately gone in to oblivion .
Suburban business real esta te oft en h as been evaluated on
th e bas is of passing automobile traffic. This evaluation over-
looks th e fac t th at autorn obiles do not buy merch andise.
O nl y aft er th e driver of even the most expensivc car leaves
it and becomcs a pedes trian is he converted into a potential
buyer. Thus. if sh opping centers are to b e prosperous, dense
foot tra ffi c will !!a_ve to be recreaj:ed. Proper appreciatloi1of
this fac t leads th e planner forcibly to an arrangern ent of all
commercial fac il ities in a compac t grouping. Such com-
pac tness encourages walking between stores because of their
proxim ity to each other and because it offers th e possibility
of uninterrup ted window shopping.
\\'ith in a sh opping center we are confronted wi th t wo
dis tin ctly diffcrcn t types of foo t traffic. Th e first type, th e
res ul t of \Yalkin g fr om automobile parkin g areas toward the
compac t building grouping, h as an indirect effect on busi-
ness ac ti,ities. Jt is th e second type, which we sh all call
shopping traffic, to describe walking frorn store to store,
that crea tes th e very lifeblood of a sh opping center; its
proper circulation assures b usiness success. The term "sh op-
ping" means comparing prices, styles, and qualities of rn er-
chandise as well as purch as ing merchand ise in various retail
establishmen ts.
Let us consicler site plan nin g as it relates to foo t traffic.
In judging th e merits of th e case studies which follow, it
sh ould be kcpt in mind that each one of th em might b e
advantageous if related to a fa,orable set of circumstances,
of which th e size of th e center, sh ape of th e site, and ch ar-
ac ter of tenancy are th e most important.
Cose St udy A. The ce nler s camprised af a row af stores, 2,000 fee l
a long the highwo y. The shoppe r parks ot the curb n front of a store,
wolks into th e stare , transacts his business, walks out again, is likely ta
e nter his car and drive off. In this case pe destrian traffic af th e secand
type, shopping lraflic, s limted.
.
'
.fi~

',,
llllll lll ll l ll
Stores m oved back from the highway per-
mit parking in front.

Strip center with off-street parking.

Photograph: Gordon Sommers

:=:liiil lliJ:=:
The strip is divided into two rows of stores, opposite each other,
along a pedestrian mall with parking on each side. A magnet is
placed at each end.

Glendale Center, In dianapolis.

Architect: Vctor Gruen Associates
Architects for Block Department Store: Pereira and Luckman
Consultants: Robert E. Hattis, Engineering; Larn Smith
and Company, Economic
Photograph: Capitol Photographers

Cese Study B. The 2,000-foot-long row of stores is moved bcck from
the highwoy sufficie ntl y te pe rmit parking in front. Sidewclks, or even
covere d walkways, e ncourog e foot troffic along the store fronts. This is
obviously vastly superior to th e first case, os the driver may be converted
into a pedestrian sorne distance away from the entrence door to e
specific store, and thus a certain omount of shopping traffic will be
creoted. However, this shopping trcffic will still be limited. A distcnce
of 2,000 feet between the extreme ends el the store strip is not con
ducive to inter-shopping. Hcving mcde one purchose the shopper will in
many cases return to the car and drive to the stor e that is next on his
list. Bes id es the discdvcntcge of the distonce between retoil units, the
sidewclk, which immedictely odjoins e parking lot which in turn
immediately adjoins a highwoy, does not represent an attractive wolk-
ing environment. Eve n if two powerful magnets, let us soy a department
store and a junior department store, were ta be located at the extreme
e nds of the 2,000-foot-long shopping strip, the cmount of foot lrcffic
generated in th e area betw ee n them which would require passing inter-
vening stores, would be limite d cnd only o few merchcnts would benefit.
T he two foregoing case studies can be characterized as
"ext rovcrted" types. T hey turn their faces towa rd parking
areas and th e highway. T h eir backs, all too oft en unattrac-
tive, are turncd toward scnice roads and residences which
adjoin them directly.
Case Studies C and D wh ich follow could be dubbed the
" Janus," or doublc-faced type. One of th eir faces is directed
towa rd the parkin g area, the oth er toward the pedestrian
malls. Case Stud v E establishes a link between the "Janus"
type and the " in troverted" type to be discussed in Case F.
Cese Study C. The 2,000-foot store-strip is divid ed into two holves,
cr.;;;ting two 1,OO-foot long strips crronged opposite each othe along a
pedestricn moll with parking on ecch side. In this cese shopping trcffic
will be much greater for severo! reosons:
1) A highly desiroble pedestricn cree shielded from the noise,
smells, confusion and dangers of automobile troffic is created.
2) The two mcin mcgnets will be only 1,000 feet cpcrt if plcced al
extreme ends; therefore the likelihood of inte rchcnging shopping
trcffic will be much grecter cnd stores loccted between the two mcg
neis will profit from pcrticipction in thct trcffic.
11, on the other hcnd, only one mcin mcgnet exists cnd thot is locoted
on en extreme end of the mall, then shopping trcffic will be reduced
beccuse of lcck of inte rchange. Stores furthest removed from the mcgnet
will pcrticipafe only to e very slight degree in the trcffic genercted by
the moin magnet .
Cese Study D. This is e mcll crrcngement es in Cese Study C, but
becaus e there is only one moin magnet, it is moved to a center position
on one side of the mcll. Shopping trcffic will be improved if compcred
with Cese Study C.

76
 :=11 IIIII IJ:=

Mall cen ter wth only one magnet.

1\lall Center with one magnet. Shoppers'

\Vorld, Framingham, l\1assachusetts.
Architects: Ketchum , G in and Sharp

SHOPS

,__________, PARKING

0 MAGNET

Pla n of Shoppers' \Vorld.

Framingham, Massachusetts. FOOT TRAFFIC

:=JII JJJJJ:=
,...___..
1------i
~)..-
.1 : ... :-
,...___..
t------t

11 I1II I I:=
Mall center with magnet centrally
placed.

Center, Seattle, \Vash

Note cen trally placed main
 N orthland Center N ea r Detroit. a cluster type arrangement \I'th main magnet centralized.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates. Associate Architects & Engin eers: H . E. Beyster Corporation. Consulta nts:
Larry Smith and Companr, Economic; Llord B. Reid, T rJ flic. Plwtograph : York Photogra phic Studios

TJ e cluster type arrangement. Plan of Northland Ceuter.

J Case Study f . The mojar te non t is pl oced in the ce nte r of o cluste r
orr ang e me nt. N eo rly all sto res thu s beco me nei ghbors of the most power-
ful shopping-troffic pulle r. In contro st to previously d iscussed cases where
oll retoil units we re ex posed lo parking t ra ffic ond shopping troffic, this
arrong e me nt ex poses the moin te nant to sh opping t roffic onl y. Because
of th e superio r pulling powe r of a mo jar de portm e nt store, this results
in no d e trime nt to its business but offe rs the opportunity of guiding
shopping troffic from pa rking ore e s olon g the frontog e of other stores
toward the ce nte r of the clu ste r.
Cose Stuc/y F. This ca se exemplifies whot we will coll the intraverted
ce nte r. All sto re fronh ore turne d loward the inside of the building
clu ster. The struct ure s turn their back s to the pa rking orees and the sur-
round ing roods. Shopping ce nte rs foll owi ng plo nnin g principies of this
ty pe diminish or completely exclude th e possibility of e ntering individual
sta res from the parking Iet. Shopping troffic is, by p lan, funnel e d through
a lim ited numbe r of entrence arcades into pedestrian oreas. Thus density
of s hopping troffic moy be morkedly increosed ond th e opportunity lo
plan its direction and flow increase d.
These case studies haYe shown how sitc: plan ning can
influ ence the quan tity of shopping traffic. \ Ve h ave onl y
touched on methods b v which it can be directed and how
its full est buying poten"tial can be realized. This is such an
importan t and complex matter that we will discuss it in a
separate chapter (sce Part TT , C hapter 7).
Structures other than merchandising units also create foot
traffic and their placement must be considered carefull y.
Th e location of bus stations and taxi stands plays an im-
portan t role in th is respec t. Equall y important is the proper
location of community facilities, exhibit ion areas, children's
playgrounds or " kiddielands," res tau rants, and all other
fca turcs wh ich will attract foot traffic. Tn th e case of centers
with two-bel or mul ti-]e,el merchandising activities, the
strategical location of elevators, escalators, stairways, is

78
 Th e introverted center. Th c photograph and th e plans are of Southdale Slwpping C enter, near Minneapulis.
Architects: Victor Gru en Associates. Ph otograp)J: C)Jester Freden

:=:III!! III :=:

SHOPS

-
-
>---------< PARKING

= r-~':-1 =
~ MAGNET f-------< ~

~ FOOT TRAFFIC =JIIII II I

Bus stop and taxi sta nd in Sout)Jdale Sl1op Restaurant in Eastland C enter, Detroit.
ping Center near J\1inneapolis. Arc)Jitects: Vctor Gruen Associates
Arc}Jitects: Vctor Gruen Associates P)Jotograph: Alexa ndre Georges
P)Jotograph : Tnfinity, Inc.

79
 significan t. Not onl y the location but also the direction in
which the escalators move plays a majar role in planning
shopping tra ffic.
It has often been said that a shopping center is actually
a department store in which various departments are placed
in separate buildings. The truth of this statement, even
though it is an oyersimplification, becomes even more ap-
parent in centers with cmered pedestrian areas because of
their resemblance to early department stores built around a
well. Thus it is not surprising that lessons learn ed in the
plan n ing of departmen t store foot traffic sh ould also be
applicable in planning foot traffic for a shopping center.
For instance, in department stores the location of stairways,
escalators and elevators is given the grea test consideration.
Even the location of such service facilities as restaurants,
customers' lounges, the lost and found departments and
other service departments is carefull y planned in a manner
to guide foot traffic through as man y departments as
poss ible. R estaurants in department stores are usually
located on an upper floor in arder to attract tra ffic to upper
flo or le,els.
E\en more important are the lessons to be learn ed from
obsemion of the merchandising pattern which has de-
Yelopcd in our downtown sections by th e normal long-range
generic process of fre e competition .

3) Separation of Va rious T raffic Types. Specially designed

areas, wholly separated from each other. must be allocated
to prvate automobile traffic, public transportation, service
traffic and pedestrian traffic (see Part 11, Chapter 6).
Let us first reew non-separated and therefore un desir-
able methods of sen ice arrangements. In the typical subur-
ban strip deYelopment of recent vintage, store fronts are

Similarity between department store and s]wpping center. Abme,

Printemps Department Store, Pars, France. Below is the Carden
C ourt at Southdale, near J\Iinneapo]is.

Both customers and trucks arrive at the The customer goes in where the garbage In spite of the Jarge entrance sign. the
rear entrance. goes out. Jadr wonders how to get into the store.
Plwtograph: Cordon Sommers Photograph: Cardan Sommers Photograph: Cardan Sommers

80
 arranged along the public highway and parking areas exist,
1
if at all, at the rear of stores. Inasmuch as customers arrive
by automobile, this rear entrance becomes the mai n en-
trance to the store, the street entrance assuming in sorne
1 cases a purely symbolic meaning and representing princi-
pally a leftover from the horse and buggy days . All service
functions are also performed in the rear of the store, where
storage and loading facilities are located . Thus trucks and
passenger \'Chicles vie for space and the customer goes in
where rubbish and garbage go out. In many cases, custom-
ers are funneled through a narrow passage to enter at the
tail end of the sales area.
The imprmed strip plan placed the parking in front of
the stores. Thus it is possible to take care of all senice
functions in the rear. Functionally this spells a tremendous
improvement; howe\'er, this arrangement, like the previous Slwppers cross traffic areas at tiJeir own
one, has a blighting effect on surrounding residential areas peril.
because it confronts them with ugly and disorderly views Plw tograph : Gordon Sommers
of senice yards, trucking roads, etc.
The separation of pedestrian areas from transportation
areas is one of the cornerstones of good planning. Trans- separation bet\\"een transportation and pedestrian areas de-
portaban areas require considerable space within which the pends on the size of the shopping center. In a single com-
movement of ,ehicles of various types can be accomplished mercial building, this separation becomes effective only
as effectively as possible. Jt is inherent in the character of when the customer finds himself within the doors of the
1
transportation areas that a certain amount of danger, noise, store . ln the case of two buildings, it may be possible to
1
fumes, confusion and distraction is created within them . arrange a separated pedestrian area between them . In the 1
These characteris tics res ult in tcnsions and feelings of case of a neighborhood center, the chances to create sepa- i
anxiety in the shopper which distract him from the task at rated pedestrian areas are slightly higher and they increase 1
hand : the business of shopping. Noises, fumes , odors and greatlv in the case of an intermediate center. In a regional 1
1
the constant movement of vehicles are likely to destroy or center the possibility is alrnost alwa ys at hand and should
certainly diminish the attainment of a psychological climate be full y utilized. Howe\'er, even in a neighborhood center
conduciYe to sh opping enjoyment. __....~ separated pedestrian areas can be created as, for example, by 1
Jt is obvious that the degree of completeness of the the small plaza in Pala Shopping Center ( see illustration ). 1

1
1

'J

l
1
Landscaped pedestrian area in a neigh borhood slwpping center. Pala Slwpping Center, San Jose,
1
California.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Ph otograph : M orley Baer 11

81
 Pedestrian \\'alhlay, neighborhood center.
\Vaialae Shopping Center, H onolulu .
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Camera Hall'aii
Screen wa ll conceals parking area fro m pe-
des trian co urt. Eastland Center, Detroit .
Architects: Victor Gru en Associa tes
Photograph: Alexandre G eorges

E \en in th c smallest grouping of stores it is possible to

ach ieve a certain amoun t of separation by means of broad
sidcwalks with landscapi ng, low garden walls, etc.
In Jarge shopping centers sorn e separa tion for pedestrian
traffic can e\en be achie,ed within the transportation areas.
" ' alk\\'ays within the parking area with planting on both
sides or e\en covered walkways can be introdu ced.
Th c isolation of pedes trian areas from transportation and
parking areas can be made visually effective b y various
mcans. In Northland and E as tland centers the view of
parking areas from malls is partiall y obliterated by screen
walls. Concrete block screens are used in Valley Fair. The
most complete demarcation is probably realized in South-
dale, ' Vildwood, and in 'Vestchester Terminal Plaza*
where entrance doors mark a definite separation between
transportation and pedestrian areas.
Scnice traffi c in shopping centers represents a consider-
able portian of mechanized traffic. E,en in the smallest
shop ping center, sen ice ,-chicles for dcliYeries, pick-ups,
ga rbage and trash collection, repair crews, construction and

In the planning stage.

 Left
Concrete block screens at Va!ley Fair, San
lose, California.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associa tes
Photograph: Ilforley Baer

Below
Doors separate transportation and pedes-
trian areas in Southdale, near Minneapolis.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associa tes
Ph otograph: Gordon Sornmers

Senice Court is \\'e!l concea led by screen

wa!l in W'oodmar Center, Hammond,
Indiana.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Ph otograph : H ube Henry, H edrich-Biessing

Even in a small shopping center, service

facilities ca n be well screened.
Th e Boardwalk, Tiburon, California.
Architec ts: / olm Lord King
Photograph: Dean Stone-Hugo Steccati
 fixture contractors, trucks of utility companies, etc ., create
a significant portion of over-all traffic.
The degrec an d methods of accomplishing separation be-
tween various types of traffic depend on a large number of
existing condi tions. Basically, th e following solutions are
possihle:
Service areas on merchandising JeveJ in the form of truck
roads, senice courts, and oth er types of loading facilities
are accep table in neighborhood and intermediate centers
and in regional centers when necessitated by ground condi-
tions or oth er considerations. Good planning principles de-
manci th at such arcas be properly shielded by screen walls
or landscaping and th at senice vehicles can enter or lea\'e
with no in terference from automobiles or pedestrians.
Service arcas on non-merchandising ]evels permit the
most productil'e space which , in most cases, is also the most
cx pensivc to construct, to be totall y freed from service func-
tions. O nly the large center can achiel'e this and there are
a number of ways to do it :
T h e truck tunn el is a frequ ently used ter m but only a very
small nnmber hmc been constructed . Tt is an underground
tunnel dng beneath th e shopping center mall; its construc-
tion is achieved by concrete retaining walls, floor and roof
Tru ck road, North land Center, De
troit.
Architec ts: Victor Gruen Associates
PJ10tograp h : Yo rk Photographic
Studios
8-t
slabs . Later on, as stores are constructed, openings between
store basements and th e truck tunn el are broken through. '
Such truck tunnels exist in Lakewood C enter, Los Angeles,
and in th e Broadway-Crenshaw Center, Los Angeles.
Senice roads loca ted in basement areas are ramped clown ,
to th e basement level. The service road th en occupies a
portion of th e over-all underground level. This is a solu-
tion employed in a large number of regional centers. (For
example, Northland an d Eastland, D etroit; Carden State
Plaza and Bergen l\.fall, Param us, N ew Jersey.) In contrast
to th e truck tu nnel, th e truck road located in a basement
area does not require exceptional constru ction work. It
only occupies space within a comparatively low-cost por-
tion of the entire shopping center stru cture.
Service roads located on other levels such as where a
high water table or oth er unusual ground conditions rnake
th e construction of basements impractical. In such cases
sen ice and storage areas are arranged on lel'els above the
merch andising fl oors. In this case th e sen ice road is
ramped np fr om strcet lel'el to th e uppcr level. (Examples:
Bav Fair, San Leandro, C alif., Lloyd C enter, Portland,
Oreg., th c projected \ Vestch ester Terminal Plaza, New
Rochelle, N. Y.)
Truck road en trance, Southdale, near Min
neapolis.
Arcl1itects: Vctor Gruen Associ:1tes
Pl10tograph: Infinity, In c.
\Vestchester Terminal Plaza Projec t
(in planning stagc) envisages sen ice
facilities for all stores on mezza nine
loca ted betwcen upper and lower
merchandising le1els. A central loadin g
platform from which merchandise is
distrbuted on moving belts is projected .
\Vestches ter T erminal Plaza, N ew Ro-
chelle. New York.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates

SC HE MATIC SECTION

DADELAND

IIIIPIII 1 11!11 1111 1 1 1 1 1[ 1 1 11 1 111

;.~
. ::-;:"':;:.,..:.
Project for D adeland Shoppin g C enter,
Florida (not re t execu ted) had to take
a high ground water level nto consider-
aton. Th e entire center is to be raised
by one floor, utlizng the base struc-
ture for service and loading facilities.
The terrace is approachable from th e
parking arca by inclin ed mol'ing sde-
walks.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates
PJwtograph: G ordon Sommers DADELAN:O
'M'""' F,_

II IPII II Cl l lll - 11 11 f! lll Pl ll

...... ---- '"-.
85
\Vea ther protection at department store
entrance. Valley Fair, San Jase, California.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Gordon Sommers
Co1ered arcade witl1 skylight. Valley Fair,
San Jase, California.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Gordon Sommers
Sun and rain protection along show
dows of stores on left side. Note that
windows of department stores which
not continuo us are also protected. V
Fair, Sa n Jase, California.
i\rchitects: Victor Gruen Associa tes
Photograph: Gordon Sommers

4) l\laximum Comfort and Conven ience. The planner
must stri,e to provide maximum comfort and convenience
in all areas of the project: convenient access and exit ar-
rangements for automobiles from the public highway to
the site, convenient arra ngements for reaching th e parking
areas with in th e site, conven icnt parking space located as
clase as possible to shopping center structures, comen-
ient, comfortable pedestrian areas (which means protection
against sun. rain. wind, as well as excessive heat and cold)
and fin all y, convenien t, comfortable store areas.
5) Unity, O rderlin ess and Beauty. T h e concept of unity,
arder and beauty is a majar planning principie. The appear-
ance of all component elements must be subjected to this
criterion; it must be applied to every majar and minar
aspec t and must permeate all architectural expressions.
Landscaping. signs, the architecture of structures, archi-
tectural treatment of spaces between structures, composi-
tion of structures in relation to each other, colors and
materials, all must adhere to this vital principie.
All of the pl:mning principies discussed above should
be deeply ingraincd in the consciousness of the planner;
he must consistently act in accordance with them. A good
site plan will offer endless des ign opportunities; a poor
one will prove a serious h andicap to the design of the
structures and th e 0\'er-all treatment of th e center.
Alth ough it should be clearly understood that even the
most rigid application of these planning principies will not
create a business potential (this depends on the prerequi-
si tes discussed in Part 1), ne,ertheless it will lead, over an
extended period of time, to the full est utiliza tion of an
exis ting potential. A disregard or misdirected application
of these principies * could result in poor utilization of an
cxistin g potential. T ake th e case of a poorly planned
sh opping center in an area of high business potential. In
all probability this would establish an open invitation for
competitors to make better use of the given opportunities
and to construct a superior shopping cen ter within the
influ ence area.
Tt is no" possible to draw sorne definite concl usions as
to what adherence to these principies will bring forth in
the wa~ of planning for the sh opping center site and
surrounding areas :
Exposure to maximum foo t traffic, as we mentioned be-
fare, willlead to the concept of compactn ess . The separa-
tion of various tra ffi c types will make mandatory a basic
concept in which car storage areas surround the com-
pact gro upin g of structures on all sides. The planning
principie of achie,ing maximum comfort will, in its ap-
plication, bring abo ut the introd uction of magazine roads
and circulatory roadways and result in buffer areas be-
tween the surroundin g highways and the parking areas ,
while the planning principie of unity, orderliness and
beauty entails the avoidance of disturbing sights and,
indirectly, disturbing noises and fum es.
*\Ve wish to remind the reader that "planning" as used through-
out this book, is used as an all-embracing term not restricted to
physical planning but including economic, leasing, financia!. ad-
ministrati\'e planning, etc.

86
 protection at mall entrance of
sto re. V alley Fair, San Jase,
Vctor Gruen Associates
lo tooo,mh: G ordon Sommers
Govered cross walk connecting root o,er-
hang along show windows with department
store entrance, simultaneously sheJtering
stairway to concourse shops Jocated in
basem ent. Valley Fair, San Jase, Califor-
nia.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Gordon Sornmers
C olonnade in front ot rnultiple -ten-
ant building. Valley F air, Sa n Jase,
California.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Ph otograph: G ordon Somrners

In a sub-tropical clirn ate, shading devices

are introduced in a landscaped court. Mer-
chaudising functions and a sidewalk cate
are Joca ted in shaded areas. M aryvale Shop-
ping Gity, P hoenix, Arizona.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates
Ph otograph : G ordon Sommers

The Procedure of Site Planning
Having discussed th e principles of site planning, we are
now ready to talk about the exciting and stimulating task
of site planning as a creative activity. The architect now
has before hir numerous pieces of information, a long list
of physical requirements, of conditions and restrictions
which he will have to keep steadily in mind during the
planning process . But beyond that, and while constantly
mindful of good planning principles, he must, with his
" inner eye," be able to vis ualize three-dimensio nall y the
effects he will crea te by placing specific elements into
specific posi tions.
In describing the procedure of site planning, one can
only describe the mechanics, the techniques. T o attempt to
discuss intelligently the spiri t which must pervade such
plann ing. the ac t of crea ting the design, wo uld be like
trying to give a formula for composing a symphony or
painting a picture. The techniques and mechanics can be
described, learned and mastered. If they are mas tered,
workable plans will res ult . Really spirited planning. how-
ever, depends on the presence of something additional
which might be called intuition , imagination, or creative-
ness.
" ' hat, then, are the techniques, the mechanics, of site
planni ng to be used in our task of placing on an area of
given size, shape, and dimensions, building elements
( sometimes wi th clearl y defined dimensions, often with
dimensions still to be established ) in accordance wi th cer-
tain rules, conditions and restrictions in a definit e and
favorable relation to each other?

87
 In allocating the Site Area (SA) we will h ave to dimen- Formularized this becomes:
sion and arrange all shopping center elements ( including BA = RA + % RA *
provision for future expansion ) in such a fashion that the T o plan the distribution of the gross Building Area (BA )
Cround Area (CA) required for them can be contained we must kn ow how much of it will be placed at gro und
within th e si te and the land area full y utili zed. levcl. Theoretically it would be possible that the gro und .
coverage of th e buildings wo uld be wholl y at gro und le1el
T herefore: (BAC = BA ). Such a center would have neith er base-
SA =CA ments nor upper levels .
Th e Cround Area (C A) is made up of the following
elements: Pala Sh opping C enter, plan of which is shown here, with
l ) Shopping Core Cround Area- CCA 3 5,000 squ:ue fcet of building area all located at ground
2) Transportation Cround Area - TCA ]e,el, is ;n cxample of this formula.
3) Buffer Area - BUA
4) Reserve Cround Area - RCA
5) Other Uses Cround Area - OUCA

Therefore:

CA = CCA + TCA + BUA + RCA + OUCA

T he fi1e elements that make up the Cround Area are

~o
1
1 -- - - -

-l 1

discnsscd individnally below. 1

l ) Shopping Core Cround Area (CCA). This is m acle up,

m t urn, of two elements:
Building Area at Cround leve] - BAC
Space between stmctures at Cround leve! - SPC
T herefore:
CCA = BAC + SPC
Let us ass ume that th e economic analys is recommenda-
tion was for a specific total quantity of renta] area (RA).
To this arca we will h:we to add a certain percentage for non-
renta) areas such as corridors, tmck roads, service and utility
arcas, etc . T he res ult is th e gross Build ing Area (BA ).

Building t\rea (BA ) Consists of:

I. Dcpartment Store Area.
II . T enant Rentable Arca. Plan of Pala Shopping Center, San
+
1 II is Rentable Arca (RA). fose, Californ ia .
II1 . Non-rentable Building Arca whicl1 is Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates
a perccntagc portian of RA.
BA = RA + % of RA
Assumptions: 1 is 200,000 sq. ft.
II is 300,000 sq. ft .
The pcrcentage symbol has been int roduced here because non-
III is 100,000 sq. ft. renta! arcas constitute a va riable factor with changes significantly
BA is 600,000 sq. ft. depending on site pbnning and other factors.

88
 A center might be planned, on the oth er h an d, in which
aJI buildings were constructed with fu JI and no-excess
basements.
Then:
BA
ttt
BAG= - SP
2

" ' e migh t also b e faced with a project in which some

buildings might require basements and second and third
floors. This would h appen if a departm ent store required SlJopping Core Area (CA) consists of :
a basem en t, first fl oor, an d two upper flo ors. A junior Building Area (BA) and space
departmcnt storc might requ ire basem ent. first floor, and between structures (SP)
Assumptions: BA is 600,000 sq. ft.
one upper fl oor, and all oth er stores would h a\'e onl y one
SP is 500,000 sq. ft _
le\'eL Partial bascments migh t be called for, or b asem ents
CA is 1,100,000 sq_ ft _
in exccss of ground floor building area. \Vh en such com-
CA = BA + SP
plexities occur, a tabulation will be necessary.

TABULATION
(in thousonds of squore feet)
The total Space between structures (SP) consists of
BA
pedestrian areas, landscaped areas, open servi ce areas, etc .
Le veis RA
Non
RA SA SAG
Th e (SP) element when added to th e gross Building Area
RA * (BA) which we arrived at above, form s th e shoppi ng Core
Jr. Area (CA).
Deport- De part-
ment ment
CA = BA + SP
Store Sto re Others from th e above it follows th at to establish tl1e shopping
Bas eme nt 100 30 200 60 330 390 Core G round Area (CGA), th e Space between structures
Ground at Cround levcl (SPG) and the Building Area at Grou nd
Floor 100 30 200 60 330 390 390 le,el (BAG) must be add ed togeth er. So, to repeat:
2nd CGA = BAG + SPG
level 100 - - - 100 100 Experience in plannin g has sh own that Space between
3rd
structures (SP ) is in many cases. especially in regional
Level 100 - - - 100 100
centers, approximately cqual to the gross Building Area
Other
levels 20 - - - 20 20
(B:\)_ H owe\-er, depen ding on th e plannin g layout and the
Su m num ber of leYels into which th e gross area is divided . this
Totol 420 60 400 120 880 1,000 390 relation might Ya ry substantially. Th e b est procedural
fig ures for non - re nta l o r eas, r;ke oll figures in this chort , o re purely meth od will be to establish :
symbalic ot 12/o of the building o reo. This is hig h; mo st plonners try
to keep non -renta l oreo ot less than 8/o. Co vered molls or courts should a) Th e gross Building Area (BA) and th e Space between
be re'larded os spoce between buildings rothe r than os build ing oreo. In
calculat ing renta ! oreas it is recommended that on ais le oreo around ea ch hu ildi ngs (SP) wl1ich togeth er form th e sh opping Core
merchondis ed concession be included for customer troffi c.
Area (CA) .
b) A number of altern ate ground coverage (CGA) areas
bv tabu lating 1ari ations by which th e shopping Core
Area (CA) could be allocated to \'arious levcls .
Thc slte ''JI often perm1t th e arch 1tect to develop a As a result of our first in\'estigation 1\'e \l'll be able to
" th eme with variation s." It is a long way from th e one- set clown one rather definite figure, th e sh opping Core
le,cl solution of Pala, m entioned above, to a complex Area (CA), and a number of eh o ices for total Core
solu tion like the proposed \ Vestchester T erminal Plaza Ground Area ( CGA ) _
(see page 97) where renta! area will be distributed over
four b els. The architect will probe and experiment, trying 2) Transportation Ground Area (TGA). This is made up,
a number of altern ates; his planning ability will guide him m turn. of thrce elements:
toward th e best solution. Parking Area on G ro und b -e) - PGA
:\foyem ent Area on Ground leve] -1\TGA
Space b etween structures at Ground le\'el (S PG). T his Public Transportation on th e Ground- PTG
is obviously a part of the total Space between structures Therefore:
(SP) which is explain ed in detail below. TGA = PGA + 1\IGA + PTG

S9

Vast transportation and car storage area in Gultgate Shopping
Center, Houston, T exas.
Architects: John Graham and Company
Associate Arch itects: Ining R . Klein & Associates
Photograph: Bel-Air Photographers
The next step is to estim ate th e area needed for car
storage and car m ovement with in th e site. \ Ve will refer
to this as Parking Area (PA) . There is, obviously, a relation-
ship between Renta] Area (R A) and Parking Area (PA)
an d it ca n b e genera11y stat ed th at th e larger th e RA be-
comes, th e larger th e PA will be. Hundreds of formul as
and rules-of-thumb have b een developed in attemp ting to
defin e th is relationship m ath em atica11y. Sorne establish
parking ratiossuch as R A:PA :: 1:3 or RA:PA :: 1:4. Other
formulas es tablish the n umb er of au t om obiles per 1,000
square fee t of ren ta] area, like 5 cars per 1,000 square feet;
7 cars per 1,000 squ are feet; 1O cars per 1,000 square feet
of R A.
Such rules, which are presen ted as if th ey were results
of exact science, h ave one thing in comm on : th ey lead t o
wron g conclusions unless consideration is given to correc-
ti,e factors. Such corrective factors, wh ich can b e of de-
cisive influ ence, result from th e special condit ions th at are
present in each individual case. \ Ve sha11 discuss th ese
fac tors at grea ter length in Part JI, C hapters 6 and 7, but
in th e meantime will touch on th em briefl y.
Corrective factors result fro m a consideration of the
following:
a) The am oun t of foot traffi c generated fr om immedi-
ately surro undin g areas.
b) T h e am ount of sh oppers' traffi c from public transpor-
tation.
90
e ) The size of th e shopping center. In a very large cen-
ter considerable multiple purch asin g m ay be anticipated.
(This m ean s th at one sh opper will buy in severa] stores
while parkin g his car only once, as opposed to a single
purchase transaction when parked at a single store.)
Thus, in sorn e cases, but by no mean s in all, it can be
ass umed th at th e larger th e number of stores and the
larger the size of th e stores in a shopping center, the
lower m ay be th e need for car storage areas in relation to
renta1 area.
d ) The ch aracter of th e stores which make up the 1
sh opping center. A general statement can be made to ,,
th e effect that stores with large individual unit sales wil1 .!
require less parking space than stores with a low unit t
sales figure. A luxury jewelry store or luxury fash ion store
will generally serve a smaller number of customers during ,
a sales day than a supermarket of th e same size . The
presence of a large number of stores with large individ-
ual sales transactions wi11 tend to reduce th e n eed for
park ing spaces .
e) Th e pro jected 0\er-all sales volume p er square foot
of RA. A sh opping center for which a sales result of f
$60 per square foo t is projected as attainable optimum
requ ires less parking space th an one for which a sales
,olume of $100 per square foot is pro jected. Thus,
Northland Center, near D etroit, h as, in spite of its large
size ( ove r 1,000,000 squa re feet of renta] area) , 9,65 7
parking spaces or 8.94 per 1,000 square feet.
f) Peak sales periods (C h ristm as, Eas ter, etc.) and p eak
h ours ( night openings, etc. ) . I n most sub urban shop-
ping cen ters a considerable part of th e business is con-
ducted d uring peak periods and peak h ours. If th e sales
success of a sh opping e en ter is to depend to a large
degree on th e sales m ade duri ng th ese h ours, th en the
parking need must b e adjusted to mee t such peak loads.
No rthland Shopping C enter h as soh ed this peak load
problem by utilizing un pa,ed areas and th e edges of f
th e interna] roads at such times; this enables th em,
wh en th e need arises, to accommodate well over 11 ,00 0
ca rs. If, on th e oth er h and, night open ings are not
for eseen or if, on account of th e characterist ics of the
area, a m ore e\en flow of sh oppipg activities, wi th an
absence of extreme peaks, m ay be expected, special pro-
visions for such peak h ours will b e unnecessary and
smaller sized parking areas might we11 take care of the
situation .
By taking all th e ab o,e into consideration , th e size of
th e parki ng area (PA) can be establish ed. The figur e ar-
rived at m ay, however, sti11 be subject to correction up or
down. For exam ple, in th e even t th at th e size of the site
sh ould prove insufficient, th e ava ilability and cost of addi-
tional land m ight pl a~ a determinative role. \ Vhere PA
has been gauged to th ose peak h our n eeds which occur
only on rare occasion s such as at Christmas, th en the dis-
advantage of high constru cti on and upk eep costs plus the
psych ological d isadvantage of having large portions of the
 parking area appear empty during most sh opping periods
may outweigh the advantage of h aving sufficient parking
area for th e few seaso nal peak periods.
From the foregoing it will become apparent that the
establishmen t of the size of parking areas cannot be
properly h andl ed simply by appl ying patent formu las. In
the various sh opping centers illustrated in this book the
relati on of car space per l ,00 0 square feet of renta] area
vares from approximately 3 (Stonestown, San Francisco)
to 9 car spaces per 1,000 square fee t of renta] area (North-
land Shopping C enter, Detroit). At th e risk of appearing
to recommend still an other pa tent formula, we would like
to express our preference for the me th od of meas uring th e
ratio of parking area to shopping area by relating th e
number of parking stalls to 1,000 square feet of renta]
area. T h e other m ethod, the one of area ra tio, h as th e
inherent disadvantage that parkin g areas may yield varying
numbers of parking stalls depending on the shape and
topograph y of th e site as well as on the parking arrange-
ment ch osen.
Crea t differences of opi ni on exist as to h ow much space
should be allocated to one parking stall. \Ve believe that
at least during the site planning period (that is, before an
exact parking lot layout and road layout is in existence)
a generous amount should be allowed. After careful re-
search among existin g shopping cent ers. we have concl uded
that for th e purpose of site planning th e figure of 400
square feet per parki ng space sh ould be employed . This
figure, of course, includes allowance for parking roads.
,-arious unusable fragments of land and losses of area du e
1 to space needed for lightin g standards, walkways, planting.
etc. but does not include allowa nce for circulatory roads.
Once '"e hme arrived at the total needed parking area,
we hme to decide whether it sh ould b e arranged on one
leve], on two decks, or on a numb er of decks (garage t ype
arrangemen ts). *
I t is. of course, possible that portions of the total parking
area might ha\'c upper decks, while other portion s might be
on one ]e,el.
Parki ng area on Croun d le\el (PCA). Only after we
hme decided upon the vertical arrangement of parking
areas will we be able to arrivc at th e ground coverage to be
occupied by car storage areas.
l\l mement Areas on Cround leve] (l\ ICA ). \ Ve next
h a,e to set as ide space for automobile m ovement beyond
the parking lancs (which are included in th e parking
areas th emselves). This refers to d is tribution roads, belt
roads around th e center but loca ted on th e site, truck-
To avoid confusion th at might be created by refe rring to various
parking levels and other parking arrange ments we refer to a " park-
ing level'' where,er an individual parking area stores cars on one
leve] only, rega rdl ess of whether this is the ground leve_l, a sub -
merged, or a raised level. \Vhenever we wish to md1ca te. th~
construction of a second or other additional levels above an mdl-
vidual area, th ese are referred to as "parking decks."
roads. magazine roads, ramps in the case of double-deck
and mul tiple-deck parking. In smaller centers such space
might be insignifi cant. but the larger th e sh opping center
becomes the greater is the space needed for such roads.
Allowances must also be made for separate service roads
whi ch will brin g senice ,-eh icles from th e public road
svs tem to thc sen ice areas located in th e center area.
1~ th e case of multiple-deck parking some of these might
occur on upper le\'els and h ave to be listed separately.
Public Transportation on the Cround ( PTC ). Next 1
we must consider space needs for public transpor tation.
Cenerous arra ngements for public transportab a n carriers 1'
with well located and protected waiting rooms will en-
co urage transportaban co mpanies to utilize them. If
space for the accommoda tion of waiting buses and
tax icabs is provided. lines starting and terminating at
th e sh opping cen ter as well as taxi sta nds will in all
probahility be es tablish ed. lt is recommended that dis-
cussion concern ng space needs for existing and potential
futur e public transportaban fa cilities be h eld at the out-
set of si te planning work and that provisions should,
whenever possible, go bevond th e required m nimum.
Superior facilities in sorn e shopping centers like Nor th-
land, So u thdale and Eas tland bring an un ex pec tedly
large number of sh oppers by mea ns of public transpor-
taton .
3) Buffer Areas (BUA). Area allocatons for buffer zones
may take up considerable Iand portions for necessary pro-
1
tecti on of surrounding areas.
1
4) Reserve G round Areas (RGA). Finally we shall h ave to 1
allow for resene areas. R eserve areas will ex press them-
seh es in all area allocations th at h ave bcen mentioned. 1
Space will hme to be set aside in the sh opping area p roper
wh en all expansion is to be vertical . Certain of the service 11
huildings. such as h ea ting and ar-condition ing plants, m ay
have to be built larger than had been ntended initiall y.
Resen'e space must be allocated for future car storage areas 1
and autom oble mo,ement areas. \ Vhen all area tabula- 1
tion s. wth th e various alternates and variations. h ave been
properly lsted. the architect find s himself in possession of
1
an " imentorv" of all the elements whch hme to be placed
on thc site and his real task of placing th e elements in
optim um relation to each oth er. of choosing between vari-
ous tabulated altern ates . begins. Tt is a task so complex
th at it ca n. in mos t cases. only be achieved by an emprica]
approach.
5) Other Uses Cround Area (OUGA) . Tnevtably the archi-
tec t find s himsclf confronted with one of three situations:
a) Th e sum total of all requirements ch ecks with th e total
area of the site. (SA = CA)
b) The sum total of all requirements is smaller th an the
total area of th e si te. (SA = CA + X)
91
 e) The sum total of al! requirements is larger than the
total area of the site. (SA + X = C A)
If the arch itect is confron ted with the first situation,
his work progress will be faci litated and desirable results
may be for thcoming wi th in a relatively sh ort time.
Confronted wi th the second situation, h e may propase
additional other land uses for th e ground area (OUGA).
Th ese should be judged in the light of whether they will
fill exis ting needs which are in harmony wi th the land
use of the surrounding area and will furth er contribute to
the success of the shopping center. Such uses might be
A medica] building an d hospital estabJishes medica] and dental of!ice buildings, general of!ice build-
an additionaJ Jand usage. Cross C oun ty ings. recreational facilities, civic, cultural or social facilities,
Center, Yonkers, New York. or apartment houses. " 'hen ever an add itional usage is
Architect: Lathrop D ouglass considered, ho\\ever, it will be necessary to ascertain that
Photograph: Gottsclw-Schleisner the resulting traf!ic and parking requirements can be full y
handled on the available land. It was, for example, possible
to add a 1.400 seat legitima te th eater in Northland C enter
without increasing parking or traf!ic facilities because the
parking peaks of the sh opping center did not coincide with
the thea ter traf!ic.
The task of the architect becomes extremely difficult and
also tru]~r interesting when he is faced with the third situ-
ation and realizes that the sum total of al! land usage
requirements is largcr than th e site for wh ich h e h as to plan.
Se,eral a\enues of approach may be considered.
1l1e possibilitv of additional site purchase wi11 have to
be seriously inves tigated even if th e cos t of additional land
should be much higher per square foot than for the original

,(JI parcel. This migh t still be the cheapest and best way out
of the predicamen t. If one considers that the cost of
parking-deck construction might be 5200,000 per acre it
is apparent how high a price for land might be justifi ed .
Rearranging renta] space on more than one leve] will
lead to sa,ings in the building ground area.
Because of the greater space needed for parking areas
as compared with building arcas. arranging parking on more
than one Je,el wi11 result in even larger area sa\ings . ( See
the schematics reproduced later in this chap ter. )

Below
A small site with an iuh erent Jarge shoppin g potentia J necessitated
multi-Je,eJ parkin g and merchandising. Th e slope of the Jand was
used adva ntageo uslr. The Center, Omaha, Nebraska.
1\rchitects: J. & G . Da1erman
Ph otograph: Photographers Associated

Abo ve
SJwpping center proiect with a sit e of Jimit ed size and complex
topography . Parkin g is on va rious Je\"elS, including roo f level above
shopping center. Shopping takes place on two levels sandwiclled
between Jower and roof-deck parking facilities. Fifth A1enue
South, \Vasllington, D.C. (in planning stage).
Architec ts: Vctor Gruen Associates
Ph otograph: Gordon Sommers

92
 \Vh en the difficulties of placing th e sh opping center Case A . All structures are one-story high witlw ut basement. All
elements math ematically correctly on th e site plan, and parking is on one lel'el.
when questions concern ing th e relationship of th e elements
J to each oth er have all been satisfac toril y resolved, th ere
still remain a number of oth er considerations that have
e to be taken into account, of which th e following are typical.
' Certain merchandising enterprises dem and special con-
sideration for th eir locations. The depar tment store, frl SP
example, ~vill usuall y (rightly or wrongl y) insist on visibility \
1 from th e main approach es. Inasmuch as th e department
store structure will be th e largest and most important
building of th e sh opping center, the tenant's wish coin-
ttt BA
cides to a certain degree with the shopping center's own
! need for expressing prominence and importance. \Vhen
two or more important stores are principal tenants th e
will oft en insist on equal prominence and visibility.Food
markets require a larger amount of nearb y parkhlg. In
region al sh opping cen ters their special business ch arac ter-
TA
istics can be effi cien tly taken ca re of, as a rule, b y the
construction of pick-up stations located in th e middle of
parking areas and connected with th e supermarket b y
underground comeyors. Stores which stay open for busi-
BUA
ness every night sh ould be grouped togeth er into a section
which will remain lighted and busy for long h ours aft er
the rest of the center has closed .
Through the entire site planning procedure the architect
must remain aware of th e architectural expression of the
center towa rd surrounding streets, towa rd th e parking lots SA = BA + SP + TA + BUA
and toward pedes trian areas. Site planning must also be BA = Building Area
directed toward gaining impressive vistas, a well-composed SP = Space between Structures
silhouette and well-proportioned spaces between th e struc- BA + SP = CA (Shopping Core Arca)
tures. T A = Transportation Area
BUA = Buffer Arca
Although the schematics on these pages attempt to
T A consists o[ PA (Parking Are a)
illustrate the procedure of site planning, they do not aim l\1A (Traffic J\ 1ol'ement Area)
to gi,e precise information as to the size of each land PT (Public Transportation Area)
usage ca tegory but rath er to illustrate, in a general way, Assumptions: CA is 1,100,000 sq . ft.
the size of the main planning elements in rela tion to each T A is RA X 3 (RA is Renta] Arca)
other and to show to what degree the planner can adapt or 1,500,000 sq. ft.
a projec t to th e size of the site. BUA is 250,000 sq. ft.
SA (Site Arca) is 2,850,000 sq. ft .
or appraximateJy 66 acres.
Assu:mptions for Six Sche:matics

The schematics are based on the assumption of a *AJtemate mcthod for figuring T A:
regional center with a gross building area (BA) of about 500,000 sq. ft . (RA) X 7 cars per 1,000 sq. ft. =
600,000 squ are feet, of which 500,000 square feet are 3500 cars X -100 sq. ft. per car = 1.-100.000 sq . ft.
renta] area (RA ). Of this renta] area a department store
occupies 200,000 square feet. The Transportati on Area
(TA ) is shown to be approximately three times th e renta]
area. (Transportation area is understood to be that portian
of th e site which is necessary for parking, interna] traffic
roads, bus stations, pick-up stations, taxi stands.) The
pedestrian area (SP) is assumed to be slightly less th an
the renta] area on th e ground, It consists of malls, courts, Case A shows th e site needed if all structures are one-
sidewalks along th e parking side of the stores, and walk- story high , wi th out basement, and if all parking is on one
ways in the parking area . The buffer areas (BUA) surround level. (SA = BA + SP + TA + BUA). For such an
the parking area. arrangemen t, a site of approximately 66 acres is n ecessary.

93
 Case B. The department store consists of basement, first floor
and second floor. All other stores have basement and first floor. Case C . M erchandising is genera lly on three levels but depart-
ment stores ha,e four levels. Transportation area is on one level.

t SPG t t t

A J
~
A
~

A
BUA
TA A
A '
BUA
TA

,A

SA = BAG (Building Ground Area) + SP + TA + BUi\ SA = BAG + SPG + TA + BUA

Assumptions: BAG = D epartment Store + Other Rental Assumptions: BGA = Department Store + Other Rental Area
3 2 4 3
+ Non-rental Area. + N onrental Area on Ground Le,el
On the basis of previous assumptions, On the basis of the earlier assumptions. this is
this re sult s in 66,000 sq. ft. + expressed in figures as follows:
200,000 sq. ft. + 50,000 sq. ft. or BAG = 50,000 + 100.000 +33 .000 sq. ft.
316,000 sq. ft. or 183,000 sq. ft.
SP 270,000 sq. ft . SPG = 150,000 sq. ft.
TA = 1,500,000 sq. ft . TA = 1,500,000 sq. ft.
BUA = 250.000 sq. ft . BUA = 250.000 sq. ft.
SA = 2,336,000 sq. ft. SA = 2.083,000 sq. ft.
or approxim ately 55 acres. or approxima tely 48 acres.

Case B sh ows :m arran gem ent in which th e department
store consists of basement, first fl oor and second floor.
All oth er stores h:we basem ents and first fl oors. Jt is
ass um ed th at th e brgest portian of the sen ice area is
taken up by senice roads. Th e building arrangement de-
scribed above h as been used in many shopping centers
(Northland, Eastbnd, etc.). For such a building arra nge
ment a site of approximately 55 acres is necessary. (SA =
BAC + SP + TA + BUA) .
Case C assu mes aga in th at one-level parking will pre-
vail but that m erchandising generall y will be on three
levels (similar to Southdale.) Thus all stores would utilize
basem cnt, first fl oor and second flo or, "h ile the depart-
ment store would be arra nged on four levels, h aving a
third fl oor. In this arrangement 48 acres are n eeded .
(SA = BAC + SPC + TA + BUA).

9-f
 D . TlJe building arrangement is identic~ 1 lo Ca se C.
uM "''"~ ,parking is on tli"O 1evels.

Case E. M erclJandis ing arrangement ~s in Case C. Parking on

t t t SPG tour 1e,els.

TGA
4; t t t SPG
r
BUA TGA
BUA

= BAG + SPG + TGA +

BUA SA = BAG + SPC + TCA + BUA
Assumptions: BAG = 183,000 sq. ft. Assumptions: BAC = 183,000 sq . lt.
SPG = 150,000sq.ft . SPC = 150,000 sq. tt.
TA TA
TCA = 2 750,000 sq. ft. TGA=--:- 375,000 sq. tt.
BUA = 12 5,000 sq. ft. BUA = 65.000 sq. ft.
SA 1.2 08,000 sq. ft. SA 773,000 sq. !t.
or approxima tely 28 acres. or approximately 18 acres.

Case D attempts to illustrate h ow a shopping center
describcd abovc could be built if only a mu ch smaller
ite 11ere a1ailablc. The building arra ngement is th e same
described in Case B. H owever, it is assumed that park-
will be double-deck. The decrcase of parking areas
tomaticalh decrcases buffer arcas . A si te of about 28 acres
ld be sufficicnt for this arrangement. (SA = BAG +
+ TGA + BUA).
Case E shows an arrangement which would ha1e to be
chosen if the sitc wcre extrcmely restricted in size. The
merchandising pattcrn follows the one described in Case
C. H OII'CI'er. p:uking is ass umed to be on four levels in a
garage type arw nge ment. A shopping center following
these alloca tion meth ods could be built on 18 acres.
Something of that sort has been accomplished in the
H cch t Parkington Shopping Center near Arlington, Va ..
where customcrs can enter th e sh opping center directly
fr om sorne ]e, els of the garage structure.

95
 Case F . Merchandising arrangement as in Case C . Parking on These schematics illustrate that identical shopping facil-'
tluee levels below slwpping Jevels and on three levels above ities suppor ted by identically sized parking facilities can ,
shopping levels. be placed on sites rangi ng from 66 acres in Example A\
to 14 acres in Example F. In the process of such a
reduction, th e character of the shopping center, of course,-
ch angcs radically from a completely horizontal organism 1
t t t SPG to a vertical one, which in Case F encompasses 9 levels.
Construction costs will vary greatly for the various types
of arra ngements shown in Cases A-F. The one factor
which influences the costs most decisively is the arrange-
ment of parking facilities. A horizontal layout, where park- 1
ing takes place on the ground, will be the least expensive.
SA = BAG + SPG + TGA + BUA
Assumptions: BAG = 183,000 sq. ft. Vert ical arrangements, on the other hand, will involve con- .
SPG = 150,000 sq. ft . siderable costs. In spite of this, arrangements like E and F
TA are chosen when th e potential of a shopping center site
TGA = (5 250,000 sq. ft. is high and the land available is extremely limited in size.
BUA = 40,000 sq. ft. As we proceed in our schematic cases from A to F we are, ,
SA 623,000 sq . ft. most likely, starting with a pioneering area location on the
or approximately 14 acres. suburban fringe (Case A), moving on to locations in the :
middle of existing suburban areas (Cases B, C, D), and l
finall y toward locations which adjoin existing urban areas l
(Cases E and F ).
Case A, when applied to a large regional center, may be :
Case F is based on the same merchandising arrange- regarded as a space-wasting solution since it spreads rental l
ment as C and E. Parking, h owever, is arra nged on three areas in such a manner that overlong walks will result.
levels below the shopping levels and three levels above Case F might be characterized as an extremely space-
the shopping levels, so that th e sh opping center represents saving solution although it would probably require that l
a sandwich -like arrangement in which the "meat" of shop- some in come be derived from the parking activity in arder 1
ping activities is placed between the layers of "bread" of to defray the heavy capital expenditure for the parking 1
parking facilities. The \Vestchester Terminal Plaza project structure.
follows Yery closely this "sandwich" approach. Fourteen Shopping center si te plans of various sizes and types
acres are sufficient for this kind of allocation of site planning (see Part Il, C hapter 12) illustrate th e practica] applica-
elements. tion of these planning principies and procedures.

office bu ilding

elevators

skylightod
garden court

parki ng

rklng

escalato rs
parking

96
 w
> 1
w <(
> 1
<(
a:: 1
<(
o
w 1

~
"

1
1

P A LMER AVE

j
1
UPPER LEVEL SHOPPING AT lOO

Case F is illustrated by the p/ans for the projec ted \ Vestchester

Terminal Plaza. The section shows how two shopping cen ters are
sandwich ed between /ower parking le\"els and upper parking
/evels.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
1
1

97
 PART J:J:-CHAPTER 4
Planning the Surrounding Area
A reciproca} relati onship exists between a shopping cen-
ter and its surrounding area . A well planned center can
exert a highly favorable and invigorating influence on the
area surround ing it, and a well planned surrounding area
can add, in large m easure, to th e prosperity of the center.
Conversely, a poorly plann ed or unplanned commercial
grouping of stores can have a deteriorating effect on its
surrounding area, while th e success of even the best
planned center can b e endangered by a poorly planned or
blighted surroundin g area.
Full awareness of th ese facts will affect site selection
(Part I, Chapter 3) and will prompt th e desire to influence,
by aimful planning, th e character of th e surrounding area.
The term "surrounding area" can be understood either
in its narrowes t sense: i.e .. strips of land on th e opposite
side of th e public roads which adjoin th e shopping center;
or in th e widest sense : th e en tire community within which
a sh opping center is located.
T o what degree effecti,e plannin g can be applied de-
pends on th e general loca ti on of th e center, on the size
of th e center, on th e inves tmen t policy of th e developer,
and on existin g zonin g and econ omic conditions.
G en erall y speaking. wh en th e site for a shopping center
is th e on e remaining piece of land within a completely
built-up area, th ere will ob\'iously be m eager possibilities
for influencing th e ch aracter of th e surrounding area. In
this case, th e ques tion of wh eth er th e surroundin g area is
conducive to, or detrimental to, a successful shopping
center operati on h as to be decided befare th e development
of th e site is undertaken . Sh opping cen ters located in such
98
areas operate, as a rule, under th e h andicap of having to
be fitt ed into existin g area and traffic conditions; on the 1
oth er h and, on e sh ould consider th e undoubted advantage ,
of being provided with a full y developed buying potential. J
An outstandin g example of such a center is Stonestown, J
built within a densely populated area in San Francisco. .
The majority of shopping centers, however, do not fall
into this category. The reason for this is obvious. Only J
by virtue of a coincidence does a sufficiently large site for
sh opping center construction exist within a fully built up
area . Usually, large tracts of land accessible by adequate
and un crowded traffic carriers can be found only on the
frin ge of suburban development or in comparatively empty
areas between existing suburban growth. This applies espe-
cially to th e regional sh opping center and, to a lesser
degree, to th e intermediate center, both of which can,
with some plannin g, create sufficient pulling power to re- 1
duce th e disadvantage of being at sorne distance from 1
densely populated areas. Therefore, in th e case of most t
outlying pioneering sh opping centers, opportunities for r
plannin g of surroundin g areas do exist.
T h e grea tes t opportunity for effective planning of sur-
rounding areas in relation to the shopping center is afforded 1
when n ew communities are projected.* H ere it is often 1
possible to set as ide, in th e master plan, sites of ideal size,
Such planning can only be safely undertaken in conjunction with 1
a detailed cconomic study of site potential, because it is unlikely 1
that the business required for the support of the shopping center
could be developed solely from the community project itself f
except in the case of a very Iarge development.
shape and physical characteristics for shopping centers, Stonesrown Shopping Center, San Fran
town centers, administrative centers, and to surround these cisco, is /oca ted in a dense/y built-up area.
Architec ts: \ Ve/ton Becket and Associatcs
locations with land usages which will be most beneficia\
Photograph: llloulin Studios
to thcm.
In planning shopping centers simultaneously with new
communities we deal with the most advantageous condi-
tions for over-all planning. Important conclusions can be

99
 drawn frorn planning approaches developed for such cen-
ters (see case studies below) which are applicable, at least
in part, to sites with more lirniting surrounding area con-
ditions.
1) Th e Polos Verdes Penins ulo. Approximotely 6,000 acres ol the Polos
V erdes Peninsula neor Los Angeles wos master planned as a new
community with an ultimote total population ol approximately 80,000.
(l mplementotion ol the master plan is in pragress.) The largest portian
ol t he 6,000 acre orea is devoted la single detached residences with
lat sizes ranging lrom a hall-acre lo 8,000 square leet, as defined
by the master planning pattern. In three dispersad lacations, neighbar-
hood shopping centers are projected. A valley and adjaining hilly oreo
locoted in the center ol the pennsula, al the canvergence ol the moin '
troffic arteries serving the entire development, were designated as town
ce nter oreo. Within thot town center orea, comprising approximately ,
350 ocres, a site ol opproximately 30 acres was set aside lar a
shopping center Jorge enough lo serve the new cammunity and sorne ol
the surrounding existing urban oreas.

PROPOSEO RESORT 1-lOTE!...

fU TURE ROAD O VER MOUNTAINS

The planned community of Coronado, near

El Paso, Texas, illustrates master planning
which includes, besides residential areas.
town center with shopping center, oflice
buildings, hospital, golf course, and resort
hotel.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates

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11 APAII: TM ENTS LI G HT I NDUSTRY

;~;~;~;~ RESEA RCH
PAR K ~ TOWN
CENTER

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COMM ERCIAL mi N EIGH BOR HOOD RESIDENliAt YACHT
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RECR EATION CO MM ERC IA L ClUB

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CENTEII:

Master Zoning Plan fo r th e Palos Verdes Pennsu la, Los Angeles.

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Architects: Vctor Cruen Associates

Visualiza tion sketch of portia n of Palos

Verdes T own Center showing shopping
center, office buildings, adrninistration
center.
Architects: Victor Cruen Associates
 J\faster plan of resea rch park.

Section of Palos Verdes resea rch park

showing relation of buildings t o park-
ing area, gro up facili ties and landsca p-
ing.

Below
Visualiza tion sketch of section of re-
search park in Palos Verdes.
Arch i t ects: Victor Gmen Associates

An indust rial research park covering 410 acres af gently ralling

highland is located in the vicinity af the shopping center. In this develap-
ment, research labarataries and related office facilities ore orranged
in a campus-like enviranment. Zoning regulations and restrictive caven-
ants limit activity to basic and applied research and assure, by traffic
arrangements, set-backs, parking requirements, buffer oreas and lond-
scaping, compatibility with all surrounding land uses.
In the creas immediately neighboring the shapping center site, !he
fallowing land uses are projected: a large apartment hause crea with
multi-level and twa-story apartment structures.; a helipart., a number af
suburban hatels, matels and restaurants; an autamative center contain-
ing sales raoms far automabiles and repair facilities; a health center
consisting af hospital, medical-dental affice buildings, nurses' quarters,
e tc.; a cluster of general affice buildings and related facilities; a num
ber of churches; a public park and playground adjaining a public
schaal.
Each af the land usage calegaries is planned as a self-contained
cluster, surrounded by parking facilities and circulatary roads which, in
turn, are bordered by buffer creas within which the transfer af traf!ic
from the public roed system lo the parking oreas takes place. The
grouping of the vorious land usage categories is carefully considerad
from the point of view of the relationship of the activity clusters lo each
to public traflic oreas, lo the shopping center, and lo surrounding .
mily residential oreas. The principie followed in the placement
vorious octivity centers is one of a step-wise, gradual chonge
oreas of intense human octivities in the town center to less intense
on its perimeter. Thus, quiet residential oreas are safeguorded
interference by traf!ic, lights, and noise generated by oreas of
vigorous octivity.
The advantages for the shopping center of such planning af the
surrounding orea are manifold. lts own business potential will be height-
ened by the activities of the research park, oflice buildings, medical
buildings, hospitals, and by the civic activities of the administrativa
structures all located in its immediate vicinity. Apartment buildings with
high population density benefit the shopping center by bringing lo it,
by means of walking or short distance driving, thousands of potential
customers. The personnel employed in oflice buildings, in the research
center, in restaurants, medicol buildings., and hospitols camprises another
desirable group of shoppers. The guests from hotels, motels and restau
rants form still onother consumer group. Thus, within the general master
planning procedure for a new community, the two aims of protecting
surrounding oreas from disturbing activities of the shopping center ond
creating the largest possible benefits within the surrounding orea lar
the shopping center itself are accamplished.
r-~::~:;f
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2) /ndian Land Developme nt, Po/m Springs. This proje ct represents a
highly unusual case. A square mile of land in the very center of the city
of Palm Springs belanging lo the lndian Tribe of Agua Caliente has
remained vacant. But recently the legal restrictions agoinst leosing any
portian of the land were lifted, and the Tribal Council in cooperation
with the Department of Interior, Bureau of lndian Aflairs, arranged lar
th e development of a plan for the square mle orea. The stated aim is
to use this land odvontogeausly from a real estote point of view ond in
such a manner that it will enhance the cty al Palm Springs.
The plan provides for a re-routng of the man thoroughfare, Tamquitz
Orive, which conne cts the ce nter of Palm Sprngs with the airport and
mejor residentiol oreas, by dividing it nto two orms embrocing a
regional shopping center locate d in the very center of the ste. Taking
cognizance of the fact that Palm Springs is one of America's majar
resorts, th e shopping cent er s surrounded by a motel and aportment
orea. This in turn is ringed by en 18-hole golf course which forms a
buffer between the central shopping, hotel and apartment oreas and the
residential section along the fringes af the square mile orea. The .11
resdential section estoblished a line with existing surrounding residentiol 1
districts. On the weste rn boundary of the lndan land orea, along the 1 1
exsting mejor comm e rcial street, lndion Avenue, sites are provided far
offices, general commerciol use, convention, community and recreation
centers, and a spa whch will be built over the famous thermal springs
thot gove Polm Springs its name. In th e sautheost cerner of the site a
small neighborhood ce nter has bee n planned.
J\Jaster plan of 1\l aryva le Subdivision.
The toll'n center in eludes a shopping cen ter.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates
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103 ~.
At,jAOQ

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R. .&. 1.4 O N

Master plan for In dian Lands de,e)opmeJJt. Palm Springs. Ca)ifomia.

Architects: Victor Gruen Associates

3) The Moryvole Shopping Cenler neor Phoenix, Arizona . The site is
locoted in the heart of a large subdivisian . The master plan envisoges
a shopping center with a first stage development of 200,000 squore
feet of rento! space, a second stage of 400,000 square feet ond on
ultimote total of 800,000 square feet of rentol oreo. Areos surrounding
the shopping center are planned according to o groduoled use pottern.
Thus, o regional heolth cenler is conlemplaled lo lhe north of the
shopping cenler, and gorden type aparlmenls to the wesl ond southwesl.
Schools, molels and churches ore localed wilhin the opartme"t oreo. To
the south of the center, an automotive oreo, a heliport, ond an office
building ore planned. A triangular orea is lelt undesignated for possible
future commerciol needs. To the east, sites are set aside for a neighbor
hood shopping center, motels, a church and a nursery school. Still
forther lo lhe east, on industrial and reseorch pork is projected.

104

The Broadway-Crenshaw Shopping Center, L os Angeles, California. Pirating stores are located
directly across the highll'a.
Architect: Albert B. Gardner Ph otograph: Gordon Sommers
l\ Jany of th e benefits created for a sh opping cen ter within
total community planning can, to some degree, be
ized as well by large and medium size centers located
areas that are n ot completely built up.
Full use has not ahvays been made of such possibilities,
to failure to recognize that sound development advan-
are inh erent in th e planning of surrounding areas.
nversely, it should be recognized th at there are dangers
not influencing future development of surround ing areas.
Undesirable competition which could b e referred to as
competition, may spring up in the immediate
of th e center-in most cases right across the street.
usu;lJ y, though not ahvays, h as m erchandising charac-
. of a classification lower than th e stores in th e center
It may provide insufficient or no parking facilities,
on th e fact th at plenty of parking is provided in the
'"' "' ~ '-'- shopping center. Pirating stores ride free on the
tails of shopping center publicity, on th e pulling
generated by th e shopping center, on traffic improve-
which were brought about in connection with the
center's construction, etc.
esides the disturbing economic effects, th e existence of
pirating stores also tends to nullify m any of th e plan-
ng efforts that were made for the sh opping center itself.
e traffic flow on surrounding high ways, for example,
be seriously disturbed b y traffic created b y retail units
the opposite side of the highway. N umerous delivery
service vehiclcs will cause congestions that will seriousl y
l ntPrtPrP with a smooth traffic flo w into the parking areas
the shopping center and thus diminish the convenience
parking.
The uncontrolled and often chaotic character of a strip
1
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de,elopment of pirating stores will effectively counteract
any efforts of th e sh opping center itself to present a pleas-
ant appearancc toward surroundin g residential areas. Cheap,
sh ack-like stru ctures of a temporary nature ma y spring up.
Thus, pirating stores tend to bring about a deterioration of
surrounding residential property values, and with th at a
blighting of surrounding areas.
How can such pirating be prevented? As already indicated
in Part J, Chapters 3 and 4, earnest consideraba n must be
giYen to zo ning and usage conditions of areas directly ad-
joining th e site. Jf such areas are zoned for commercial or
ind ustrial use, the danger is present th at th e land will n ot
be used in conformity with the b est interests of the projected
sh opping center. The developer can ch oose severa] ways to
counteract this potential threa t.
H e should attempt to acquire either all of the com-
mercially or industri a ]] ~ zoned land, and j or p otentially
zoned land, or at least sufficient portions of it to preclude
large scale competitive retail usage. Th e acquisition of such
land will, of course, involve additional capital expense
which in some cases might be regarded as undesirable.
H owever, this additional capital expense h as sometimes
prmen to be not on ly an effective protective meas ure, but
a profitable real estate investment as well. Jn asmuch as
land values in the general areas surrounding a well-planned
sh opping center may increase markedly from th e day the
project is ann ounced, acquisition of such land may result
in profi table investrn ent opport un ities. In case of resale.
\'ery specific conditions for the usage of th e land in compli-
ance with a mas ter plan must of cotme be stipulated .
Sh ould th e devclopcr be unable or un willin g to purchase
surroundin g areas with inherent danger potentials. h e might
105
Th e plan at left shows zoning conditions as th ey existed wher
the original shopping center was projected.
Below is the plan for smrounding land usage for the sa me shop
ping center. as suggested by the architect to assme control OJ
surrou nding land by the developer.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
 1egotiate with owners of such land in arder to achieve a
1sage pattern that will be in the best interests of all . He
an effectively point out to the other owners that th eir best
ommon interest lies not in the construction of com petitive
nterprises but rather in the erection of structures devoted 11
o complementary usages. A large shopping center creates
1 ~w needs, such as apartm ents for its employees, hotel or 11
note! spacc, office buildings, medica! buildings, and many
1ther non-retail uses . By catering to these needs land
wners may realize higher investment returns than by try-
ng to develop more retail facilities than the location will
upport.
\ Vhether the shopping center de,eloper acquires sur-
oundi ng land with the intention of developing t himself, .1
,r intends to negotiate with the owners of such land in
1rder to persuade th em to de\elop along the lnes of best
ommon interest, it is important that a comprehensive plan
or th e land usage of the surroundin g areas be made.
These objec ti\es should be implicit in such a compre-
ensive mas ter plan : i) newly created uses should be in
wrmony \\'th the charac teristcs of their adjacent areas;
) new uses should ser\'e as a gradual transition between llfast cr plan for arca surrou ndin g North
he h gh densty ac tivity of the shopping center and outly- /and Center, in dicating usage of the are;
ng quiet residen tia] areas; iii ) all new uses should be non- coHtroJ/ed by the de1eloper.
ompetiti,e to the shopping cen ter; v ) the plan should Architects: V ictor Gru en Associates
>rovide for usages complementary to the shopping center;
) the plan should aim to upgrade the character of the
urrounding area economically and aesth etically.
The following case studies ndicate how such objectives
'an be ache,ed.
1) Northlond Center Areo (Detroit, Michigan ). The developers ocquired
l site ol opprox imote ly 400 ocres, ol which only 160 ocres were re
erved for the shopping center and its future e nlorg eme nt. Zoning for
he entire orea proceeded on the bosis of a pr eliminory maste r plon-
ing concept. A final master plan was loter d evelo pe d; its implementa-
ion has been pcrtly occomplished and is continuing . '.
Residential sections were planned odjocent to existi ng ones. The
ndividuol lots were retoiled ond 90 per cent ore sold al prese nt.
A site to th e west of o new residentiol d eve lopme nt wos set osid e for
church which is under construction. The ore a immediote ly south of
his new residentiol oreo, bounded by o mojor highwo y ond led by one
f the new occess r\lods to the shopping center (Roed 11 A''), wos set
Oflice structure for General America n Life
side lor office buildings ond divided into lorg e porce ls. For this busi
Insurance Company, constructed in No rth
ess oreo th e master plon prescribed set-bocks; parking rotios; general
rchitecturol chorocter. land arca .
In this oreo o structure for on insuronce compony has bee n com- Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
pleted; structures for a second insuronce compony ond for admin istrotive Photograph: Photograph H ouse, D etroit
office buildings of two nationol industrial concerns ore under woy.
The pie-shoped oree directly south ol the shopping cenler itsell is
surrounded by three mojcr public roods. The master plan provides thot Office Building for Allstate In surance
moin occess to this piece shall be goined from th e new Roed 11 A" in C ompany constructed iJJ Nort hland area .
arder to ossure eosy flow of troffic on the existing public roed system Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
which serves as the moin troffic carrier for the shopping cent er itself. Plwtograpl1 : P!wtograph House. D etroit
For the pie-s hoped piece (nomed Northlond Point) the master plan lore
1ees o development in !he lorm al o tight cluste r ol buildings in the
center of the site surrounded by parking oreas. The structures contem -
ploted ore: office buildings for genero! use ond office buildings lor use
)y single conce rns, o restourant, en e xhibit hall (poss ibl y to be used
>y the outomotive industry for the showing ol new mod e ls.)
lmmediately lo the north al the shopping ce nte r ond odjoining the
1ew Roed " B", a site has been set aside for o motor hote l with dining
:ocilities, for the accommodotion of salesme n, out-of-town shoppers, ond

107

tourists who wish to stop over in the immed iote vacm aty of t he ce nter.
The ore o eo st of the motor hote l site ond to the north of Rood "B" is
use d os a reserve parking lot for e mployees during peak seosons, espe~
cially at Christmas and Easter tim e. Port of this ore a is occupied by a
1400-seat the ate r now ope rating in its third successful yeor, ond the
reserve parking ore a does duty olso o s o parking lot for theater troflic.
The orea directly to the north of th e rese rve parking oreo is de ~
signoted a s a regional heo lth center. Constructio n of o 300-bed hospital
is imm ine nt. 1t will be ougm e nted by medica! office buildings, nurses'
quorters, and related facilitie s.
The orea to the west of th e hospital site has been set oside for single
residences and apartments . On its western bounda ry, where it adjoins
the e xisting low de nsit y reside ntial o rea , the pottern of the latter will
be continued, while higher d e nsity development in the form of aport-
ments will take place neor the hospital in crder te provide living units
for doctors, and for hospital and shopping cente r perso nnel.
The oreo immediately odjoining the center, to the east olong Green-
field Roed, is zoned for residential .liSe ond therefore no effort was
made by the d evelopers to control ony lond in that oreo.
Th e inte rno! road system of the existing reside ntial oreo te fhe west
108
D
D
D
D
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of Ncrthwestern Highwo y was slightly oltered in cccperation with t he
Township in arder fa prevent shopping center traffic on Norfhwestern
Highwoy frcm penetrating into the residenlicl oreas. Streets alcng this ,
busy highwoy were deadended. Access to the residentiol oreo is goined '
from the less trave lled highwoy to the west el the triangular residentiol
orea .
The result el master plonning and el its implementotion has been a
very morked increase in real estafe values in the existing residential 1
secfions, in other surrounding residentiol sections ond for the lond owned
by the developers. The new faciliti es that ore in the process of being
constructed will increase the shapping potential of the center and en-
hance the choracter of the entire orea, a s well os the appeoronce and
prestige of the shcpping center itself.
2) Scuthdcle Center Areo, Minneopolis, Minnesota. A 450 ocre plot
located betwee n a projected cross-town expressway to fhe north, the
eoste rn shore of lake Cornelio lo the west, 70th Street lo the south
ond York Street lo the eost, wos ocquired by the developers. In coopero
tion with the Highway Department a new occess rood wos constructed,
conne cting the entire center orea with Stote Highwoy No. 100, which is
locoted to the west of the shopping ce nter site . This wcs done in crder
 Pratotype of mo tor hotels del'eloped for
the H otel Corporation of America. Th ese
hotels are specifica lly plann ed for areas
surrou nding shopping centers and indus- :1
trial parks.
Architects: Victor Cruen Associates
Ph otograph: C ardan Somm ers 1

eft
faster pla n for area surrounding South- ..... ~.
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'1
iale C enter near l\Iinn ea polis. Th e pla n-
ing is concerned wi tl1 areas contro lled by 1 1
he de1eloper.
\rchitects: Vctor Cruen Associa tes
[ ~' 1

1:

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sketch of apartm ent de1elopment in th e Southda le O ne wing of a prajected three-11ing medica} and denta l
rea. bu ilding lws been completed in the Regional H ealth Gen-
rchitects: Victor Cruen A ssociates ter area near Southdale.
Ph otograpl1 : C ordon Somm ers Arclli tec ts: Victor Cruen Associates
Photograph: Cridwa ll Campan)'

lo lighten the traffic lood on the western portian of 66th Street, which,
leoding through residential oreas, wos undesirable as o moin access
rood lo the shopping center.
New divided raads surround the center on all sides. The portian of
,! he site thot is directly lo the north of Southdole Center will be devoted
lo a 42V2-ocre apartment orea with high-rse and gorden-type apart-
ments. On the cerner of France Avenue ond 66th Street the plan
provides for o regional health cenler consisting of hospital, medical
office center ond nurses' quarters. {The first structure of the medica!
office center hos been completed.) lo the west of France Avenue, along
o small loke, o motel and restaurant are projected ond directly lo the
north of it an orea is se! aside for office buildings. The oreo lo the
west of the new divided access roed has been developed for single
residences, continuing in layout the character of the existing residential
oreo. The 21-ocre orea lo the west of the shopping center, locoted
between the new occess rood and France Avenue, will be occupied by
a cluster of office ond recreotionol buildings surrounded by parking
oreas.
Two neighborhood shopping cenlers are plonned in the vicinity of
Southdale. These neighborhood centers will serve the doily marketing
need s of the population in t he surrounding orea and thus supplement
the regional shopping center which provides moinly shopping goods.
One of these ne ighborhood shopping centers will be locoted lo the
southwest of the regional center, while the other hos olready been portly
constructed ta the northeast of the center.
Directly lo the south ol the regional center, the development of o
"home building ce nter" for the sale of canstructian moteriols, gardening
e quipment, lurnishings, etc. is contemplated. This ond the odjoining
omusement center occupy 24.3 ocres and will be connected by o pedes
trian bridge lo o wolkwoy which leods directly lo the regional cenler.
To the east of the regional center a 1.8-acre site has been set oside for
a drive-in restaurant, a 9.7-ocre site for reseorch loborotories and offices,
ond o 7 -ocre site for on outomotive area with showraoms ond repoir
shops. No specific use has up to now been designoted for a 7.3-acre orea
lo the south ol 69th Streel. The entire surrounding orea is monaged by
the Southdole Reolty Company ond its development is being undertoken
in stoges.
Beneficial results ore olreody evident from the decision lo ocquire the
large land portien s.urraunding the shopping center and to proceed in
accordance with o master plon.

109
 PART J:J:-CHAPTER 5
Planning for Growth
T o be successful , a sh opping center must be a carefully
planned urba n organism; th erefore, it is evident th at wh ere
fu ture enlargemen t is envisaged it sh ould be provided for
in th e initial plann ing effort. lf such provisions have not
been made initially, growth might still be feasible in sorn e
exceptional cases if additional land is purchased la ter on .
However, th e chances that such growth will be organic and
fu lly successful are greatly reduced . In some cases successful
centers h ave been enlarged by addin g structures which had
not been pro jected initiall y. Inasmuch as no space had been
reserved fo r such growth, new buildings h ad to con sume
space pre,iously used for pa rking. Thus, a feature respon-
sible, at least in part, for th e initial success of th e center
was dimin ish ed in its effectiveness. The b usin ess volume,
no t onl y of the newly added portian but of the entire
cen ter, often suffered.
Plan ning for growth will be discussed h ere with regard
to two main situations: plannin g for expan sion ; develop-
men t n stages.
l ) Plann ing for Expansion . In th e ma jori ty of cases the
en t ire center is leased and constructed in one operation. All
th e essen tial elements which establish a complete shopping
cen ter organism are built . H owever, th e opportunity for
eith er ex panding individual stores or for adding n ew stores,
or both , is crea ted as a part of th e original plan, although
this opportun ity may or may not b e utilized in the im-
mediate or distant future.
2) Plann ing for D evelopment in Stages. ln this instance
only a portian of th e ultimate plan is carried out in the first
stage. O nly some of th e majar elements of th c final plan
are executed . A definite in tention and a tentative time
sch edule exist for adding one or more ]casing and construc-
tion stages.
11 0
11
1) Plannin g for E xpansion. is indicated wh en the shoppinp
ccnter is located in a steadil y growing area. In such a situa
tion th e department store and oth er m ajar stores will ofte1
exp~ess the desire to h ave th eir stores enlarged when thei !
sales ,olume reach es a stated figure . \ Vh en enlargement o:
a depar tmen t store takes place it is us uall y hi ghl ~ desirable:
for economic reasons, to acquire add itional t enants fo:
specialty stores an d oth er en terprises.
In arder to make plannin g for expans ion feasible a num j
ber of prerequisites must exist. T h c carrying potential ol1
surrou nding public roads must be sufficien t to absorb addiJ
tional traffic loads. T h e site must be large en ough to p ermit:
h olding space in rese rve for addi tional building, parking anc1
tra ffic areas, or additionall v created income must be such a!
to justif~ ca pital imestm e~t for double or multi-deck park.
ing structures at the ti me of enlargem ent. l\ lost importan!
of all, th e developer, wh en plann ing fo r expansion , must bei
rcasonably certai n that his sh oppng center will be able to
ben efit from th e growing buying potential of th e area and
th at th is potential will n ot be m ore efficiently served by
existing or future competition . lf, for example, suitab]e, 1
sh opping center sites exist within th e tradin g area the likeli-
h ood of such future competition is great. These m atters ''
must be carefully con sidered befa re a decsion to plan fon 1
expansion is m ade. i
Provisions for future expansion entail certain capital\
imcst ments which have to b e made wh en initial construc-
tion takes place. Thus, plannin g for expan sion is advisable .
only wh en there is a reasonable certainity that it can be
implcmen ted in th e foreseeable future. The possibility of l
expansion may be important. h owever, in ass uring the re-
tention of a dominant position in th e trading area.
lf and wh en it is decided to plan a sh opping center with 1
 . view to expansion, certain measures must be taken . The
lesire of departm ent stores or other major tenant stores for
rowth is usually best met b y provisions for vertical addi-
ions. This requires the construction of larger foundations
nd heavier columns as well as roof slabs strong enough t o
arry futur e floor loads. A wish fo r h orizontal growth is,
vith rare exceptions, difficult to meet without destroying
well-conceived relationship between shopping center
uildings and other elements. Space for additional store
;roups and their related pedestrian areas and service facil-
ties must be par t of the original site plan and must be
eserved in such a manner that no vacuum will be created
n the shopping center area when originally constructed.
!so, planning must be such that the complete integra tion
f these new buildings \\'ith the originally constructed
enter is assured .
Land must be held in reserve for the enlarged parking
eeds that will be created by expanded shopping facilities.
n -judging the areas to be held in reserve for th is use, con-
ideration should be given to the qu estion of their relation
o new or existing shopping center buildings so as not to
Jan for expansion. This general plan
f N orthland C enter, D etroit, shows
oth existing struc tures and planned
expansion.
rchitec ts: Victor Cruel! Associates
crea te O\'er-extended walking distances between parking and
pedestrian arcas . \Vhen original construction is completed
these reserve areas will ha\e to be properly landscaped in
order not to mar th e 0\'er-all appearance of the center.
\ Vhen designing and engineering service facilities, utility
plants, and distribution systems. provision will have to be
made for their expansion proportionate to th e growing
needs.
Northland C enter is a case in point. Tt was planned for
an ultimate size of 1,500,000 square feet of renta! area, with
original construction of 1,000,000 square feet. A com-
parison of the two land usage plans of which one shows
initial size and the second ultimate size, illustrates h ow
additional tenant store buildings containing approximately
35 0,000 square fee t \\'ill be placed; 100,000 square feet can
be added to the top fl oor of the J. L. H udson Company
store. Th e possibilit\' of enlarging existing indi\idual ten-
ant stores is assured by the b ct that all buildings are struc-
turallv prepared to take future mezzan ines of, altogether,
50,0 00 square feet. Some tenants h ave already taken advan-
tage of this opportunity. They haYe mO\ed non-productive
---:
r."""' fu!ure orea
~
- future en largement orea
lll

A- PHASE 1
B--PHASE 11
C- PHASE IJI
STAGE l
11111111 STAGE 2
:m STAGE 3
M aster plan for stage-wise de1eJ-
opment of Staten Island DOim-
town.
Architects: Victor Gruen Asso-
ciates
departments to m ezzanin es and created additional sales
areas on th e fi rst fl.oor. Parking space lost by the ground
area occupied by new tenant stores will be replaced, and
new parking needs will be taken care of, b ~ periph eral en-
largement of th e parking area and narrowing of the buffer
green-belt area.
T h e cen tral air-conditionin g and h eatin g plant struetures
were dim ensioned to prmide space for additional equip-
men t. All underground utility lin es were con strueted of
sufficient size to meet ultimate needs.
2) Planning for Development in Stages is indicated when
th e sh opping cen ter site is located in an area which h as not
reach ed its ultima te popula tion poten tia] and where a quick
acceleration of population growth may b e expected. 1t is
a lso in order \Yh en th e exist ing tra din g area would support
a departm ent store but such a tenant, ready to sign a lease,
is not a\'ailable at th e tim e of planning, although definite
cxpectations exist th at this will he th e ease in the foresee-
ablc fu ture. Anoth er motivation for stage-wise development
may be th e desire of a land owner to m ake sorn e immediate
use of his lan d, th ough it is ob\'ious th at full utilization will
be prac ti ca] onl y in future yea rs.
Planning for deYelopment in stages can be successfully
accomplish ed onl? if a total mas ter site usage plan is com-
pleted before constructi on or even deta iled planning of the
first stage is undertaken. Thus, locati on and site must fully
satisfy th e needs of th e total sh opping center at all stages
112
. " " . . f
:
1
1'
1
i
as far as size, shape, accessibility, and of co urse, ultim a tel~i
expccted busin ess poten tial are conccrn ed.
The most im portant condi tion for successful stage-wis(
deelopm ent is th at each plann ing and constructi on stag(
must by itself represent a com plete, well-rounded anc1
sound ccon omic unit.
Such plannin g requires th e utm ost foresight and skill:
fro m all members of the plann ing team. They h a\'e to acl
in th e face of a large number of un certainties . Their plan-1
nin g actiYity procceds with out definit e knowledge of
whcther or wh en futur e stages will actually be constructed.
Yet th eir plan must succeed in creating a profitable shop-
ping center wheth er it be in its initial, its intermediate, or
its fin al stage.
The Staten Island D owntown pro ject, still in the plan-
nin g stagc, is an example. Its site con sists of 160 acres; it t
is located in the geographic center of Sta ten Jsland, Rich-
mond C ounty, N . Y. Its outstanding loca tion and a num-
ber of favorable conditions expected to materialize in the
n ea r futur e, es tablish, indirectly, a potential for a major re-
tail and general business center. A new bridge is projected 1
which will connect Staten Jsland with Brooklyn and thus
establish highway access to l\l anhattan and Queens; an
interna] system of fr eeways and highways is planned for the
Jsland. Its routing will es tablish excellent accessibility of
the site fr om the new bridge, from two existing bridges to
New Jersey and fr om all residential sections of the Island.
An accelerated growth of population is expected. It is esti-
1 nated that th e population of Staten Island will reach
1 etween 400,000 and 600,000 by 197 5.
The owner of the land wants lo utilize it gainfully as soon
s feasible . Stage-wise development is indicated because a
uying potential for an intermediate center exists al the
>resent time. Two department stores h ave expressed defi-
ite interest in establishing branches on this site wh en con-
truction of the Narrows Bridge is completed. Additional
lemand for merchandising space is expected when the
nternal highway program is implement ed, and a still
,reater demand in th e following five lo ten years, when
ublic transportation facilities connecting with other
>orough s are constructed .
The mas ter plan concept envisages a three-pronged mall
md foresees development in three main phases. eacl1 of
vhich is divided into three sub-stages. Thus, nine consecu-
ive stages are projected. The first sub-s tage, located near
m existing main artery. Richmond Avenue, is planned to
omprise app roximately 200,000 square feet of renta] area
nd rcpresent a complete community-type sh opping center.
[n th e second sub-stage two department store branches of
40,000 square feet each and approximately 300,000 squ are
eet of other retail space will be constructed. The third
;ub-stagc will complete the first main phase of th e center.
Master pJanning for stage-11ise devel-
pment. South Bay Sh opping Center,
edondo Beach , California .
soc. Architects: A. Quincy Jones,
rederick Emmons; Vctor Gruen
rchitects for May Company store:
Albert C . 1\Iartin & Associates
D=Department Store
M=Market
R= RecreationaJ Facilities (boll'liJJg
alley, restaurant)
CW'=Car \ VasJJ
G=Gas S tation
B=Bus Termina]
T=Taxi Stand
It will consist of enlargements to both departm ent stores
and th e addition of other retail space, establish ing a regional
shopping center with approximately 1,000,000 square feet
of renta] area.
The second main phase will be constructed in the form
of an addi tiona l mall on the northeastern portian of the
site. 1t will be accessible from Forest Hill Road, which is
expected to be completed as a major artery at that time.
During this phase a third major department store will be
added and th e renta] area will reach 2,000,000 square feet.
Th e third phase comprises another major department
store branch. additional retail space and , around a newly
created plaza projected for the area in which the three malls
meet. a number of office buildings, medica] buildings, a
transport:ltion center and civic structures. The central 1
plaza will be accessible b y underground transportation and 1
1
will be surrounded bv subterran ean multiple deck garages.
Thus, at th e time Staten Island D owntown is completed,
foot traffic will fl ow from the central hub area outward
toward th e extrem e ends of th e three malls and from the
parking areas on th e periphery toward th e central plaza.
In planning th e South Bav Shopping Center, Redondo
Beach , Calif.. a completely different set of circumstances
made stage-wise development necessary. Though the eco-
_J~
- ~D0 _:i[ l 1
273 ; 1
lil
1
194 \! l 1
1
11
.::
151 IJ!
'
(
c.
1
113
 i

n omic analysis indicated buving potential for a regional \ Vaialae Shopping C enter near Honolulu represents l
sh opping center of about 700,000 square feet of renta] success story in stage-\\'ise development. On the basis _ 1

space, th e developer was not able to procure a department
store lease du e to th e fact th at all department stores in the
general area were h eavil v engaged in building programs and
not ready to nego tia te a new lease. A master plan providing
for two stages was developed. Accordingl y, a first stage
establishing an in term ediate center consisting of junior
department store, vari etv store, superm arket, dmg store and
a number of specialtv stores, was constmcted. The plan
for th e first stage ,,as so conceived th at it could operate by
itself successfully. The second stage plan provided for a
300.000 square foot l\ Iay Company department store and
a number of oth er reta il st ores. This stage is in construction
as of th is writing.
an over-all mas ter plan it started in 1952 as a neighborhoc.;
center con sisting of a superm arket and eight stores co: ;
taining, altogeth er, 35,000 square feet. In 1957 a branch ' :
Liberty H ollSe D epartment Store containing 70,000 squau\
feet and specialty stores comprising 21 ,000 square feet we1
added as th e second stage. This growth was predicated o,
expanding population and the construction of a new roa :
system.
The presence of a department store branch made cor
struction feasible, in 1958, of a third stage with a 15,00 l
square-foot va riety store and 10,000 square feet of specialt'
stores. A fin al, fourth stage of about 60,000 square feet
contemplated for construction in the near future.

J\ Ias ter planning for stage-\l'ise del'elop-

ment. Yi/aialae Sh opping Center, H ono-
lulu, Hawaii.
I= First Stage
II= Second Stage
III= Third Stage
F= Final Stage
D = Departmen t Store

~ ---~

1 FIR ST ST AGE
11
11 SECON D ST AG E
111 THIR O STAGE
F FINAL FO URTH STA G E
O DE PARTME NT STORE

-s __ ______./
lH

PART J:J:-CHAPTER 6
Planning for Traffic
raffic planning is an integral part of planning the site and
he surroundin g area. Jt is disc ussed separa tely because of
'ts specialized n ature and th e ou tstanding role it plays in
the proper fun ctioning and success of th e sh opping center.
In spite of its specialized nature, however, it should not
e assum ed th a t traffic planning is a fi eld entirely reserYed
or the specialist, th e t ra ffic engineer, or th e traffi c expert.
asic traffi c plannin g concerns th e planning team as a
vhole and th e architect in particular.
\Vh en considering th e qu es tion of traffi c it is essential to
keep in mind that th e sh opping center is n ot to be plann ed
to serve traffic; rath er, traffic is to be plann ed to serve the
shopping center.
In selecting th e si te ( P~rt I, Chapter 3) serious considera-
l tion must be giYen to its accessibility. Befare a si te is finall y
decided upon, it is essential to gather all information about
existing roads and th e traffic-carrying ca paci ties of th e sur-
rounding road system. as well as to establish th e expected
additional traffi c load generated b y the new sh opping
center. During th e fac t-finding period, inform ation on the
following conditions will h ave to be assembled th rough th e
coopera b a n of architect, real estate consultant, and traffic
engineer:
a) Points of origin of shopping center traffic. H ere th e
real esta te consultant's cooperation will be essential and
his analysis will provide information about th e trading
area of th e sh opping center and th e number of persons
who will approach it from various directions.
b) The routes which customers from th e various points
of origin are m os t likely to follow wh en approaching the
si te.
,,
; 1
:
'
1
'
1
1
1
e) Information concerning existing traffi c loads on such
approach roads and es pecially the existing hourly traffic
loads which coincide with th e peak traffi c hours of the
shopping cen ter itself.
d) Ex pected critica] traffi c conditions for peak traffic
h ours, based on lis tings of combined peak loads for in-
coming and outgoing traffi c for sh opping days, wi th and
with out night openings, as well as existing traffi c at the
same h ours.
Once th ese data are assembled, th e second period, or
period of analys is, can begin. Collected facts and figur es are
organized and analyzed wi th reference to their influence on
the project. lf it can be proYen th at existing approach roads
wi ll be able to carry th e critica! peak loads in addition to
existing traffic loads, th en a decisiYe fac tor contributing
toward th e feasibility of a sh oppi ng cen ter project will h aYe
been establish ed . In es timating th e capaci ty of each road
the traffi c engineer is guided by th e number of lanes and
by road characteristics su eh as surfaci ng, num ber of cross
streets, signals, etc. Should th e analys is prove that th e traffi c
capacity of th e surrounding roads in gen eral or in specific 1
in stances is not sufficient t o carry th e combined traffi c dur-
ing peak h ours, then important corrective steps must be 1'
considered . In ex treme cases the specifi c site may h ave to
be rejected an d anoth er site wi th more satisfactory condi-
;
tions substituted . In less extreme cases im provements of 11
specific roads or crossings will have to be proposed and
negotiated with th e proper auth ori ties (Federal, state,
county, city or community traffic departments.) The cost
of such n ecessary improYements may b e assum ed by public
agen cies or it may have to b e totally or partially under-
115
 Th e following eleven maps and charts are
from th e Traflic Ana lysis Report by Victor
Gruen Associates for C arden State Plaza
S hopping Center, Paramus, New Jersey

Location of proposed shopping center and Existing road pattern around site.
means of access.

IJ'l.

Terminal conditions at shopping cen ter si te.

written by the shopping center, in which case costs of these Th e quantity of traffic wh ich can be carried by the roads
improvements have to be considered as additions to the surrounding the shopping center site is only one of the
land acquisition cost. T he new total cost will then have to criteria by which accessibility has to be measured. A second
form the basis of the economic feasibility analysis. criterion is the quality of that traffic.

ll 6
 1

1
1

T ra dc arca indica ting arcas of origin of Trade routes on which shoppers f rom arcas
shoppers. of origin can be expected lo tra1'el.

UIOU 11mnE EITUtC E &U

[l iT UOIIIUUT fOI &
1 soo ot o un CUHI

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1

lE tEO

SIIMIKIWJIC "'
IMOICIIWJIC m
IUJliWUt 000
IW CUUfU (ID
7 IEI IIUT TOII
CLOWEilUf UIP

Patt ern of traffic transfer bct11een bouud Reco mm cndcd high\\'a)' irnpro1eweu ts nec
ary roads and site. essary to co rree! conditions where existing
roa d capacity is loll'er than combined ex
pec ted traffic load.

11 7
 HIGHIAY 4 ANO HIGH IAI 17
Projected traffic lluctuations fo r normJ1
shopping days and for shopping days wit h
night openin gs.

RO U1 E 11 SDUlr OF llSSl ~C 1

1
. 1 1 1
1

IGOO l _l _J_

- '~5
/ '),_
1

1200
V OAT~OUHD
1

1 '

=hP
i 92 1
2
82 4L

11Th
lOO 17 . ,

~ fi~'w" ll ' j:--

"' ll
FIR IEW SOUT OF lS Sl~ C
HIG HIAI 4. SAOOLE RIV ER ROAO , '" 1
PAS SA IC. ANO PA RAMUS 1
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SOU"<
'""" 2 oiiTHIOUNO 1

""242/ -~- _!!O

o 184 .1 1'19 - 1

1600
ROU E4 r 1ESTIOF P SSJ.I

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1

~/ l ; j~
1200

b',JW 63
~ 919
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HIG ~ IIY S4B-1101! IEST Of I <

1100 1

mi. )~; r~ ~7 3
1
FAR VIE I AN O PAS SAIC STIIOI.jNO

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w 15
1 ~=r r--. - F

Detailed maps of traffic conditions at

critica l intersec tions, to be expected when
shopping center is completed. Existing traffic loads on approach roads.

118
 1
1

.1
'
1
1

TabuJation of existing shopping

traflic aud combined traflic al
critica ) traflic periods as well as
existing road capacities. Note
that in sorne cases anticipated
total traflic is in excess of road
capacities.

Because it appears obvious that an adjoining high-speed

road system would facilitate access to a shopping center,
locations immediately adjoining ex press roads or through-
wa ys are often considered favorably b y developers. The
question arises whether this traffic is of the desirable qualit y.
High-speed roads, like railroads, offer a chance to travel
fast over long distances, to travel between cities and towns
rather than within an urban or suburban area. They pri-
marily serve through traffic as clistinguished from local traf-
fic. (To persuade the driver of a through car speeding along
at 60 miles an hour to get off the freeway and do sorne
shopping is nearly as tough as to persuade th e engneer of
a streamlined train to stop in arder to pick flow ers.)

Road pattern and traflic area now existing at C arden State Plaza,
Paramus, New Jersey.
Architects: Abbott Merkt & Co.
Photograph: Felix Gilbert
 r- .:.__ f...: .!! oJP~ ESF~ ~ :T- - 1- - - r- r- r- - - - -- <

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P~USED
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Tola! lo! Capaaty ~ 8460 Cars

a. Jo.l.Oo ~ J lll OQ(X)
1

.. lll O><U Jo .:<O Ol- 0\'0>

111
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TIME
:tCIO uc
OF
-
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1

> " "" & Ji) - ~)ll J.(IO

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JO 10011 UG 1~
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Traffic survey for Eastland Center, D etroit,
showing actual transfer conditions of auto-
mobiles from public road system to site.
Architects: Victor Gmen Associates
Use of parking areas of Eastland C en ter, D etroit, on Tune 5, 1958
bet\\'een 8:30 a.m. and 9:30 p .m. Note peak hours and the espe-
cial/y large amoun t of outgoing traffic at 9:30 p.m . Also, note
tlw t th e parking area during this season of th e year and on this
particular day of th e \\'eek is in use to ful/ capacity at any time.
T his and th e fo l/owing seven il/ustrations are fro m a traffic re
port by L/oyd B . R eid, Traffic Engin eering C onsu ltant .

Origin of ,ehic/es trmeling to East/and

Shopping Cen ter, Detroit, in accordance
with ac tua l traffic conditions on June 5.
1958.

120
 Inasmuch as shopping centers depend heavily on local Because th e suburban sh opping center is th e child of the
traffic, high-speed traffic is qualitatively less desirable than automobile age, the greatest attention has to be paid to
low-speed traflic. Thus th e adva ntages which may be derived traffic planning, with the ai m of bringing about a perfect
from a site directly ad joining a high-speed frecwa y should relationship between mechanized transportation and all
not be overcstimated. A loca tion which is a distance of aspec ts of th e sh opping center. In th e traffic planning task
from one-half mile to two miles removed from exit and th e arch itec t ll'il! avail himself of th e ass istance of a traffic
en trance ramps of a freewa y will allow for an orderly trans- engineer. This, h owever, sh ould not free th e architect from
fer from high-s peed motorways to lower-speed roads and th e responsibility for traffi c plannin g which is part of the
therefore may, in many cases, prove preferable. general planning of th e center. A specialst sh ould not b e
Once th e work of th e planning team h as sh own that the expec ted to furnsh basc concepts but should ass st the
surrounding road network is of the desirable quality and able archtect in findin g solutions wthn th e framework of
i
to carry th e establish ed quantity of peak traffic loads with - general and specified plannng aims. 1
out undu e congesti on and when all simultaneously con-
ducted investiga tions concerning th e suitabili ty of th e site The Aims of Traffic Planning
have been concluded with positive results, th en th e task of il
traffic plann ing can begin. Suburban sh opping centers, 1) Easy Traffic Flow on the Snrrounding Road System. 11
more than any oth er building type exce pt garages and park- Aside from th e quali ty of th e road system itself. th e ease
ing decks, are th e direc t res ult of m ass transportation b y of traffic fl ow will grea tly depend on th e ch arac teristics of
automobile. 'Vith out th e existence of such mass transporta- land usage on both sdes of th e roads. The existence of
tion th e planned suburban shoppin g center as we know it enterprses wh ch would result in a constant entering an d
would h a,e no reason to exist. It is significant th at plans exitng of automobles along th e roads opposte the sh op-
for suburban sh opping centers wh ich were pro jected for ping center wou ld effecti\ely disturb easy fl ow of traffic and
Australia, Europe and oth er p:uts of th e world were post- is th erefore hghly undesirable. This is on e of th e circum-
poned until a rati o of car ownership per capi ta of popula- stances whch makes proper planning of th e surroundng
tion approaching at least 50 % of that in th e United S tates area (Part II , Ch apter -f) so mportant. The exstence of a
was reach ed . large n umbcr of side roads opposite the sh op ping center

Number of ca rs enteri ng and leavin g Eas tlan d C enter, D etroit. by thirty minute periods on Tlnns
day, Tune 5, 1958 between 8:30 a. m. and 9:30 p .m.

S ATigN NUMBER TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL

PERIOD 1 2 3 4 6 OUT 7 OUT 8 OUT 9 10 OUT IJI80UN0 CI<ITIOUIO .&CCUMU-
N OUT IN OUT IN OUT IN OUT IN OUT IN IN IN IN OUT
830.U9 -00 AW 101 41 26 1 42 21 45 4 9 23 107 17 33 1 10 1 7 1
"38 12 418 122
l&TIOI
57-t'
900AW -9 30AM . 102 35 43 2 38 13 40 6 18 5 39 4 32 4 7 2 10 o 49 32 378 103 847
930 .U -lO 00 AW . 149 22 83 2 48 13 96 12 38 9 58 6 66 2 7 1 16 1 100 19 66 1 87 1421
10 :00 Ul-10 30 Alrll 145 70 82 4 39 43 72 20 30 18 40 38 84 3 e 10 16 6 86 36 602 248 1775
10 :so .u~ tt ,oo ""' 133 120 64 7 51 63 79 2e 23 48 59 38 63 5 10 13 20 6 57 87 559 415 1919
11-00 AM-11:3QAW 138 112 70 11 47 52 83 39 19 64 43 51 61 15 11 19 23 9 60 86 555 458 2016
1~30 UH2 0QNOON 145 117 81 3 64 109 64 33 37 43 90 41 81 17 23 8 19 7 75 681 453
77 2244
200NOON-12 30PM 154 127 58 1 44 1 96 60 36 34 48 71 54 96 16 11 20 13 14 73 82 614 1
494 2364
12'30PM - 100 PW 165 111 73 9 47 74 70 37 37 56 61 56 67 16 10 26 21 8 96 62 647 455 2556
IOOPM -1 :30 PW . 164 146 74 5 43 79 80 28 40 64 56 61 64 15 9 23 26 12 79 78 635 5 11 2680
l=l0Piii-2 ,00PM 142 127 61 2 43 116 73 30 37 5 43 70 76 22 5 27 14 7 72 77 566 532 2714
- 2=00 Plil- 2 -30 PN . 133 138 80 7 25 99 81 56 27 53 33 59 55 18 7 18 19 e 70 104 53( 560 268
2=30PN-3 00PM . 109 159 49 7 42 116 64 5 23 59 49 64 68 11 8 25 21 4 52 112 48 610 2559
3=00PN - 3 : 30PM . 12 1 141 54 22 35 121 44 43 19 70 35 57 54 22 9 14 8 9 64 86 443 585 2417
3 =30 PM-4 = 00P~ . 134 15 63 7 34 87 79 36 15 65 50 66 81 18 9 22 15 11 86 70 566 535 244~
=00 PM-4 =30 Plll. 184 16 79 12 54 100 86 45 25 71 55 63 62 29 11 23 20 6 84 97 660 609 2495
:30 Plil -S =OO PM. 173 16 86 13 56 137 106 53 45 93 67 57 77 21 11 20 14 5 94 124 729 685 254
S:-00 PM - S30 PM 138 166 77 13 65 135 99 30 33 83 75 55 62 17 11 10 17 13 80 124 65 646 2554
5 30 PW - 600 PM 236 173 117 12 64 16 1 119 52 37 66 58 119 79 21 10 28 17 12 9 117 830 761 2623
00 PN - 6:30 PW 33 160 173 23 71 113 130 38 40 42 43 70 132 20 16 17 19 7 110 IOC 1069 590 3102
-30 PW -lOO PM 351 14l: 215 9 120 106 169 43 50 63 96 63 140 14 16 23 28 4 179 62 1364 535 3931
.QQ PW - 7 30 PW 441 188 243 12 135 164 217 70 66 78 165 71 162 16 33 37 41 7 20! 138 1712 781 4e62
730 PW -1 :00 PN . 373 28 187 15 120 22 0 155 89 7E 80 130 88 150 25 22 48 31 6 25 217 1499 1075 528
1!1 =00 PM- 8 30 PM . 231 37! 105 31 52 275 118 127 48 130 51 126 9E 41 19 53 21 7 162 17 2 90~ 1341 495C
830 PN- 9 00 PM 113 478 50 36 26 2e9 62 168 25 212 21 166 39 53 5 59 14 13 60 32C 415 1794 3571
=00 Plil -9=30 ,,. 68 56S 17 126 31 303 54 326 20 484 25 231 21 116 12 99 11 39 40 504 32C 2796 1095
TOTALS 4678 4491 2310 39< 1436 3105 234~ 1502 873 2081 1620 1791 200 55 E 310 646 481 222 242 2993 18,479 11;781 --
 - A EA~TL f.NC 1-1
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-
PE Pl

Nu mber of people present in Eastland

-. J 1\
V
Shopping Center, Detroit, at \'arious
hours on Tune 5, 1958.
v .... t--. r--.. f- ......V . . . .....-~~' '~
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' f>JOII - t>.liO I)O I J - - ColO Q<IO Q)IIAI~ lo)O 140 ~~ - .... - o-lO - ~!oC ll40 "16 - NO - 1 - _ ...
TIWE OF DAY

would also have the effect of interfering with good traffic land free for this purpose. Perhaps the most important
fl ow. An important measure to further the easy flow of contribution a planner can make to moid conges ted traffic
traffic is th e widening of roads along all boundaries of th e conditions around th e center, is to see to it that auto-
shopping center and it is often \\'Orth while to contribute mobiles can enter the site with out slowdo\vns .

EASTLAND TRAFFIC SURVEY TA8LE VIII

TRUCK ROAD USAGE BY 30 MIN . PERIODS
Thursday, June 5, 1958-8 :30 A.M. la 8:30 P.M.

EASTLAND TRAFFIC SURVEY PERIOD VEHICLES IN VEHICLES OUT

TASLE VI
PEDESTRIANS ENTERING EASTLAND 8 :3 0 A.M.-9:00 A.M. 14 14
Thursday, June 5, 1958- 8:30 A.M. lo 9:30 P.M. 9:00 A.M.-9:30 A.M. 15 17
9:30 A.M .-10:00 A.M. 19 20
PEDESTRIANS 10:00 A.M .-10:30 A.M . 24 12
10:30 A.M.-11 :00 A.M. 17 24
STATION NUMIIER IN OUT 11 :00 A.M.-11 :30 A.M. 29 20
11 :30 A.M.-12:00 N. 27 16
1 352* 140 12:00 N .- 12:30 P.M. 26 28
2 40 56 12:30 P.M .- 1:00 P.M . 25 21
3 63 47 1:00 P.M.-1:30 P.M. 22 25
4 15 28 1:30 P.M. 2:00 P.M . 22 13
S 1 4 2:00 P.M.-2:30 P.M. 21 27
6 4 4 2:30 P.M.- 3:00 P.M. 18 23
7 28 31 3:00 P.M.-3:30 P.M. 14 19
8 S 5 3:30 P.M .-4:00 P.M . 12 19
9 37 28 4:00 P.M.-4:30 P.M. 19 14
10 399 337 4:30 P.M.-5:00 P.M. 3 15
5:00 P.M.-5:30 P.M. 8 7
Tolals 944* 680 5:30 P.M .-6:00 P.M . 10 14
6:00 P.M.-6:30 P.M. 3 2
"" lncludes 153 sludenls. 6:30 P.M.-7:00 P.M . 4 1
7:00 P.M.-7:30 P.M. 2 2
7:30 P.M.-8: 00 P.M . 2 6
8:00 P.M.-8:30 P.M. 1 1
Tolals 357 360

}77
 NORTHLAND TRAFFIC COUNT
ACCUMULATION OF PEOPLE

14,000
1 1
SATUROAY SEPT. 4, 1954
1 1 1 1 1
1 9,00 TO 9,00 68,695 PEOPLE 1 1' 1
13,000
1 26,807 CARS 1/ / 11
11 1 1 1\ i
1 1 1
' "~ 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
,1 1
1
12,000 THURSDAY SEPT 2, 1954
b1:: ,,, \
1
9,00 TO 9,00 54,216 PEOPL E J/
11,000 21,342 CARS
lj 1
-~- -
]'.
-- - - '
1'
'\
r
1
'\
1\

i
' 1

10,000
lj
.. \ 11 11
1
,.
1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1\, 11 1 i
'
r. .. ll 1\ 1 1
9,000
1/' ' .. ' ~ ,:v 1 1\[
/ ._ , 1 1 1
1
1
8,000
1 1 ~ 1\
/ ' 1 ~ 1 1 1\ 1
1
1
' 1 1 1,1 1 1 1 1 1
7,000
/ ,..::' ONDA Y AUG. 30, 1954
9,00 TO 6,00 28,401 PEOPLE .
- -- \ 1 1
11 509 CARS 1,
6,000 . 1\t
11 . 1 1
5,000 . . 1

4,000 ... 1
\1
:/ ... 'l 1 1 l 1
f./ 1
3,000 ..
1

2,000
1

. ~
1 1 __[

1,000 1
\
- .. _
j
~~~~~~~~~~~M~~NM~~NM~~NM~-NM~-NM
- M .q-,..... N
-

Traffic count for Northland Shopping Center, Detroit, on three days of the week. Note that
J\1onday, on which Center wa s closed at 5:3 0 p.m., has very different traffic pattern from Thurs
day which had a night opening. Saturday, which also had a night opening, shows a distinctly
different pattern from other weekdays.

Incoming and outgoing traffi c on a shop

ping day with night opening between 9
p.m . and 10 p.m . Northland Shopping
Center, Detroit.

2) Effective Transfer of Road Traffic onto the Shopping

Center Site. It is obvious that if automobiles were to be
driYen directly from an adjoining highway onto parking-lot
lanes, chaos would result. Obstructions would be created
by cars which are in the process of moving into parking
stalls; cars behind them would have to wait, forming long
lines of automobiles on the public road sys tem. Thus, the
role of magazine roads which can double as circulatory
roads is an extremely important one. They function as
turn-off lanes from the highway, making possible a gradual
change of speed from fast-moving road traffic to slower
parking-lot traffic.

123
 Schematic Site Plan for transportation
area of N orthland Center, Detroit, show-
ing parking lots, resene parking areas, ac-
cessibility and circulation.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Entrance and exit points leading to and fro m th e intern a!
road system must be well removed from high way crossings.
A minimum of 400 fe et, and if possible, 600 feet, is indi-
cated as the desirable distance of exits and en trances from
majar intersections. Even more important than th e provi-
sions for transfer from the road system to th e si te are th ose
in the opposite direction, fr om th e site to th e road system;
exit traffi c shows considerably sh arpcr pcaks than en trance
traffic. \Vh en night openin gs are h eld, extremely heavy
demands on th e road system will occur. At closing t im e a
Transportation area of Eastland Slwpping Center, D etroit, slww-
ing layout of parking areas and circulation pattern. Pickup sta tion
for th e J. L. Hudson Company marked P.
Architects: Victor Gru en Associates
124
D istribution of traffic on site. An indi-
l'idua l parking lo! at Northland Center,
D etroit.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
mass exodus of sh op pers will take place, aggravated by a
nearl~ simultaneous mass exit of employees . If anal ysis
sh ows th at such peak-hour exit traffic cann ot be h andled
properl), th e de ce of staggered closing h ours will h ave to
be considered. It is usually possible to arrange for later
closing of al! eating facilities, of foo d and drug stores . In
extreme cases, it migh t be advisable to stagger closing hours
of th e departm en t store and other tenant stores. By apply-
ing such meas ures it is possible for peak exit t raffic, which
would normally take place within a h alf-h our period, to be
spread mer one or two h ours.
3) E ven and E ffective D istribntion of Traffic on the Site.
The customer sh ould be given a free choice to dri\e to any
of th e parking areas wh ich surround th e center so th at he
may come as clase as possible to th e store wh ere h e intends
to make his first purchase . Secondary traffi c movements
within the parking area must be facilitated . Such secondary
movements occur when a shopper wish es to pick up bulky
merchandise, such as food purch ases or h om e furnishings.
T h e successful operation of supermarkets, especially in
regi onal shopping cen ters, is greatly ass isted by the ability
of shoppers to dri\e cmwenientlv to marke t pick-up stations
immediately befa re leaving the center.
Circ ulator~ traffic is developed in con siderable volume in
larger sh opping centcrs and arrangements must th erefore
be made to guarantce its easy fl ow, avoiding any interfer-
ence with pcdes trians walking to and fro m th e center's
stru ctures . Circulation roads, th erefore, are m ost effectively
 arranged near the outer edges of th e site, removed sufli-
ciently, h owever, from th e property lin e to allow trafli.c to
swing in and out easily from public roadwa ys. The area be-
tween the peri meter circulatory dr ive and the roadway is
ideally suited for a landscaped buffer area. In sorne cases a
second circulatory driveway is arranged as a loop near th c
halfway line of the depth of the parkin g area, thus dividing
the total parkin g area into an inn er and an outer zone. The
inner zone can be dimensioned in such manner that il
satisfies the parking needs existing during periods of normal
business activi ty while the outer zone might act as overflow
parking area for h ours of high sh opping activity.
Sorne regional centers feature circulatory roa dways im-
mediately surrounding the building core itself. Arguments
in favor of such an arrangement are that such drives permit
window-shopping from slow driving cars and afford the
opportun ity for customers to be brought to and picked up
from th e stores These possible adva ntages secm small when
compared with the disadva ntages they entail for pedestrians
Pickup station for supermarket at N orthland C enter. Detroit,
and drivers alike. Tnas much as circulatory roads carry high- located ll'ithin the transporta tion area. Sold merchandise is
wa y type trafli.c volumes, th e necessity for their crossing by mmed by underground comeyor through basement of super-
all shoppers coming from or return ing to parking areas market to pickup station ll'hcre it is loaded into customers' cars.
creates dangers and trafli.c conges tion . How serious these Architects: Vctor Gruen Associa tes
conditions are is illustrated by the fact that in at least one Ph otograph: Ben Schnall
regional shopping center which h as an inner circulatory
road, traffic signals had to be installed to make pedes trian
crossings safe. Tn another case a car out of control created
damage and injury to property and persons.
Circulatory roadways may be planned for one-way or two-
way traflic. Tn decid ing between th e two systems, the readi-
ness of shoppers to follow traflic directions mus t be taken
into consideration . This often depends on th e degree to
which one-way street systems have been introduced in a
community.

j4) Convenient and Efficient Arrangement of Car Storage

Facilities. There exist as many theories about the arrange-
ment of parking lots as there are experts. 90 park ing, 45o
parking, 30 park ing, parking arrangements wi th curbs,
without curbs, and all possible varieties of these possibil-
ities, have their stout defenders. H owever, a few principies
which have general validity can be stated.
The aim of the parking lot layout for a shopping center
should not be to achieve the greatest possible number of
parking stalls, but rather to assure the greatest possible turn-
over of cars during a given period of time. \ Vhen measured
against the only important criterion - h ow many sh oppers
will be able to visit the shopping center with in the sh op-
ping day-the number of parking stalls ind icated on the
plan, or even on the pavement, is not decisive. \ Vh at is
important, h owever, is how quickly the parking stalls ca n
be filled and emptied. Thus, park ing capacity is a valid
measming st ick only if it denotes the number of conveni-
ently arranged and dimensioned parking stalls.
The functi on of a parking stall in a sh opping center is
different fr om the fun ction of a parking stall in a ga rage
Separation betll'een parking stalls is indica ted by double line
pain ted on pa,e ment in order to ease parking operations. N ote
specially designed tall lghtng standards. Hay Far Shoppng Gen-
ter, San Leandro, California.
Architects: Vctor G ruen Associates
or th e all-day parking lot of an industrial or business enter-
prise; therefore its arrangement and dimensions must also
be different. In contras t to parking stalls serving non-shop-
ping facilities, the shopping center parking stall has a large
turnover. Tt may va ry between 2 and 1O per day. Sine-e the
turnover is so rapid parking should be made easier to accom-
plish in shopping center parking lots than in non-shopping
parking areas. The parked car in a shopping center is oft en
entered when th e shopper has his arms filled with merchan-
dise. Sorne of it may go into the trunk and sorn e inside the

125
 Narrow parking stalls are inco menient.
car. For this reason it m ust be possible to open car doors
sufficiently wide to make th e loading operation comenien t
with out doing damage to an automobile parked in a n ad-
joining space. Therefore, parki ng stalls must be especially
wide.
Only in th e rarest cases is th e parki ng operati on in sho p-
ping centers carried out by skill ed personnel. Therefore,
imperfect driving skills must be taken in to consideration .
1f this is not done, to tal parking ca pac ity will b e diminish ed
by time and space losses. Time is los t wh en complicated
and difficult back-u p operati ons are n ecessary. A dozen cars
may h ave to wa it in th e parkin g lane in order that one un -
skilled driver may ma neu\'er a car in or out of a narrow or
poorly arranged parki ng stall. Loss of 0\'er-all ca pac ity will
occur when parkers, because of narrow stalls, stradd le li nes
and th erefore crea te a condition in wh ich fewer cars can
be parked th an th e th eo retical pattcrn indica tes. T h at th e
grea test co nvenience sh ould be provided in th e layout of
parking arcas is not just an ex pression of a polite gesture
towards sh oppers, but a meas ure of great economic cons e-
que nce. Observations ha\'e sh own th at in many instances
parking areas with certain stated capacities on paper do not
by any mea ns accommodate th e calculated number of cars.
lt is th erefo re recommended that over-all parking n eeds
sh ould be es tablish ed not on th e basis of a ratio b etween
square footage of renta] area to square footage of pa rki ng
area, but rath er on th e basis of car stalls per 1,000 square
fee t of renta] area.
Tn order to ex trac t the greatest benefit fr om this measur-
ing m eth od, it must be tied to qualitative standards for
parking a rrangem ents.
a) Parking is easier, quicker and more acc urate on lots
wi th stalls arra nged at 45 anglcs than on th ose set at
60o or 90 angles.
126
b ) Stalls with ample width will speed parki ng operation,
wi ll avoi d space-was tin g st ra ddling of lines, and will allow
car doors to be opened \\ith ou t clamage to neighboring
autom obiles. T he foliO\\ing stall widths are sugges ted :
Angle l\ Iinimum Norm l\ Taximum
90 8'-6" S'-9" 9'- 0"
60 8'-4 " 8'-6" S'-10"
45 8'-2" 8'-4" 8'- 8"
e) Bumper str ips sepam tin g stalls located opposite each
oth er lead to proper usage of stall clepth an d make th e
m is use of parkin g stalls as driving area impossible. H ow-
ever. th ey represent a considerable ini tial and continuing
expenditure and rend cr sn ow removal more clifficult . lt
has also b een claimed that th ev cause accidents to
pedes trians wh o stu m ble mer th e~ . A substi tu te device
co nsists of metal or concrete pos ts about three feet high
placed along th e di\'iding line b etween opposite rows of
stalls. Sorne ad\antages of th is arrange ment are relative
safety and lower cost of upkeep . A disadvan tage is th at
in an empty park ing lot th e concrete pos ts create the
illusion of a ce m e t er~; th ey also complicate th e snow
removal problem . 1f every third or fourth post is replaced
by a tree and th e remai ning on es replaced by suitable
carrying devices for pbnts. an aesth eti c asse t can be
created .
d) D ouble lines between ad joining parki ng stalls ass ist
in parking manemers. Driv ing lanes sh ould b e of am ple
wicl th. The following m nim um meas urements for th e
wiclth of a parking un it, consisting of one lane and the
adjoining two stalls, are recommencled: for 90 parking,
62'; for 60 parking. 54'; for 45 parkin g, 48'.
e) \ Valkways for pedes trians will result in grea ter safety
 for shoppers and will eliminate slowing down of vehicles, Parking lots m Southdale are
but will reduce the number of parking spaces in an y marked with signs ca rning am-
given area. mal symbols.
f) Parking aisles should be directed at right angles to Photograph: Anthony Lane
the shopping center building group . This reduces walk-
ing distances and gives clear direction to shoppers on
their way to the stores.
g) Surfacing of good quality will speed parking opera-
tions and reduce upkeep and maintenance costs.
h) \Vell designed and executed markings and signs will
prevent confusion, 1essen th e Jikelihood of accidents and
increase parking capacity. Sale reliance on signs painted
on the pavement is not advisable because of their gener-
ally poor visibility and their total invisibility in case of
snowfall . Lanes must be clearly numbered with signs
visible to the motorist when driving into th e lot as well
as when returning from sh opping.
i) Large parking areas sh ould be di\'ided b y walkways
andjor landscaping into smaller lots containing not more
than 800 cars. Th ese lots should be identified b y signs
legible from all directions . For identification, letters and
numbers are most often used. H owever, th ey prove dif-
ficult to remember. Pictorial signs such as animals or
flowers may be preferable (see Part Il , Chapter 10) .
j) Proper illumination (a t Jeast one-half to one and one-
half foot candles. or an average of one maintained) is
essential for safetv and will speed parking operations dur-
[JJ OWLLOf m
ing peak business hours and night openings (see Part ll ,
Chapter 9). ~fi&ERLOI IOILOT~
Mi
~
&OOSELOI

Copies ot tllis map are distributed to KliSIROO LOT 1 i 1

shoppers at Southdale. near !\finneapolis.

ILLI&ITOR LOI

[] ,
Parking in Southdale ta kes place on upper and lowcr Parking 0 11 various par king decks is projected for si te of limited
levels which slope feo m circula tory dri\'e\\'J)' to meet size. Fifth Avcnue So uth Center, \Vashin gton, D .C.
le\'el ot lower or upper merchandisin g facilities. Architects: Victor Cruen Associates
Architec ts: Victor Gruen Associates Photograph: G ordon Sommers
~hoto gra ph: C o urtesy J\finn ea polis Sunday Tribune
 COMPARISON OF AVERAGE DA ILY " P" FACTO R

"
"
"
"
ll

-
l1

" NORTHLA ND ...

~ "
< "
"
26 - CRENSHAW
~
~ "
"
...,...,
" ....-
____ .,...
o
:.: " 21
..------ ....
~ ~

.,_ '
NORTHGATE

~ "
"
11 LAK EWOOD"
8 17

" --+-------~-------~---~
- .,~~
"'
~ ". \
:;: 1l
u
~
11
"
11
10
.,_ ~

:. ~
.
oti ' 8

:1:.

MONDA Y TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY

1 1 1 1 1

Comparison of truck traflic, based on ac tual observation, for four shopping centers: Nortl1land,
Detroit; Broadway-Crenshaw, Los Angeles; Northgate, Seattle; Lakewood, Los Angeles.

Tabulation of traflic cou nt during one week at North land Center, Detroit.
Architccts: Victor Gruen Associates

NORTHLAND TRUCK COUNT 1370 - TRUCKS/ WEE K

, r--~2~
47~TR~U~C~K~S~/D
~A~Y~_~_ _2~
M~TR~U,CrK~S~
/D~A
~Y~-~-~2~
~~T~
R~CKS/ DAY 235 TRUCKS/ DA Y 256 TRUCKS / DAL _ ___- _,_1,_,
52c..T
.!.!R,U,
C"'-
K"~S /,_..D'CA'-'-Y-~

'~--.r---1 - -- -- -1-
- +---------------~
:~ t-- - ---
'" - - ,-- _-_-_-_---1--- - -1 ---
- -t-- -td - -
it= - r- -
- 1- -

: .--~~~~------1----~~-~- ----t--
- -
---1-
--- - - --+- --1

------+---~ -
~ ~~
-~---------~----;Jt-t=====~~---------
.,
~ 21r -
~r= --- - -----l- -1 -
~ :~
,: -
----
--- - - 1--
0 17 ( - -
: ll ---
,r- __ _
~
~ 14
-
- - - -1--
I==J=-
--
- --
z
:r-
" !- - --- --
,p-
1-------
-
-- --r- -c-
-f - --
-
.- - -r- ---

: ~. ....,,.b;., ,"'"' ' t,~ l~~''' " " ' ' ' l l~.,,,,,,, . ~~~.. . . . l~
MONDA Y TUE SDAY
f .. ,,,,,,, ..
W EDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY SATURDAY

128
 HUOSON'S LOWER LE V EL
l
l f---' 1~ : ~ ENTRANC E FROM
TRUCI<
LOWE R LE VE L PARKING
D:IT
Layout of truck road and Joading docks at Nor thlaud Center, Detroit .
Archi tects: \'ictor G ruen Associates
5) Separation of Senice Vehicle from Customer C ar Traf-
fic. For sen ice vehicles (tru cks, trailers, garbage- and trash-
collec tin g vehicles, etc.) separate roa ds, branch ing off from
the general road sys tem at points removed as far as possible
from the shopping area, should be prmided. Ideally - and
this can be accomplish ed in large regional shopping centers
- separate entrances and exits to the public road sys tem
should be planned. \Vhere this is not feasible the branching
off should take place from the perimeter circulatory roa d,
or, in smaller centers, fr om general entrance and exit
roads before such roa ds take on th e characteristics of park-
ing lanes. \\'h ere underground or upper level sen ice roads
are provided, the possibility of arranging for one-way serv-
ice roads often exists. Even where service courts or alleys
are arranged a t surface level, special one-way service roa ds
can be provided. Under no ci rcumstances sh ould senice
vehicles cross roads that direc tly sene parki ng operations.
Senice road en trances must be properl y markcd in order to
prevent the entrance of other ,chicles. \ Vhere underground
service roads enter buildings, a height of 14 feet is recom-
mended. This is sufficient for trailers.
In designing senice roads and loading facilities, the fol-
lowing information quoted from a truck traffi c suney under-
taken by Vctor Gruen Associates and Larry Smith &
Company will be found helpful.
1' - - ----'
o
100 200
seo!e:
A. Number ol Trucks To Be Expecte d Per Do y
Regordl ess ol geogrophicol locotion, shopping ce nters without
food morkets will hove opproximotely 75% ol the moximum
daily volume of centers with food markets. " P" factor - trucks
per 1,000 sq . ft. ol rento! orea, is an average ol 0 .23 for
cenlers without morkets. (For centers with morkets, 0 .29.)*
B. Number al Trucks To Be Accommodoted ot One Time
An occumulotion ol 7 % ond 15% of !he doily volume con be
considered as the minimum and maximum requirements, with o
figur e af 12 /o desiroble for ecanamical and efficient operation.
C. Physicof Requ irements ol Truck Delivery Spoces
Generolly speoking, the ideal layout of truck delivery spoces
should be choroclerized by the following considerotions :
l. Eose of occess for delivery trucks from public roadwoys;
minimum interference with customer automobile and pedestrion
traffic.
2. Delivery spoces locoted out of sight of normal customer oreas.
3. Delivery spoce planned so that trucks can maneuver into
docks, or berths, with a mnimum of lost motion, in the
shortest possible time ond with the greolest degree of solety
both for other vehicles ond fixed building elements, such as
columns, plotforms, watls. etc.
4. Docks designed to provide the greolest eose in the tronsfer
al goods from truck lo receiving plotform.
5. Delivery docks locoted where they con provide the mas! direct
access to ~ervice and stock oreas of stores being served.
*This term has been used in the Truck Traffi c Sun ey to denote
the trucks and oth er service vehicles frequenting a sh opping
center per day in relation to 1,000 square fee t of renta! area.
129
 - -~--=-~ .......... ...._... ..__._~
---~=-== -- ~~- r .

A special bus road is prol'ided at Nortllland Center. T wo bus sta tion slJelters hal'e been con-
stmcted and are connec ted by Col'ered walks witlJ sllopping core of stmctmes. \ pickup station
for the department store, J_ L . Hudson Compam, is ,isible below t he bus road.
Architec ts: Victor Gru en Associates. Photograph: Photograph House

D. Critica/ V ehicle Size
In the layout of delive ry spaces, it is first of all necessary lo
determine the size of the largesl truck lo be accommodated in
order to provide sufficient room for the driver to moneuver his
vehicle into the truck ore a and back into the unloading position.
Since there are innumerable types and sizes in trucks and truck
and trailer combinations, and since moximum legal sizes vary
from state to state, certain ossumptions must be made as to the
size lo be used for design purposes.
There has been a relatively greater increase in the number of
commercial vehicles thon in passenger automobiles in recent
yeors; a similar gre ate r increase in th e number of combinotion
units; ond o constant increase in the poy load and gross weight
of the combination vehicles.
According to a stote ment by Thomos H. MocDonold, Commissioner
of Public Roads, lo the Senate Commille e on lnterslale and
Foreign Commerce quoted in "Zoning For Truck Looding Facili-
ties," it would appear, in view of such a trend, that a shopping
center of major size moy be at o distinct disadvantage if it does
not contain focilities for handling the largesl size vehicles per-
mitted on the highways . The maximum size of the ve hicles that
will enter th e lruck loading ore as will be larg ely d e termined by
the facilities oflered by the shopping cente r; in many cases, the
lorgest size unit will be the most economical from th e shipper's
slandpoint.
Tests conducted by !he California State Division of Highwa ys
indicate thot for roodwa y cleoronces th e critica! vehicle is the
lorge tractor-semi -trailer combination, of approximately 50-foot
over-all length. Truck ond troil er units ond tractor, semi-trailer,
lrailer units of the full 60-fool Colifornia legal length are able
te negotiate ony roadway which can accommod ate the large
tractor-semi-trailer unit. lt would be unlikely, however, for a truck
and trailer unit of maximum size to moke de liveries to a sh opping
center since the se units are olmost exclusively used for long
distance houls, but it is not ot oll inconceivab le that fractor-semi-
trailer units approaching !he legal limit wou ld enle r a shopping
center delivery orea. For the purposes of design, therefore, the
logical assumption is to provide minimu m space requirements ade-
quale lo handle this vehicle. On this basis enough space would
be provid ed for the occasional handling of these Jorge units
while the greater dim e nsions thus provided become a factor of
safety contributing to th e ease of operation and efficiency of
maneuvering smoller ve hicles . The following information on mo-
neuvering spoces is th e refore based on this troctor-semi-trailer
unit of approximotely 50-fool length.
E. Moneuvering Spoce Require ments
On the basis of tests conducted by the California Stale Division
of Highways a recommend ation wos made that 60 lee! be con -
sidered a minimum practica! outside rodius.
Although this 60-fool radius is reco mmended where possible, in
view of the relatively small number of larg e vehicl es which may
be expected a 50-fool outside radius should prove adequale in
most cases. The insid e turn cleoronces, howeve r, o re often critica!
since the necessory roodwoy width increoses with th e decreose of
the outside radius.
An importont considerotion in the layout of truck docks - porticu-
larly from the slandpoint of the truck driver - has lo do with the
side from which the driver is required to moke his bock-in run.
In mone uvering a lorge troctor-se mi -t roiler unit, if the driver is
forced lo lurn his cab so that his vision backward is blocked by
the trailer, the accurocy of his oim toword the dock is d ependent
e ntirely on his skill ond exper ience and at best ma y require
seve ro! triols with resulting deloy and donger of hitting odjocent
trucks, columns, ond othe r obstructions. In designing for the
average driver it th e re for e becomes necessor y to plan the moneu-
vering spoce in such o wo y thot the bocking-up operation swings
the troiler cle or of the drive r's fin e of vision. lt has been observed
thot even on averag e operator can maintoin mnimum clearances
where it is passible for him la sight back along one side of his
ve hl't:le.
F. Dock Design
While many trucks and semi-t railers ore equipped to load ond
unload from the side of th e vehicle, observalion of many typical
dock facilities indicates that the preferred and apparently mosl
practica! method is la unload from the end of the unit. The ideal
dock, in most cases, would consist of a platform located at the
level of the truck floor, againsl which the vehicle may back.

130
 Since there are many variotions in the height of truck beds and 6) Provisions for Separated Movement and Loading Areas
diflerences in height due lo looded as against unload ed condi-
tion, this ideal is not eosily attainable .
for Public Transportation Vehicles. Pu blic transportation,
There ore various types of leveling device which ore used in as stated previously, if given proper opportun ities and facili-
compensoting for varying heights. Permanent or portable ramps ties can make important contributians ta the shapping
under the reor wheels ol the truck will usually adjust the height center business valume. In mast cases it is accomplished
adequately, while a steel piole bridg e betwee n the truck and
the dock platlorm lacilitates the use ol trucks handling smoll
by buses and, to a minar degree, by taxicabs. To make
goods. public transportaban effective buses and taxis must be
With very few exceptions, 8 fe et is the ma ximum allowable brought, if possible on separate roads, to loading and un-
vehicle width throughout !he country and it may be assumed thot loading areas immediately adjoining the shapping center
!he majority ol units will hove this dimension . Th e mnimum width buildings or the pedestrian area . Bus statians located on
ol dock spoce should not be smaller thon 1O lee! with o prelerred
dimension ol 12 leet since the stall width is directly re late d to
public highways make averlong walks through buffer areas
the amount ol room necessary lor pulling out lram a d ock spoce. and parking lots necessary. Bus staps should be provided
The provis ion of o verhead protection for the unlooding operation wi th shelters and the means far posting schedules. Storage
is an almcst mondatory requirement for the type of me rchand ise space far public transportatian vehicles sha uld be arranged
lhat is handled al a shopping center. The g enerally acce pted a n ar near the site so that the transportatia n company can
vertical cleoronce is 14 feet .
make available extra transportaban for peak periods, espe-
The depth ol the dock mus! be sufficienl lo provi de spoce lo cially far the exiting traffic at closing h ours.
stock the material that is being unloaded lrom the truck and That gaad pro,ision for public transpartation creates
besides, leave access aisles for handling. 1t is recomm e nde d that
as a general rule the dock orea be al leas! twice the total body strong usage for it is shown by statistics assem bled far the
floor orea ol the largest number ol trucks thot can be docked Northland and Eastland Centers where it is estimated that
ot one tim e. This is a logicol conclusion when it is re olized that passengers arri,ing by public transportation (chiefly by
lreight el a ve rag e density usuolly is piled betwee n 5 and 6 bus) represent approximately 7% of the total number af
lee! high in the truck, is transported lo and fram th e truck on
twa -wheeled hand trucks handling o heig ht ol stock lrom 3 lo
shoppers pcr da y. It is interesting ta note that while both
4 lee!, ond seldom is tie red on th e looding dock; hence, ollowing cen ters provide taxi stands as a matter of public conveni-
for aisles in wh:t: h the hand truck con operote, the re quired dock ence, the number of custamers arriving and leaving b y taxi
orea is at leo st twice the f\oor ore o of the ve hicles at the dock. is almast negligible.
Even with this size rotjo it would be necessory to tronsport the There are cases where other means a f public transporta-
freight promptly lro m the dock in arder to moke continuous use
ol the truck berths.
tion can be utilized. The \Vestchester T erminal Plaza plans
On this bosis a dock 120 lee! long servi ng 1O tr ucks with en
ta take advantage of commuter and express train traffic as
average truck bed le ngth ol 16 lee! would hove a dock depth ol the railraad station will be an integral par t of the shopping
10 X 16' X 8' X 2 center. This project would also include a Greyhound Bus
= 21', Terminal. The design for the projected " Staten l sland
120
On the same bo sis o dock serving o 35-loot long semi-traile r porked D owntown" de,elopment makes provisions for a subway
porollel lo it wou ld require o d e pth ol 16 l ee! (35 ' x 8' x 2) , terminal in the event the New York Transit Authority
16
35 should extend its network to Staten l sland.
While such g e nerous dim e nsions might be goo d practice in a
freight handling depot or warehouse, it is doubtful wh ether the
dock oreo per truck thus calculoted would be necessory in shap-
Bus road and bus terminal structure at
ping center design for oll stores si nce o gre ot mony deliveries
would no! involve the complete unl a ad ing ol the vehicle. Th ere-
Eastla nd Shopping Center, Detroit.
fore, in estimoting the dock size in a shopping center the ore a Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates
required lor speciolty stores may be ossume d lo be equ al lo Ph otograph: Alexa ndre Georges
the total floor oreo of !he trucks being served. lncre osed oreos,
approoching the doubled amount mentione d obove, should be
provided at docks serving food markets, de portme nt stores, or
other mojor delivery users.
G. Lcx:otion of Truck Delivery Areos in the Shopping Ce nte r Plan
On the bo sis ol inlormotion listed under A lo E the d esign ol
service roads and loading and unlooding faci lities con be under-
token . The qu estion ol where such facilities shauld be locoted
has been discussed in Par! 11, Chapter 3. An additional possi-
bility is being considered in a numbe r al projects still on the
drafting boords . In the se projects provisions ore bei ng considered
for one central service ore a for oll stores wh ere oll loading ,
unloading ond .temporory storing ore occomplished. From this
central service orea merchandise is moved to individual stores
by a sysfem of con ve yor be lts or, in sorne cases, by smoll e lectric
forklift trucks. These arrongements promise to result in re duc-
tions of unproductive spoces and capital investme nt, provided
they are deeme d lo be procticol in operation by th e tenants of
the projects.

P ART J:J: -CHAPTER 7
Planning for Merchandising
The expression " merchandising a sh opping center" is
sbmewhnt m isleading in that the term " merchandising" b y
its accepted definiti on relates to the ac tual selling of mer-
chandise. H owever, as a part of the la nguage evolved b y
shopping cen ter plan ners it is used to denote a phase of
plnnning - the selection and location of tenan t types or,
if possible, specific tenants on the renting plan . T he im-
portance of this phase of planning c:mnot be overstressed,
since the relationsh ip of income to expense is a primary
determinan t of wheth cr or not a real es tate inves tment is
sound and profitable. T h is, in tu rn , is dependent on effec-
tive merch nndis ing planning.
Retail patterns, as established down town, and in well
establish ed suburban locations, give th e planner a frame
of reference with respect to locntional characteristics, space
requiremen ts and productivity potential of each type of
tenant. It is this knowledge, comprising the methodology
of merchandising plann ing, that is applied to the sh opping
center situation .
Merchandising planning attempts to create a situation
in which each member of the re tail entity- the owner,
the tenant, and the shopper - fun ctions in a manner that
benefits each of the others. To accomplish this th e center
must have ample and convenient sh opping opportunities
for the customer, as well as locations th at provide each
tenant with access to the maximum amount of sh oppers'
foot traffic; this combination res ults in each tenant's will-
ingness to pay large enough guarnn teed ren ts t o permit
financing and construction of the pro ject . T he percentage
rent structure should be such as to provide fur ther profit
132
i
1.,
when stabilized operating levels have been reached. The
inves tm ent objectives of th e owner can best be realized
th rough a balanced tenancy, allowing each tenant to per-
form on an optimum basis.
In this discussion, we will sh ow h ow th e relationship of
locational requirements to rent paying ability and pro-
ductivity potential is considered for each type of tenant
in the merchandising plan . For purposes of discussion we
have attempted to isolate th ese interrelated factors and will
take them up one at a time.
l) Physical Aspects of the Plan. 1\I erchandising plnnning
begins after the economic analysis of th e site has deter-
mined the size of the project and th e architectural and
engineering analysis of the site h as determined th e basic
planning concept. Essentiall y, " merchandising the plan"
consists of determinin g the size, Iocation and type of each
store to be placed in the sh opping center - with res pect
to both type and quality of merchandise handled. Another
significant phase of the ini tial merchandising planning is
the determination of the charac ter of the shopping center
as influenced by the choice of th e major tenant, the de-
partment store.
Th e primary objective of the merchandising plann er is
to select stores and to arrange them in such a mann er that
the grea test possible number of customers are attracted t o
the sh opping center and funn eled th rough it, thcreby
creating the maximum amount of pedestrian traffic and
inter-store shopping opportunities . T he bas ic principie un-
derlying this process is the enhancement of th e customer's
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Merc handising plan for Northland Center, Detroit.

Architcc ts: V ictor Gruen Associates

Merchandising plan for Eastland Center, Dctroit.

Architec ts: Vic tor Gruen Associates

133

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Shoppers are attracted to the scene by primary customer attractors.
OEI?AR'l'.NDI'r
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Secondary traffic attractors.
satisfaction in terms of an adequate selection of merchan-
dise offered with greatest conven ience to the customcr, and
with the highest possible standard of service by the mer-
chants.
Customers are attracted by the mer-all presentation of
merchandise in the center but especially by primary
customer attractors. By placing primary and secondary
customer attractors in locations where they function as
magnets. customers are pulled through the center, from
one magnet to the other, past the doors of the tenants
who fall into the category of traffic users. These latter
cannot in themselves at tract a sufficient number of cus-
tomers to survive, and therefore are dependent upon the
foot traffic generated by the primary and secondary traffic
attractors and in certain cases are prepared to pay premium
rents for locations in which they enjoy such benefits.
134
The most important primary traffic attractor - a
tenant capable of attracting customers to the center- is,
in a regional center, obviously the department store. The
junior department store, the specialty and large fashion
store, the supermarket and the large quality restaurant also
serve as primary traffic a ttractors each to varying degrees
clepending upon factors which differ from center to center.
They are also referred to as anchor tenants.
The function of the secondary traffic attractor - that
of pulling customer traffic through the center- is per-
formed by the tenants in the primary attractor category
as well as by banks, post offices, clusters of apparel stores,
groups of stores selling services, such as barber, beautician,
shoe repairman, dry cleaner and other related activities,
and possibly variety stores. The characteristics of these
various store types will vary from project to project, and
the importance of any one store in generating traffic will
also depend upon the location and character of the shop-
ping center itself.
The remainder of the tenants fall into the category of
traflic users and, as such, require prime space with maxi-
mum pedestrian traffic. This category is largely made up
of the so-called small tenants who, while they are not
traffic generators. serve a highly useful function since they
contribute to the completeness, or one-stop shopping char-
acteristic, of the regional center. They add color and
enhance the atmosphere and character of the center. Be-
cause these characteristics have, in general, been confirmed
by experience, th ey are valid for planning purposes. How-
ever, it should be pointcd out that any tenant of a shop-
ping center ma y in a single instance be a primary-traffic-
generator in that his particular store may be the primary
object of a shopping trip.
The primary traffic generator can function best for the
shopping center when located in accordante with the
"pul!" principie. The single-pull plan is used when one
anchor tenant is contemplated. The double-pull plan is de-
sirable when two anchor tenants are anticipated, and
functions well where the mal! type of building arrange-
ment is used. The triple-pull plan can be used for a variety
of more complex building arrangements when three anchor
tenants are to be located in the project. The use of this
type of plan could be particularly beneficia! in instances
where the project is to be constructed in two or more
stages; the first stage could be based on the single-pul!
concept which could evolve into the triple-pul! plan as the
project is completed.
After the majar stores are placed in the location where
they achieve their own objectives and where they exert
the greatest pulling power, an analysis of the plan will very
likely indicate those areas that must be merchandised pro-
ductively by tenants capable of generating secondary or
intra-center pedestrian traffic. The reason for this might
be that the areas are not directly related to the majar
source of customer attraction, or that the location in rela-
tion to that source is disadvantageous for other reasons.
The single-pull plan. The supermarket dominates Th e double-pull plan. Two department 5tores are
neighborh ood center. Black Horse Pike, Audubon , the anchor tena nts at Southdale Shopping Center
New Jersey. near 1\ finn eapolis.
Architects: Victor Gmen Associates Architects: Victor Gmen Associates
Architect for D onaldson Store: John Graham & C o.

The triple-pull plan . Three department stores are the anchor tenants
a! Randhmst Center, 1\ ft . Prospect. Illinois (in the planning stage).
Architects: Victor Gmen Associates

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135
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Placement of secondary traffic generators. Placement of secondary traffic generators. ' 1
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other, often small, tenants.
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However, placing secondary-traflic-generators in such loca-
tions is likely to !acate them in the main stream of pedes-
trian traflic, which is not necessarily directly at the main
magnet. Customers will be drawn to them regardless of
their location within the center and their function as a
secondary magnet senes to increase the pedestrian traffic
wi thin the center. Certain secondary-traflic-generators, re-
quiring clase relationship to parking, can attract shoppers
to the outer extremities of the building group- thereby
creating profitable space that would otherwise be used less
advantageously. This concept of merchandising planning
is compatible wi th the primary fin ancia] objective of ob-
taining an optimum average guaranteed rent for the center.
By distributing trafli c throughout the project, this type of
tenar.t creates more prime space in the center than would
be the case if all such tenants required space in clase
proximity to an anchor tenant. In this fashion suitable
space becomes available for other, often small, tenants who
are capable of payi ng higher rents for the privilege of
enjoying pedestrian traflic which they could not generate
themselves.
The building groups used to illustrate the single-pull,
double-pull, and triple-pull principie are used again here
to show the cross-pull effect achieved by locating the
secondary traflic attractors in the manner described.
After the primary and secondary traflic attractors have
been located, the location of other stores is determined
to sorne degree by considering the principie of compart-
mentaliza tion: the grouping of stores featuring related or
like merchandise, particularl y with respect to type, quality
and price. Experience has sho\\'n that this general arrange-
ment tends to increase the productivity of each member
of such a group. Furthermore, inter-store shopping is en-
couraged by the grouping of small specialized food stores

136
 around th e supermarket. Similarly, it is considered advan-
tageous to group stores of comparable quality and price,
handling women's apparel and shoes, children's clothing
and famil y apparel and shoes . Stores handling houscwares
cnstitute another such logical groupin g and add, as do
the other related groups, to th e customer's greater shop-
ping convenience . The principle of compartmentaliza tion
should not, h owever, b e followed exclusively, as introduc-
tion of non-related store types in any grouping m ay add
to customer interest and capitalize on th e value of de-
veloped pedestrian traffic.
'Vhen the plan is merch andised to the extent of locating
the primary and secondary traffic attrac tors and th e related
store groups, loca tions are indicated for each specific tenant
on the basis of his need for exposure to pedestrian traffic
and his ability to pay th e indica ted value of particular
locations wi thin th e project.
In this fin al stage of initial merchandising planning, care
should be taken to create the maxi mum number of oppor-
tunities for impulse buying b y th e sprinkling of small at-
tracti,e sh ops such as candy stores, pas try sh ops, gift shops,
tobacco stores, card sh ops, and the like through out the
center.
The loca tion of servi ce stores is not as cri tica] with
respect to customer traffic as some of th e oth er tenant
types. Once th ey have developed a clientele, th ey generall y
ha,e enough traffic-generating ability to operate success-
fully regardless of their location with in a center. Because
th ey constitute, in th emselves, th e object of a more or less
planned shopping trip, th e customer will seek th em out
in rel atively isolated locations. For this reason th ey often
occupy basement concourse space th at is diffi cult to mer-
chandise productively with m ost oth er tenants.
a) Channeling Traffic. A primary objective of the mer- .{t
chandising plan , that of creating and generat ing th e
maximum amount of pedes trian traffic through the cen-
ter, can be furth ered by various other devices.
Traffic can b e channeled b y loca ting th e "secondary-
traffi c-a ttrac tors" in such a manner th at a shopper is
required to cross th e mall or turn th e nex t comer in
order to complete h er shopping tour; by architectural
treatment such as off-set building locations, appropriatel y
placed landscaped arcas (a few steps up or clown on the
malls or walkways), directional signs strategically located
to proclaim the ex istence of an tem of interest such as
some outdoor pro motional activi ty or sales event a " few
feet ahead" or " just around th e comer."
b ) Expansion. 'Vhere a center is planned for expa nsion
th e initial merchandising plan sh ould allow for the en-
largemcnt of tenant spaces within the scope of th e retail
potential of each tenant and of th e sh opping center as
an entity. Space reserved for this purpose may b e in the
form of mezzanines or basement area. The potential for
vertical andjor horizontal expansion, besides constituting
a ph ys ical problem , must also b e considered in th e initial
merchandising plan and implemented through individual
lease agreements. Locating short lease tenants, with low
fixturing costs, adjacent to tenants wi th possible expan-
sion needs may be a useful concept.
2) Financia! Ramifications of the Plan . In order to bring
about a satisfacto ry real esta te investment th e tenan ts must
paya mnimum average guara nteed rent sufficient to permit
efficient fin ancing of th e center. 'Vhen satisfactory oper-
ating levels haYe been reached, the percentage rent should,
in addi ti on, provide a profit to th e owner consistent with
th e value of th e location and th e effectiYeness of th e plan-
ning. Since the tenants who function as traffic attractors
charac teristically pay lower rents, this must be offset by th e
ability of the smaller tenants, who are traffic users, to pay
high er rents, if a satisfactory rent Jeye] for the center is to
be achie,ed.
Another factor th at influences the selection of tenants
is the desire to obtain national ch ain tenants whose credit
ratings satisfy the requirements of fin ancing institutions.
Extrernely high credit rating requirernents obviously reduce
th e number of qualified tenants a\'a ilable. T o offer facilities
consistent with local shopping patterns, strong local and
regional tenants wh o ha,e dern onstrated ab ility to achieYe
custorn er acceptance sh ould be obtained for th e balance
of th e space.
Because circurnstances ya ry so rnuch from center to
center it is difficult to generalize, but experience h as sh own
that securing a combination of national and local tenants
may raise th e aYerage guaranteed rent Jeye] by as much as
2 5% , as well as deYelop high productivity of sales and
consequen t sa tisfac tory percentage rents.
The following table sh ows th e normal ra nge of guara n-
teed and pcrcentage rents paid by typical regional sh op-
ping center tenants and the am ount and kind of space
normally occupied by each . See pages 138-9.
3) Factors T hat Affect Accomplishment of the Idea\ Mer-
chandising Plan. Th e extent to which th e developer wi\1
be able to ach ieve the objectives discussed wi\1 b e influ-
enced, alth ough circumstances va ry from center to center,
by se,eral add itional fac tors:
a) The Planning Concept. The quality of th e general
planning and design concept - the degree of skill with
which the relationsh ip of planning elements is handled
-will be reflected in a more or less ready acceptance,
by all tenants, of assigned store loca tions and store sizes,
as well as oth er leasing terms.
b ) The Tcgotia tin g Position of th e Shopping Center.
If th e center is in a strong bargaining pnsition, it is
likely th at th e owner wi\1 be able to negotiate terms
and loca ti ons favorable to it. On the oth er h and, if
th e position of the center is weakened because com-
petin g facilities already exist, or for oth er reasons, this
wi\1 be refl ected in th e low number of tenants willing
to join th e center and in the terms th ey will accept.
137
 e) Handling the Leasing. The extent to which the leased
shopping center deviates from the initial merchandising
plan can be attributed, in sorne instances, to the quality
of management's leasing supervision. If the leasing is
undertaken by a representative of management or by a
broker under the direction of the owner, the terms nego-
tiated with tenants are much more likely to reflect
management decisions and interests than if handled by
brokerage offices operating without such direction. The
interests of the latter are primarily related to leasing the
space as quickly as possible, and ren ta! opportunities are
appraised through the eyes of tenants with whom the
broker may have or may plan to have relationships.
In this connection it should be mentioned that the skill ,
of the negotiator is an important factor. Another is the
creation of means to facilitate and coordinate manage-
ment decisions concerning leasing activities - by estab-
lishing a leasing committee, for example - so that

Schematic rent schedule for hypothetical regional shopping center.

RENT SCHEDULE FOR HYPOTHETICAl REGIONAl SHOPPING CENTER (PART 1)

Rentable Estimated
Are a Guaranteed Rent Stabilized Sales Total Rent
{Sq. Ft.) Per Sq. Ft. Total Per Sq. Ft. Total Rate (%) Total

Faad 32,000 $ 51,875 $3,927,500 $. 80,150

Candy & Nuts 500 $4.00 2,000 $100 50,000 10% 5,000
Delicatessen 1,500 3.25 4,875 85 127,500 6 7,650
Supermarket 30,000 1.50 45,000 125 3,750,000 2% la Min.
1Y2% Over 67,500
Department Stare 160,000 1.25 200,000 60 9,600,000 2'fl% 240,000

Junior Department Stare 4% la Min.

{af the variety stare type) 60,000 1.25 75,000 50 3,000,000 3% Over 108,750

Apparel 115,000 276,900 7,261,500 412,980

Wamen's Specialty 10,000 2.00 20,000 65 650,000 4 Y% 29,250
Wamen's Wear 8,000 2.25 18,000 65 520,000 4 Y, 23,400
3,000 2.50 7,500 60 180,000 6 10,800
2,500 2.50 6,250 60 150,000 6 9,000
3,000 2.50 7,500 60 180,000 6 10,800
Men's Quality Wear 2,000 2.50 5,000 60 120,000 7 8,400
1
Men s Weor 14,000 2.25 31,500 65 910,000 5 45,500
10,000 2.25 22,500 65 650,000 5 32,500
8,000 2.25 18,000 65 520,000 5 26,000
Apparel Stare 4,000 2.50 10,000 55 220,000 6 13,200
Children's Wear 3,500 2.50 8,750 55 192,500 6 11,550
Women 1 s Shoes 8,500 2.50 21,250 65 552,500 6 33,150
10,000 2.50 25,000 65 650,000 6 39,000
8,000 2.50 20,000 65 520,000 6 31,200
Family Shaes 4,500 2.50 11,250 65 292,500 6 17,550
Men's & 8ay's Shaes 3,000 2.50 7,500 60 180,000 7 12,600
Children's Shaes 3,000 2.50 7,500 60 180,000 7 12,600
Millinery 1,200 3.00 3,600 50 60,000 10 6,000
Maternity 800 3.25 2,600 55 44,000 7 3,080
Lingerie 800 3.25 2,600 70 56,000 8 4,4&0
Hasiery 800 3.25 2,600 70 56,000 8 4,480
leen Shap 3,000 2.50 7,500 60 180,000 7 12,600
8ridal Shap 1,200 3.25 3,900 55 66,000 8 5,280
Women 1s Accessories 2,200 3.00 6,600 60 132,000 8 10,560

Furniture 27,000 56,000 1,255,000 59,775

Furniture 23,000 2.00 46,000 45 1,035,000 4Y 46,575
China & Glassware 4,000 2.50 10,000 55 220,000 6 13,200

Hardware 9,000 1.75 15,750 45 405,000 S 20,250

138
negotiati ons can be consummated as expeditiously as
possible.
d ) The Ava ilability of High Quali ty Tenants. While this
factor ove rlaps or coincides with the relat ive strength or
\\'eakn ess of th e center, it is also affected b y ge neral eco-
nomic conditions, trends within any given retail ca tegory,
or interna] policies or problems of particular tenants.
e) Other l\-Ianagement Factors. Another fac tor th at migh t
influence th e ability of th e center to secure competen t
and experienced tenants could be th e strength an d com-
petence of th e m::magement group itself. T h is would b e
reflected in the ma nner in wh ich the projec t has been
carried forward into th e leasing period .
Factors such as meth ods of promotion during th e earl y
development period. tim ing of various ph ases of the
project, and demonstrated ability in selecting and sign-
ing majar tenants could affe ct th e deg ree of confidence
in managemen t to carry the pro ject th rough .

RENT SCHEDULE FOR HYPOTHETICAL REGIONAL SHOPPING CENTER {PART 11)

Rentable Estimate d
Are a Guaranteed Rent Stabilized Sales Total Rent
{Sq. Ft.) Per Sq. Ft. Total Per Sq . Ft. Total Rote {o/o ) Total

Drugs {Chain) 12,000 $1.90 $ 22,800 $ 65 $ 780,000 J o/o $ 23,400

Eating & Drinking 25,000 62,250 1,625,000 100,620

8akery & Coleteria 9,000 2.25 20, 250 65 585,000 6 35, 100
Fountoin 800 3 .00 2.400 65 52,000 7 3,6 40
Fountain {lunch) 4,000 2.25 9,000 65 260,000 7 18,200
Restaurant 6,000 2.50 15,000 65 390,000 6 23,400
Cale 5,200 3.00 15,600 65 338,000 6 20,280

Other Reta il Stores 43,000 123,675 2,438,250 164,955

Costume Jewelry & Handbags 2,500 3.50 8,750 70 175,000 7 12, 250
Jewelry 3,000 3.50 10,500 75 225,000 6 13,500
Leather Good s 1,500 3.00 4,500 45 67,500 8 5,400
Cosmetics 700 3.50 2,450 70 49,000 7 3,430
Fabrics 8,000 2.25 18,000 50 400,000 5 20,000
Sporting Goods 1,800 3.00 5.400 55 99,000 7 6,930
Toys 3,600 2.50 9,000 55 198,000 6 11 ,880
Gifts 2,000 3.25 6,500 50 100,000 10 10,000
Hobby Shap 1,200 3.25 3,900 45 54,000 JO 5,400
Stot ione ry & Cards 4,500 3.25 14,625 50 225,000 7 15,750
Sewing Mochines 3,800 2.25 8,550 55 209,000 5 10,450
Florists 750 3.50 2,625 55 4 1,250 10 4,125
Cards & Gilts
lmporls
750
3,500
3.50
3.00
2,625
10,500
50
50
37,500
175,000
JO
8
3,750
14,000
'1
Cameras 1,600 3.50 5,600 so 128,000 a 10, 240
Liquor 1,300 3.00 3,900 lOO 130,000 7 9,100
Music 2,500 2.50 6,250 50 125,000 7 8,750 1!1
Services. 7,000 17,850 287,000 28,700 1'
Optometrists 700 3.00 2,100 50 35,000 JO 3,500 1
Slenderizing 2,500 2.50 6,250 40 100,000 JO 10,000
Beauty 1,600 2.50 4,000 40 64,000 JO 6,400 1
Barber 700 2.50 1.750 40 28,000 JO 2, 800
Shoe Repair 1,500 2.50 3,750 40 60,000 JO 6,000

lns titut ions

Savings & Loan
10,000
2,700 3.25
35, 275
8,775 Guaranteed Rent
35,275
8,775 il
Bank
Post Office
5,500
1,800
4 .00
2.50
22,000
4,500
22,000
4, 500 ,!
!
Total Projed 500,000 $937,375 $30,579,250 $ 1,274,855
1

l 1
 PART J:J:-CHAPTER 8
Designing the Shopping Center
In the foregoing chapters we have dealt with activities
of seemingly two-dimensional character. The word "seem-
ingl y" should be stressed because a conscious consideration
of the third dimension is inherent in all good pianning
procedure. Successful planning will result only if there is
an ever present awareness of the kind of three-dimensional
expressions that the two-dimensional plan makes possible.
It should not be th ought that the va rious planning, de-
sign and engineering ac tivities foll ow each other chrono-
logically in a manner similar to the sequence of th e chapters.
They proceed simultaneously through exploratory and final
stages, one augmenting the other, influencing the other,
and more often than not, changing the other as the work
pro gresses .
In this chapter we will discuss matters already touched
upon. But where we ha,e previously spoken chiefl y about
allocation of space to the va rious sh opping center ele-
ments, we will now deal wi th the tra nslation of planning
results into three dimensions.
Because planning and design characteristics appear in
sharpest focus in the large r, regional centers, the discussion
is based mainly on this category. H owever, many of the
planning factors appear in smaller pro jects, as do design
and planning processes, th ough necessarily modified to the
smaller scale of these projects.
The sh opping center is one of the few new building
types which represent a response to th e emergence of the
automobile as a means of mass tra nsportation. It is a group-
ing of buildings and related spaces, establishing a new
environment in 20th Century life, not only for shopping
but for many other activities as well. Its building gro up
and related spaces are not strung along exist ing roads but
140
constitute a new planning pattern of their own . This new
environment is dedicated to the pedestrian.
The center, furthermore, is the expression of a rarc
occurrence in our free enterprise economy - the banding
together of ind ividual businesses in cooperative fashion
with the aim of crea ting greater commercial effecti,eness
th ro ugh unified endeavor.
In order to succeed in gi,ing pro per recognition to this
fact, it is important that the ind ividual characteristics and
express ions of th e participants not be suppressed but, on
the contra ry, encouraged . lt is, however, equally important
that a st rong common denominator be crea ted to tie the
individual enterprises into a homogeneous unit. These two
aims appear divergen t, but skillful planning and des ign can
reconcile them harm oniously.
One might compare the organ ization of a shopping
center with th e governm ental structure of the United
States. A strong federal govern me nt represents the country
as a whole and expresses those concepi:s and fun ctions
which must be exercised for the good of all. Yet, within
this federal framework, free expression in many essential
matters has been reserved by the individual states . The
over-all charac ter of the center m ust be one of corporate
strength th ro ugh the strength of the individuals.
Th is orga niza tional form must be clearly recognized
and acted upon by the planning team and will influence
stron gly th e des ign of the tenant structures.
l) Tenant Buildings_ The buildings containing individual
tenant stores are in mos t cases planned for multiple
tenancy. Only sorn e merch andising categories, such as de-
partment stores, junior department stores, supermarkets,
Airplane view of Mondawmin Gen-
ter, Baltimore.
Architects; Mondawmin Board of
Design; Pietro Bclluschi, Dan Kiley,
Kenneth \Velch, W ilbur Smith,
Seward 1\ fott, James Rouse, Fisher,
N es, Campbell and Associates
Photograph: 1\faps, Inc., Baltimore

Storcs in multiple - tenant structures.

North land Cen ter, D etroit.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Ben Sch nall

large fashion stores and restaurants, require free-standing

structures. From the point of view of architectural unity
and low constructio n costs it is preferable to ha,e the great
majority of stores located in multiple tenancy structures.
Buildings for single tenancy are planned in accordance
with th e specific requirements of the specifi c tenant but
also in harmony with th e character of th e over-all shopping
center architecture. Such special buildings afford an oppor-
tunity for a change of pace, in which case it sh ould be in
the nature of a \'ariation of the main theme rather than
the introduction of a new one. Beyond th is, these single
tenancy stores will follow the \\'el! established practices of
store design.
The multiple-tenan t structure has to provide for greatest
flexibility. Its width , length and column spacin g. as well
as its heigh t, will be decisive factors in achie,ing such
flexibility. In arder to be able to take care of varying
requirements of a multitude of tenants, common denomi-
nators ba,e to be found for all of these elements. Jn con-
sidering building height, the question will have to be
raised whether, by increasing the height o,er an absolute
mnimum, advantages can be gained . A clear ceiling height
qf l4 feet may permit the introduction of mezza nines
which some of the stores might utilize for non-selling ac-
tivitiesor- expansion . Sufficient attic space between hung
cehing.:.a nd roof -structure will mean sorne additional con-
struction cost but will pay off in the ease of in stallment of
mechanical and electrical work. The clear ceiling height
will significan tly influence the store-fron t treatment of all
tenant stores. If heights are kept to a mnimum, the space
available above sh ow windows and store entrances may
become too narrow for effective signing and great difficulty
 PARKING
Small depth is needed if service facilities are in basements and
pedestrian tra/lic mmes only on one side of structure.
Greater depth is necded if delivery is at back of store on gro und
level and storage facilities have to be provided on ground level for
each t enant .
PEDESTRIAN
Greater depth is needed wl1 en shopper tra/lic moves on both
sides of iHdi1idual stores.
Stores of varying depth and width ca n be arranged between multi
ple-tenant structures by skillful division and orientation of stores.
will be encountered in disciplining th e signing to keep it
within the store front areas. Low ceiling h eights will result
in an insignifican t exterior appeara nce of the structures,
detrimental to the impression of the center as a wh ole.
Generous ceiling heights, on the other hand, will result
in opportunities for more effecthe and h andsome store
treatments and the possibility of easier e11forcemen t of sign
regulations.
Depth of the structures will depend 011 various factors.
lf senice facilities are located in basements or 011 any leve]
other than the main !loor, then the entire ground !loor will
be available as a merchandising leve] for sales activities. In
this case, depth requirements will be less than if senice
facilities were to be located on the main merchandising
142
leve!, in which case part of that leve] would have to be
utilized by each tenant for activities such as loading areas,
stock rooms, employees' quarters, offices, etc.
In shopping centers in which most of the individual
stores have two store fronts and two entrances (one toward
the parking area and one toward the pedestrian area) great-
er depth is called for because of the double entrance depth
required for each store.
A structure which to a large degree will contain small
tenant stores may require less depth than one with larger
tenant units. Thus, depth may vary from 80-180 feet, de-
pending on the conditions described above.
Column spacing must be carefully considered because it
has a controlling effect on the manner in which the total
selli11g space may be divided into individual stores. If
columns are spaced too closely together, the freedom of
dividing the space will be seriously diminished-espeeially
when larger tenant units occur. Too clase column spacing
will also interfere \\\ith th e ability of the individual tenant
to arrive at an efficient merchandising layout.
In deciding on the column spacing, the characteristics of
leasing procedures will have to be taken into consideration.
Leasing of space is frequently, but by no means generally,
done in m u] tiples of 10, 15, or 20 feet. A 10-foot wide
space will probably describe the minimum size of a tenant
store; larger stores will often be rented at widths of 20, 30,
40, 50, 60, 70, 80 feet, and so on. Thus, 20-foot column
spaci ng has often proved successful. For smaller store spaces
and in smaller projects, a column spacing of 30 feet pro-
vides great fl exif,ility of frontage. The division into indi-
vidual stores will be more difficult if one of the column
lines coincides with the store frontage line than if such
column line occurs at a distance behind the store front line.
The column spacing in depth may be equal to the one in
length. In arder to achieve fl exibility, however, it is prefer-
able to keep greater sp::tcing between these columns. For
this reason column spacings of 20 feet in the length of the
building and 40 or 60 feet and even 80 feet in depth have
been extensively used. Though the wider column spacing
may incur sorne additional construction cost, the additional
cost may be compensated for by more advantageo us leasing
arrangements in larger projects, and by a less broken up
,iew of the indi,idual tenant's area. In basements the
column spacing in depth may be reduced wi th little ill
effect, as basement areas u s u al! ~' are utilized for secondary
selling or non-selling purposes . For smaller projects with
30-foot spacing of columns in the length of the building,
20-foot spacing in depth has been fou11d s::ttisfactory.
ln selecting materials and structural meth ods for parti-
tions in individual stores and for hung ceilings, considera-
tion should be given to the changeable tenant pattern, even
though long term leases may be the rule. It is to be ex-
pected that one tenant will want to enlarge while another
will want to give up his premises. (Even in the most suc-
cessful shopping centers, as in all other retail districts, there
are sorne business failures.) Partitions, therefore, should not
 Je used as bearing walls and should be built of materials
md by methods which ass ure easy removal and the re-
ISability of the material. Hung ceilings should be of the
lry-built type in arder to permit changes in ceiling heights,
!asy access to attic space, and the re-use of materials. _
The arrangemen t of utilitarian facilities- tenants' wash-
ooms, toilets, stairways, etc.- must be carefully studied.
[n the case of smaller tenant units .such facilities can be ~
UPPEA: LEVEL
Jrovided for a group of tenants, instead of for single ones,
Jrovided the building code permits. Thus, construction
1osts can be saved as well as space which can be put to
nore effectivc use. In the case of a multiple leve] shopping
'enter the introduction of service cores containing fr eight
levator, stairway, toilets, Yertical ducts, etc ., has proven
xtremely successful.
ln most medium and large shopping centers, multiple
.. CORE 1
CORE 2
EJPFI
ITilJ
se tenancy buildings consist of basement and ground
oor. Show windows an d entrances are arranged on all ,-..-..--1 r----1

~
' 1 ' 1
rontages ad jacent to parking lots or pedestrian walks. ~ 1 : 1
1 1 1 1
rchitectural treatment is shaped by the desire to create : 1 1 1
LOWER LEVEL
alk_s_ protccted fro m _ ~u_n_z_ ~ain, snow and wind along all
rontages. This represents onc of the important contribu-
ions which shopping center design makes for the con-
;enience of shopping activi ties. To accomplish the aim of
protecting the shopper, various architectural treatments are
possible. The two 111ain deyices are the cantilevered over-
~ and the column-supported roof extension. By select-
ing varying deplhs tor -the- roof overhangs, by varyi ng the
heights at which they occur, by diversifying materials and
:onstruction methods, colors and surface treatments, a
arge number of solutions are feasible.

1~'' o S
250
BASEMENT loooww .....,

Service cores and service co rridors in mul 1

tiple-leve! center. Sou thdale, near Minne-

apolis.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates

The illustration shows a cantilevered overhang marked

"0", the tenant store front areas as "ST" and a parapet
wall usually occurring above the overhang as "P". The
schematic shows the arrangement of a roof extension
supported by columns "C".
Architectural and design unity is recognized as an im-
portan t ingredien t of the over-all character of a shopping
center. How far such design unity should go is, however,
a moot question.

H3
 Anarchy in store front design.

Regimentation in store front design.

Indi~idu ality in store front design within a strong architectural framework.

By now everybody agrees that a complete hands-off
policy as demonstrated in the strip development which
results in different depth, h eight, and treatment for every
tenant, is out of place in a planned shopping center.
Extreme defenders of arch itectural unity demand that the
entire exterior treatment of tenant buildings be controlled.
In some shopping centers all tenants are required to follow
a standardized design for store fronts. In others, attempts
have been made to standardize lettering and color schemes
of all store signs. Advocates of such complete control are
just as remiss in not Tecognizing the inherent character of
a shopping center as a federation of many individual
tenants, as th ose who believe that no control at all should
be imposed . Complete control of store fronts is not only
difficult to enforce in the long run, but also illogical and
undesirable.
Regimentation is illogical because, as every store designer
knows, store fronts of various merchandising categories and

144
 Ten ant store signs should not be perrnitted to be attached to or protrude into co ntrolled areas.

qualities have greatly divergent needs . A fine jewelry store Unity and strength of architectural expression is only
cannot successfull y display its rninutel y sized but valuable possible if th e frarn ework of controlled areas surrounding
rnerchandise in the sarne frarnework as a furniture or appli- the influenced meas affords ample space. Through the ar-
ance store. A food store needs a store front of radically dif-
ferent charac ter frorn a high price fashion store. Chain
stores will insist on using store front design which has be-
come identified with their firrns. This is a sad fact because
rnuch of it is of poor design quality. But it is still a fact.
One hundred percent control is also undesirable because
it results in rnon otony and dulln ess . lt dirninish es the en-
joyrnent of window shopping, which thrives on exciternent
created by ever-changing designs and colors. lt establishes a
fals e insttutonal atmosphere for an environrnent which
should be relaxed and lively.
The cooperative spirit is best expressed if individual de-
sign of tenant stores is encouraged within certain lirnits
which will be discussed later on. Around these individual Sout!J Bay Slwppin g Center, Redondo Beach, California
design areas, however, there rnust be a frarnework of archi- Assoc. Architects: Jones & Ernrnons, V . Gruen . Architects
tecturally controlled areas large enough and treated with fo r !llav C o. store: t\ . C. !11artin & Assoc. Photo: C . Sornrners
sufficient forcefuln ess to hold the varying expressions firrnl y
together. There are rn any rn eans by which the forcefulnes s rangernent shown in the illustration, the row of colurnns
of the frarne can be enhanced. su pportin g the roof extension creates a strong and effective
Exteriors should be considered frorn the viewpoint of the additional controlled area. The rh ythrnical pattern of the
possibility of giving architectural expression to the building. columns, which stand out because they are hit b y direct
The parapet and the overhang can and should be corn- light from the shaded store fronts behind them, will lend
pletely design-controlled. In the store front area a rneasure strong three-dimensional expression.
of fre e expression for tenants' needs and requirernents It should not be permitted to h ave tenant store signs
should be allowed. Treatrnent of this area, though not con- attached to controlled areas or protruding into thern . Ar-
trolled by the architect, should be influenced by hirn. In rangernent of store signs on top of canopies or on parapets
the illustration the parapet and overhang are rnarked "D"; should be avoided because it destroys the over-all archi-
the store front area is rnarked "T." tectural character (see illustration).

1
Store signs shou ld be arranged
exclusi1ely on store front area. :

145
 The areas below the controlled frame area, generally re-
ferred to as the store front area, should be influenced by
the architect in order to prevent misusages, expressions of
vulgarity and bad taste, disord erliness, clash of colors
and surface treatmen ts, and poor quality of materials or
execution.
The introduction of dividing panels between individual
stores will separate tenancies fr om each other, will establish
an additional controlled architectural element, and will
minimize possible color and texture clashes. These panels
should be wide enough to count visually, their surface treat-
ment should be a logical continuation of the over-all archi-
tecture. Their rhythmic repetition and pattern convincingly
state that all of the stores, however they may differ from
each other, are part of the 0\'Cr-all unit. \Vhere such panels
have been introduccd, important secondary uses have been
served. T h ey may contain mailbox slots, emergen cy teJe
phones, general information and directional signs.
Disturbing paper signs should be forbidden.
Photograph: Gordon Sommers

Disturbing advertising-paper signs and stickers on show

windows or flashing, illumin ated signs-should be forbid-
den. \erlong solid wall areas should be discouraged
thou gh short areas mav afford a pleasant variation. Any
Mail drop in dividing panel blank wall more than 20 feet long will have a deadening
between individual store
effect on window-shopping.
fronts. Northland, Detroit .
A further means of influencing store front areas is to
Architects: Vctor Gruen
Associates establish in advancc basic schemes for a large range of
Photograph: R. L. Baumfeld diversified stores. Such schemes are utilized by tenants who
charactcris tically would not em ploy the senices of an
architect.

2) Pedestrian Areas. The creation of exclus\e pedestrian

areas was the most re\olutionary measure introduced by
pioneers of shopping center planning. Now it is completely

The size, location and character of firm signs should be Pedestrian area. The Board\\'alk, Tiburon. California.
determined by the architect. There should be a definite Architect: John Lord King. Photograph: Stone & Stecca ti
guide line below which signs cannot be placed. A maximum
letter height should be held to (in Northland, maximum
height for letters on stores facing the parking area is 4 feet
and along malls and courts, 3 feet, because of the smaller
scale prevailing). A general color scheme for store front de-
sign should be set. lt should contain a wide range of colors
and hues complementary to each other. R egulations con-
cerning the quality of materials and construction methods
should be specified. These regulations will apply to weather
resistance, ease of upkeep and maintenance, and solidity of
construction. In the interest of safety, it should be specified
that store entrance doors must be recessed in order to avoid
their swinging onto walkways.

146
accepted by merchants and shoppers alike. If anyone today
were to propase the introduction of automobil e traffic in
the malls and courts of shopping centers, businessmen
would regard the proponent as insane. They have recog-
nized that the exclusion of automobile traffic means good
business. \Vhat has not been full y understood, however,
is that it is not the elimination of mechanized traffic alone
that establishes an active shopping environment.
Shopping is inherently more than just a utiltarian activ-
ity. The slogan "Shopping Should be Fun" has a deep
meaning. The environment should be so attractive that
customers will enjoy shopping trips, will stay longer and
return more often. This will result in cash registers ringing
more often and recording higher sales.
The task of creating such a pcdestrian envi ronment is one
for which the modern architect -has accumulated little ex-
perience. Such environmental elements as did exist in T he crowded marketplace. Painting by Giovanni J\1ichele Granieri.
our towns and cities have been destroyed by the wholesale Gourtesy of th e f ohn and Mabel Ringling 1\fu seum of Art,
introduction of automobiles. \Ve have become used to Saraso ta, Florida
regarding the pedestrian as a nuisance and an intruder.
Ironicall v enough, ho\\'ever, the growth of the automobile
population is now forcing a new recognition of th e pedes-
trian's rights. It makes necessary the separa tion of machines Places for rest and relaxation are provided in Sou thdale Shopping
fr om people an d consequently th e establishment of ex- Genter, nea r J\1innea polis.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
clusive pedestrian areas.
Photograph : \Varren Reynolds
\Ve must try to remember the important and vibrant role
our tmm squares haYe played in th e lite of our commu-
nities. \Ve must sensitively observe the colorful, stimulat-
ing. and commercially busy urban scenes in the market
squares in Central European cities in arder to understand
the contribution to community life th e open spaces in our
new shopping towns can make.
In arder to fulfill the vast potentials, these spaces must
be more than narrow lanes between long rows of stores .
They must represent an essentially urban environment.
They should create opportunities for manifold ac tivities.
They must be busy and colorful, exciting and stimulating,
full of ,ariety and interest. They must not onl y make walk-

The wide garden co urt at Eastland, D etroit, an essentially urban

environment ..
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Alexandre Georges
Another view of the busy and colorful central mall in Southdale
Shopping Center, near l\Iinneapolis.
Architects: Victor Cruen Associates
Photograph: \ Varren R eynolds
ing enjoyable, but must also provide places for rest and
relaxation. They should surround the shopper with pleasur-
able experiences. All of the senses should be rewarded. Trees
and fl owers, music, fountains, sculpture and murals, and
the architecture of free-standing stru ctures are vital parts
of the over-all composition.
The combination of water, in ponds. basins, or fountains,
with sculpture and landscape is as old as man's artistic
endea\ors. Playing water appeals to the eye and to the ear.
Like fire, it h olds eterna] magic. In Northland there is a
A combination of water, sculpture and landscape in pedestrian
areas. Noah Fountain by Lily Saarinen. Northland Center,
D etroit.
Architects: Vctor Cruen Associates
Ph otograph: Photograph House, D etroit
Shopping malls provide opportunities for diversified activities.
Play sculpture in Eastland Center, Detroi t by \Villiam 1\IcVey.
Photograph: Alexandre C eorges
fountain that adds the moYement and color of sculptural
elements to the movement of its wa ter. Fountains can be
a year around attraction by having them play in winter as
well as in summer. This has been accom plished in Eastland
by means of electric heaters which operate from the same
circuit as the recirculation pumps.
\Vhene\er fountains or bodies of water are placed in a
public area, fear is expressed abou t acciden ts to small chil-
dren. These dangers are generally exaggerated. They are
insignificant in comparison with the dangers children face
Fountain with m oving sculptural parts. Note that water body is
surro unded by protectil'e curbs. \Vater J\Iobile by Richard Hall
]ennings. Northland Center, D etroit.
Architects: Vctor Cruen Associates
Photograph: Ph otograph H ouse, D etroit
 Fountain by Lindsey Decker. Eastland C enter,
D e troit.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Ph otograph: Alexandre G eorges
on city streets. However, it will be wise to keep such bodies
of water shallow and to surround th ern with protective
curbs.
If large open spaces exist between buildings it rnight be
possible to consider using sorne portian of a pool for ice
skating in winter. Ice skating areas in buffer strips are also
possible.
Public events such as band concerts, fashion shows,
special merchandising prornotions, h oliday celebrations,
exhibitions, social events, are all part of th e life in these
Concert in Southdale Court, Southdale C enter, near l\Iinneapolis.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Covered crosswalk screened on both sides in Eastland Center,
Detroit. Sculptured screen by Lindsey Decker.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associa tes
Photograph: Alexandre Georges
open spaces. Restaurants, snack bars, outdoor cafes, are of
essential irnportance to the scene.
The rn ultitude of structural elernents which serve and
enliven th e open spaces can, b y th eir placernent and char-
acter, rnake additional contributions. Covered crosswalks,
screened on one or both sides, rnay be designed to act as
organizers of space by dividing th e pedestrian area into a
nurnber of intirnate, pleasantly proportioned parts. In this
way, spaces of differing sizes and atrnosphere will give
sh oppers a ch ange of pace; there will evolve large square-
Variation in size and atmosphere of open areas,
Bay Fair C enter. San Leandro, California.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Ph otograph: G ordon Somm ers
1
1
1~
1
H9
 tl
Variation in size and atmosphere of open areas, Valle Fair Gen-
ter, San Jose, California. No te sc ulpture treatment of smokestack
of central plant.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Gordon Somm ers
sh aped areas (plazas and squares); wide rectangular ones
( courts ) ; wide and long ones ( malls ); long, narrow spaces
( walks and lanes ); CO\-ered or partly covered walkways
(a rcades); wide spaces enclosed on two or three sides (ter-
races ) . CO\ered crosswalks can be widened in parts to form
sh eltered areas for pay teleph ones, drinking fountains, in-
formation and announ cement boards.
Kiosks are small structures eith er freestanding or at-
tached on on e side to a crosswalk. Sorn e of them contain
stairways or escalators leading to basem ent selling con-
courses or communitv facilities. :r-.Iinor sales activities, such
as newsstands, t obacco sh ops, book stalls, souvenir and re-
freshment stands, key sh ops, can b e eith er added to th ese
Original French Kiosk.
Photograph: Courtesy of the French Gov-
ernment Tourist Oflice
150
CO\ered crosswa lk area utilized for pay telephone, information
sign and drinking fountain, Nort hland Center, Detroit.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Ben Schnal/
or h oused in separate kiosks. Larger ones can be successfully
rented to lunch rooms. fl orists. candy sh ops. Because of their
free-standing locations, kiosks, if not properly designed,
nay block vistas. Their construction must b e extremely
light; by th e extensive use of glass a maximum of transpar-
ency can be achie\ed . Their use will profit th ose merch an-
dising ca tegories that thri,e on visibility from all sides
and which do not require h igh an d bulky storage cases.
Becausc of th eir strategic loca tion, th eir appearance, in-
cluding signs. must be co mpl e t e!~ controlled b y the
architcct . Their gcnerally high con struction cost is justified
if rented to tenants with h igh sales per square foot and
good rcnt-paying 'poten tia!.
Ad1ertising kiosk in Roosel'elt Field Shop-
ping Center, Nassau County, Long Island,
New York.
Architects: I. M. Pei and Associates
Associate Architect: R. C. Brugnoni
Photograph: Ezra Stoller
 Sidewalk cate, Southda le Center, near Minneapo lis.
Architects: \lictor Gruen Associates
Ph otograph:Yi'arren Reynolds, Inlinity Inc .
.,.,......-

O utdoor eating terrace, J\1useum of Modern Art.

Architect: Philip / ohnson
Photograph: Soichi Sunami; cour tesr of The 1\fuseum of M odern
Art

Outdoor eating facilities depend, of course, on favorable

climate. However, the possibility for their installation and
the length of seasonal usage can be grea tly increased by
awnings, windscreens, radiantly h eated fl oor slabs, ch arcoal
braziers. Eood _servicing problems can be overcome by
buffet stvle self-service . (Successful outdoor ea ting places
exist in aJl parts of the country. Among them are the
l\Iuseum of l\ [odern Art and Rockefeller Plaza in N ew
York, Frasca ti's and Farmer's l\Iarket in Los Angeles,
' - ' ,

Jacques in Chicago.) Surprisingly, only a few centers have

taken advantage of such surplus renta] producing areas, in
spite of the fac t that their awnings and umbrellas can add
color and gaiety, and that they provide a welcome shoppcrs'
service.
In designing resting places, va rying human preferences
,,,
should be taken into consideration . Sorne people like to si t i'
in conversa tional groups, others want to sit alone and ye t
others in pairs. Sorn e like shade, sorn e like sun . Conse-
quently, seating arrangements of great number and va riety
should be provided. Seating should be comfortable, easy
to keep clean, and simple in design . By placing benches
near or around large trees , by constructing awnings and "-~
L~~--
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-::_
-.
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other shade-giving devices it is possible to pro tect people
from sun and light rain. ~~~
1
Poster columns carrying information about special events
and community activities, free-standing display cases rented
to various industries, utility and transportation companies,
will furth er enliven the scene and create income besides.

Rest benches at N orthland Cen ter, Detroit.

Architects: Victor G ruen Associates
Plw tograph : Photograph House, Detroit
 ,-

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152
 The size, sh ape a nd locati on of pl a nj:i ~g beds must be
giyen careful considera tion. They must not become ob -
stacles to foot traffic. Their size sh ould be limi ted but th eir
number can be great. The low parapet walls enclosing these
beds, if designed with sensiti vity, can add color and interest.
The se of colore_d_brick, tile and ~ t one will constitute wel-
com e reli~f J.Vithin th e m_Jin pavement area. Though con-
c~ill h ave to be, for reasons of econ omy, the main
material for 2-"~m e_I)t , it cal}_ be pleasantly interrupted by
brick, sla te, colored con crete and oth er tex tured and colored
mate!_jals_j_;;J p.e.cial areas .
An important design task faces th e architect with regard
to street furniture. T.!ash containers, ciga r and cigare tte
receptacles, telephone boo ths, bicycle racks, benches, lamp-
posts, sign stands, sh ould b e regard ed and treated as an
integral part of th e design program.
A relaxed leisurely a tm osph ere in courts, malls and lanes
allows th e sh opper to obserYe and contemplate. T h e op-
portunity, tragicallv absent in our traffic-filled streets, to
bring works of art into direct contac t with th e people, as
an integral part of architectnre and landscape, is thus
created. The developer is given th e fun cti on of a supporter
Left
Planting bed with goldlish pond in South-
dale, near Minneapolis.
Architects: V ctor Cruen Associates
Photograph: \ Varrcn Reynolds, Inlinity
Inc.
Below
Bicycle rack, telcphone booth and direc
tory sign in Val1ey Fair Center, San Jose,
Califo rnia.
Architects: Vctor Cruen Associates
Photograph: Cordon Sommers
and encourager of the arts. The arch itect should urge him
to accept this role as an ex tension of his ciYic responsibility.
He can do so wi th the conviction that this further enrich -
ment of the environment will contribute to the attrac ting
power of the center, and because of it. to the business
volume.
The task of intcgrating art with a commercial environ-
m ent serving the broad public is a new one in our time. lt
finds the patron, the artist and the architect poorly pre-
pared. The patron is concerned with the expenditures in-
volved, and because he fears public criticism, hesitates to
permit free expression of the arts. The artist is understand-
ably too often unprepared to deal with the problems aris ing
in connection with outd oo r scale, wind and weath er main-
tenance. and the need to create for a broad, new public.
The architect, also understandabl v, onlv too often h as h ad
no experience in integrating exp~essio~s of the visual arts
into his structures and the spaces b etween th em. Even
wh en \Yilling and able to employ th e work of artists, h e will
do so often in the form of a museum-like display instead
of makin g art, arch itecture and landscape a living, m ea n-
ingful whole.
Drinking fountains for grownups and for
children, Valle) Fair Center. San Jose,
Californ ia.
Architects: Vctor Cruen Associates
Photograph: Cordon Sommers
153
 Sculpture in Northland Cen ter.
Great Lakes Group by Lily Saarinen .
Photograph: Photograph House, Detroit
\ Vorks of art were made an integral part of Northland
Center. After the developer had agreed to a $200,000
budget, a procedure was inaugurated which later on was
repeated successfull y in a number of other centers: an art
program was outlined. In it was stressed the fact that the
sho pping cen ter would be a place for activities connected
with sh opping, walking, and relaxation, that it would be
visited by families_::_but to the largest degree by women
and children . T herefore, it was not the place to portray
drama. heroism, or tragedy; on th e contrary, humOJJplor,
movement, lightheartedness, were given as th ematic guide_s.__
154
Sculpture in Northland Center.
Birds of Flight by Gwen Lux.
Photograph: Ben Schnall
Anoth er part of the program outlined the aims and dealt
with the physical requirements each artist would have to
consider; such an expression of art would have to stand up
against inclement wea ther and would ha,e to be mounted
in such a way that winds would not blow them clown.
Snow, ice and ra in would h a\e to be taken into account.
Finallv, the architect's basic concept of each of the open
spaces was explained in plan and through perspective
sketches. T en locations were indicated where the architect's
original plan visualized fountains, sculpture, murals,
mosaics, etc. Approximate sizes and the architect's desire
 Sculpture in Northiand Center.
Turtle by Arthur Kraft.
Photograph: Photograph House, Detroit

Sculpture in Northland Center.

Bear and Boy by 1\farshall Fred-
ericks.
Photograph: Photograph House,
Detroit
 Sculpture in Northland Center. Fish Group by Richard Hall Jennin gs .
Ph otograph: Photograph House. Detroit

Sculpture in N orthland Center.

Baby Elephant by Arthur Kraft.
Ph otograph: Plwtogra ph H ouse. D etroit

Sculpture in Nor thland Center.

Giraffe Family by 1\!a/co/m M oran .
Photograph: Photograph House. Detroit
 ScuJpture in Southdale Center.
U nicycle Performers by Dorothy Berge.
Photograph: A nthon y Lane

ScuJpture in So uthdale Cen ter.

Bors on Stilts by Louise Kruger.
Photograph : \Varren R eynolds, Infinity, Inc.

for vertical or horizontal accents were discussed in each
individual case. The developer expressed the wish that
artists working in the region in which the shopping center
was to be built be given the opportunity to execute a major
part of the program.
After reviewing the work of a number of artists, the
architect selected a group of ten who were invited to sub-
mit sketch es and sketch models. Price ranges for the cost
of the individual projects were set. T h e outlined program
was explained to each of th e participatin g artists. A specified
sum of money was provided for each artist whose work
would not be accepted. T he ten artists went to work with
tremendous enthusiasm and a large nu mber of sketches and
sketch models res ulted. After discussions between the
dcvelopcr and th e architect, a selection was made from
these.
After the opening of the sh opping center, the developer,
the executives of his orga nization and the tenants declared
themselves delighted with the results. The publicity value
and promotional opportunity were impressive. Even critic-
is m of individual pieces and th e res ulting controversies
we rc valuable as an expression of comm uni ty life.

157

Pu blic Elents Building in Eastland Center, Detroit.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associa tes
Photograph: AJexa ndre Georges
Children's zoo, Southdale C enter, near Minneapolis.
Architec ts: Vctor Gruen A ssociates
Photograph: \Varren Reynolds, Infinity, Inc.
Theater at Northland Center, Detroit, architect unlmown.
Photograph: Ph otograph H ouse, Detroit
3) Communit y Buildings. Beca use of the socia] 1ife de-
,eloped in the pedcstrian areas of a plann ed shopping
center, the inhabitants of the region fe e1 strongly identified
with it. This can be furth er heightened by the construction
of communi ty facilities designed for indoor activities. One
or more auditoriums have been made successful compo-
nents of major centers. Th ey sh ould be designed for great-
est f! exibility of use, in order to accommodate such func-
tions as concerts, movies, luncheon and dinner m eetings,
theatrical performances, educa tional courses, church serv-
ices, civic meetings, etc. They should have either their own
kitchen facilities or be in a position to use the facilities of
an ad joining restaurant kitchen . Because they are used
charac teristicallv on al! davs of th e week and al! hours of
the day and ev~n ing, they ~h oul d be planned in such man-
ner that they are accessible even when th e center proper is
closed. l\leeting rooms of varying sizes sh ould be p1aced in
the vicini tv of the auditorium, to be used for business
luncheons, and other meetings. Auxiliary rooms such as
waiting rooms, checkrooms, public toilets, storage rooms,
shonld be planned adjoining them. In many shopping
centers these facilities are grouped on the lower leve!,
together with the offices of the center and a number of
service stores, such as barber and beauty parlor.
These community facilities serve a secondary role by mak-
ing it easy for the center's operator to get together with the
executi,es of the tena nt stores. They can also serve as a
meeting place for the l\ lerchants' Association or the Cham-
ber of Commerce, which are forme d in most shopping
centers.
Other community facilities incl ude public events build-
ings containing TV and radio stations and indoor exhibi-
tion space. Tn Eastland this is wh ere Santa Claus and the
Easter Bunny hold forth at their special times of the year.
Children's day nursery sch ools are usually not operated
by the center but rented at low rents to kinderga rten enter-
prises . Children's playlands are slightly remO\ed from active
shopping areas in order to moid disturbance from the in-
evitable noise they create. Tn Southdale, a true children's
paradise with miniature zoo, merry-go-rounds and games
occupies space along a basement concourse .
Theaters can fulfill a double role. The theater in the
Framingham Shoppers 'Vorld is used for meetings and civic
e\ents during daytime and for movie performances in the
e\ening. N orthland has a legitimate theater located near
th e general parking area.
4) Lighting. Th e appearance of th e sh opping center after
dark meri ts careful s tu d~, wi th regard both to its structures
and its open spaces . H eavy shopping traffic occurs at this
time and where night openings are h eld, a large percentage
of the total business is actually conducted during evening
hours. Tn sorne areas lighting fulfi1ls primarily utilitarian
and safety fun ctions and must be engi neered according1y.
This holds true for al! automobile and parking areas, pub-
lic transportation areas, and the covered walkways surround-
Lighting of pedestrian area emphasizes the show windows.
Eastland Shopping Center, \Vest Covina, California.
Architects: Albert C . 1\fartin and Associates
Photograph : Prestan E. Mitchell
ing the tenant buildings. Yet by proper selection of lighting
equipment and by ca reful des ign, aesthet ic expressions can
be achieved. The structures themselves, especially the de-
partment store and other tall buildings, should not Ioom as
dark silhouettes. Floodligh ting them will make the shop-
ping center an impressive sight from surrounding roads and
parking areas. Smoke stacks, water towers, shopping cen ter
signs should all be brightly illuminated for the same reason .
A completely different type of illumination should prevail
Lighting of Rower beds and trees in Eas tland, Detroit.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associa tes
Photograph : Alexandre Georges
Floodlighting of trees and sculpture in Northland Center, Detroit.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Photograph House, Detroit
within the pedestrian areas. Here the show windows of the
stores should be the brigh test areas. Lighting in the walking
aieas should not stri,;e -for over-all bri'ghless but for in ter-
. es - and variation . This can be achie,ed -bv- ffoodlighting of
t~ees, sculptures and fountains , low-level lighting of flower
beds, and illumination of seating areas by specially designed
low-intensity lamps on posts. Lighting fixtures on colon-
nade columns will add liveliness . \ Vell designed lighting
will add immeasurably to a festive shopping atmosphere.
The brightly lighted bus terminal in Eastland Center, Detroit.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Alexandre Georges
159
 "t.r: .
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/
/ be created to conceal sen ice areas, and rock formations may
Tree-c01ered hillocks, rack form s and ponds surrou nd \Vildwood
Cen ter, l\filwaukee (in planning stage).
Architects: Victo r Gruen Associates
5) The Automobile Scale. \Ve have considered design up
to now mainly in relation to the pedestrian. However, be-
cause a center must also present a stim ulating and im-
pressive appearance when seen from automobiles which
travel at a distance of as much as a th ousand feet from th e
building gro up. design for the automobile scale must also
be considered. T he problem is rendered complex by the
fact that mos t of the buildings will be only one story high.
Th e department store may be completely surrounded by
low buildings and a good part of the view will be cut off
by parked automobiles. In many cases the land is devoid of
interesting features. The arch itect confronted with th ese
circumstances and wi th the full realiza tion that oth er de-
sign considerations (the establishment of a convenient,
pleasant shopping environment, sound economy and utility
T he building silh ouette of Northland, Detroit. Note ill uminated water tower.
Architects: Victor Gru en Associates. Photograph: Photograph H ouse, D etroit.
160
1
of structures) take priority, must use al! of his knowledge
and ingenuity.
A fl at piece of land does not h ave to remain fl at. E ven
practica! considerations speak against this, as thebest way
to drain large parking areas is to make them sloping. An
upward slope can be created at relatively low expense by
using th e earth from basement and foundation excavation
as fill . \\'bere two-level merchandising operations are advan-
tageous, either for the department store only or for a num-
ber of stores, bulldozers can create parking areas that
alternately slope up and down. I\l olding the terrain of
buffer areas can turn them into rolling hills and valleys
interspersed with ponds and tree-covered hillocks. Hills can
be used to enliven the contours . Such hills, for example,
will be used to achieve interest :m d utility in \Vildwood
Center near l\ lilwaukee, where they are planned as a means
of creating roads of pleasantly cuned grades where other-
wise steep inclines would be necessary.
Y~:: rticalit}' in part of the building silhouette may be
introduced by high-rise _of!ice buildings or medica! buildings
wh ich , in many cases, will prove to be economically advan-
tageQuJ_. These structures, th e department store, and pos-
sibly a jun ior departm ent store will probably be the only
high-rise buildi ngs; th eir arch itectural treatment, th erefore,
is of great importance to the appearance of the center from
a distance. Obviously. as members of a shopping center
group, such buildings must be treated in an entirely differ-
ent manner than if they were free-s tanding structures, or if
they were built in a continuous row along a street. They
must be an integral portian of th e en tire architectural treat-
ment. T heir shapes must be simple. their surfacing such as
to express prestige for the wh ole center. Yet th eir execution
sh ould not be so rich and elegant that they make the tenant
buildings look insignificant.
Simple treatment of free-standing structure. Department Store at Bay Fair Center, San Leandro, California .
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates. Photograph: Gordon Sommers

High rise building in otherwise horizonta11y developed shopping center. Cross Cou nty Cen ter,
Yonkers, New York.
Architec t: Lath rop Douglass. P hotograph: Go ttscho-Schleisner

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161
 Another too! for th e enrichment of the silhouette is the
creative handling of purely utilitarian elements. \Vater
towers and th e smoke stacks of central heating plan ts can
be turned into arch itectural assets . They can establish land-
marks for the center and make it recognizable from afar.
Tall flagpoles arranged singly or in groups, landmark signs
announcing the shopping cen ter, specially designed lamp-
posts for the parking area, can give additional interest t o
the center as seen fro m all approach es .
Besides these positive measures, the preven tion of dis-
turbing features can do much for the center's architecture.
By insistence upon un dergroun d telephone and electric
power installations, dangling wires and unsigh tly posts can
be eliminated.
The architect must concern h imself not only with the
appearance of the buildings beneath their roof-lines, but
also with the various installations of a mechanical nature
that habitually crop up on roofs. These above-the-roof
structures are unsightly even on conventionally placed
buildings. O n shopping cen ter stru ctures which are seen
fro m great distances they are ruinous. In order to achie\'e
orderly design abme the roof-line earl y atten tion m ust be Landscaping, Stonestown Shopping Center. San Francisco, Cali-
given to the design of all mechanical and electrical installa- fornia.
Architects: \Ve1to n Becket and Associates
tions, especially to the placement of air-conditioning and
Photograph: Herbert Bruce Cross
ventilating equipment. A central ai r-conditioning plan t will
most effectively remme the da nger of having individual
cooling towers and compressor h ousings appear on roofs.
The engineering and leasing provisions of such cen tral
plan ts require the utmost skill and care.
But even when individual air-conditioning or \'entilation 6) Landscaping. Landsca ping is a task which must proceed
installations are planned, it is possible to group and shield in the closes t integration with site plann ing, architectural
nechanical elements on roofs in orderly form or to find design and. especially, design of the pedestrian areas and
other shielded locations for them. The introduction of one th e art progra m. lt should never take on the charac ter of
mas ter tele\ision receiving antenna will prevent th e growth exteri or decor limited to the addition of a few plants h ere
of a forest of individual an tennas on the roofs. and there.
Planting should be informal and natural as a con trast to
man-made structures . T h e conservation of exis ting natural
features such as trees, rack form ations, water bodies on the
\ Vater tower establishes la ndmark sign in Northland Center, site, can add immeasurably to the impression the cen ter
Detroit.
gives \\'hen seen from surrounding parking areas.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Photograph House, Detroit
One of the fi rs t steps should be a survey of exis tin g trees.
Large and health y specimens sh ould be looked upon as a
grea t asset, and during the site planning changes in the
placemen t of structurcs and in the arrangement of parking
areas should be considered in ord er to preserve such trees.
T heir natural b ea ut~, the fact that th ey provide shade, that
they break up the monotony of vas t parking areas, are worth
sacrifices. In establishing the budget for landscaping, one
sh ould reserve suffi cient fu nds for a number of such speci-
mens to insure imm ediate effects. A h ome owner might be
willing to wait and actually enjoy the process of seeing his
trees grow up; a shopping center sh ould look its best on
opening day.
Large scale planting is not only beautiful but has definite
utilitarian value. It ac ts as wi ndbreak and as sound barrier;
it can protect surrounding residential areas fr om traffic

162
 Planting in the parking area .
Old Orchard Center, Skokie, IJJinois.
Architects: Loebl, Schlossman and Bennett
Photograph: Hube Hemy, HedrichBiessing

Existing old trccs were preserved at Bon Air 1\ Iarkct, Greenbrae,

California.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Phi! F ein
tr1'
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1
noise. It can be utilized to screen disturbing sights and
fin ally, it proYides welcome shade in parking and pedestrian
1
areas.
Planting material should be indigenous to the region.
Not only will it look natural, but it will thri\'e and prosper
without becoming a maintenance burden or ultimately
requiring replacc ment.
E\ery opportunity for planting in parking arcas should
be full y utilized. Such opportunities exist in thc strips
which divide individual lots from each other and in the Indigenous planting material. Eastland Center, \Vest
dividers between interna] roads and parking areas . Also Covina, California .
available for planting are th e triangular pieces occurring at Architects: Albert C . 1\Iartin and Associa tes
the ends of stall groups, circular pieces around lampposts Photograph: Prestan E. l\1itchell
and the borders of walkways. The buffer areas offer an out-
standing opportunity for imaginative planting. In th e buffer Planting in parkin g arca.
Bullock's, Pasadena.
and parkin g arcas tal\ t rees might be planted as \andmarks.
Architects: \Ve /ton Becket and Associates
Planting in pcdestrian areas must be designcd to look Ph otograph: Julius Shulman
attractive at all seasons. In cold climates cvergreen plants
will provide greenery even in winter. Flowering plants
should consist partly of pereunials and partly of annuals to
assure blossoms throughout the summer. Planting beds
placed above underground structures. need special structural
framing to support the load of soil and wa tcrproofing.
Special provisions have to be made for their drainage. Be-
cause large arca plantings involve high manual labor costs,
automatic irrigation and sprinkling systems equipped with
automatic controlling devices are mandatory.
 Symbol designed for Valley Fair Shopping
Center, San Jase, California.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
7) Graphics. Thousands of signs containing tens of thou-
sands of letters are needed in the sh opping center. They
vary in size fr om impressive landm:uk signs, announcing
the name of the center to the outside world, to one-inch
letters directing shoppers to a mailbox. Because of their
Landm ark sign for Valley Fair.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates. Photograph: G ordon Sommers
164
Symbol designed for Southdale, as
used on sleeve of Center policeman's
uniform.
number and because. in arder to fulfill their fun ction, they
have to be placed in exposed locations, they have a decided
influence on the aesthetics of the center.
Architects are often inclined to regard signs as nuisances
that ruin th eir creations and therefore strive, if they cannot
eliminate them altogether, to hold signs to a minimum in
size and number. Because this attitude is not compatible
with the commercial character of a center, it will not suc-
ceed in the long run. As soon as the architect turns his
back. an untold number of signs will be plastered over all
likel!' and unlikely areas without consideration to quality
of design.
Designers should regard signs as positive elements of the
over-all arch itectural composition. A general plan for the
handling of graphic expressions must be closely integrated,
and developed simultaneously with the architectural plans.
The designing of the 0\'er-all graphic scheme and of all its
elements sh ould be in the hands of imaginative, skillful,
and experienced artists.
The 0\'er-all graphic plan will determine locations and
methods of signing. It will formula te a primary and possibly
secondary lettering type as well as a color system that will
control all individual signs. The graphic designer will create
a logotype for the sh opping center name, to be used in all
cases where it appears , wh eth er on large signs, on brochures
or on advertising. \Vh en names are long, they should be
sh ortened for gra phic and promotional effectiveness. The
name "Northland Regional Sh opping Center," for ex-
ample, was abbreviated for all signing and advertising to
"Northland."
Even a sh ort name, h owever, will be difficult to read and
will not be recognized when it is used on a large area seen
from considerable distan ce (landmark signs on water
towers ) or on a \'er!' small area (th e sleeve of th e center's
policemen ). This is wh ere the n eed for a symbol becomes
apparent.
Shopping center sign near pubJic road . \Vaia]ae Shopping Center, HonoJulu, Hawaii.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates. Photograph: Camera Hawaii
The symbol must be simple and original to be effective.
lts importance for th e shopping center is equal to that of
th e trademark for mass produced articles. However, the
best des igned symbol will not fulfill its mission if it is not
consistently pu t to use as part of signs, center literature,
advertising, on trash containers, service vehicles, emergency
doors, an d in th e res taurants on dinnerware, napkins and
ITienus.
\Vh en th e general graphic plan is set, the work on indi-
vidual signs proceeds. In designing th em their distance and
th e circumstances under which thev will be read must be
kept in mind. .
A shopper approaching th e center by car should be m ade
aware of its existence by th e svmbol attached to a high
structure. Coming closer, h e sliOiid- oe confronted with a
large sign "'announ cing the nam e of the center; the sign
should be installed clase to the road on the periphery of
the parking area . Clearly legible signs should direct him to
the entrance roads. From here on, b ecause of his dimin-
ished speed, h e can be guided and dirccted to a parking
stall b y smaller signs.
lndi,idual parking lots and lanes must be indicated in an
easy-to-remember fashion. Symbols or pictorial signs are
sometimes used in the belief that these are more easily re-
membered than numbers or letters. Only after the shopper
leaves his car will his interest turn to th e signs of the
individual tenant stores.
This sequ ence of impressions must be understood for the
proper size and placement of signs. Common mistakes to
avoid: placing the shopping center sign on th e department
store building, placing th e department store name along
165
 Utll.'t Ul LCltWt
Lll!l~ . ~1WU
U;t'~uu~ . ltt!lltll~
nllt >tUIIl
ttnt~ttm
lli:UW tU\1' ~1Jlll~

:\ combination of parking 1ot liglJtmg standards and tenant sign s.

In order to ena ble the de1elopers to enforce sign control ll'ithin the
slwpping core. the tenants \\'ere gii'CJJ the pri1ilege of ann ouncing
their names on t hese sign panels loca tcd along the approach roads.
Sout/1 Ba) Shopping Center, Redondo Beach, Califomia.
:\ ssociated Architects: A. QuinCI' Jones. Frederick E mm ons, Vctor
Grucn
Architects for J\Iar C ompam store: Albert C. l\Iartin & Associa tes
Photograph : G ordon Sommers

Symbol designed for Roosel'elt Field, Nas-

sa u C ounty, Long Is/and, New York, as
used on s/wpping bag.
Arch itects: I. !11. Pei and Associates
Associate Architect: R . C . Brugnoni
Plwtograph: Ezra Stoller

166
 Sign announcing name of shopping center, using symbol abo1e
sign panel loca ted near access road. North land Center, D etroit.
l. Graphic design by Ahin Lustig.

~
~!;:/.?
Architects: Vctor Gru en Associates
Photoeraph: Photograph House

,_._ /

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NOR1HLAND

Directioual sign along approach roads for Northland Center, de

signed by Alvin Lu stig.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Photograpl1 House

Sign for single tenancy building.

Dayton 's Southdale Center, nea r l\finnea polis.
Arcl1itects: Vctor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Anthony Lane
the outer road, attempts to make tenant signs readable from
the public roadway.
Special events, such as fashion sh ows, parades, and night
openings, can be brought to the attention of shoppers by
announcement boa rds, with changeable lettering, si tuated
near entrances to the parkin g area. Pos ter colurnns and
bulletin boards within th e pedestrian area sene the sarne
purpose.
Tenant store signing in rnultiple tenancy buildings
should be controlled. In the case of single tenancy build-
ings, howe\'er, exceptions will have to be made. Because
their existence is of promotional irnportance to th e center
as a whole, their signs rnay be placed on the wall surfaces of
their buildings but utrnost res traint sh ould be urged as to ......
'

the size and appearance of such signs. Jt has been fairly ..... ,
well established that departrnent stores in shopping centers
need only rnodest designation.
.>.... t.' _::__ ~ --~.
 Above is an illuminated sign po/e in the pedestrian area of North -
/and Center, D etroit. At the /eft is another Northland symbol.
designed by Ahin Lustig, that is used on top of a sign post. Th c
signs announce the name, seg ment of th e pedestrian arca, and
give directions to public facilities and parking areas.
Architects: Victor Grucn Associates
Photographs: Ph otograp/1 House; Ben Schnall

Signs in walking areas should be scaled to the pedestrian,

who obser\'es th em at clase range while moving slowly.
They should be near eye leve] and small in size .
Name signs for particular pedestrian areas should be
centrally loca ted and supported by free-standing poles.
Nam es sh ould be chosen that are significant to the area and
they should be easy to pronounce and to remember (Car-
den Court, l\Tarket Lane, Fountain 1\ lall, etc.). Directional
) signs should be employed onl~ for community and public
facilities such as auditorium , rest rooms, indi\'idual parking
lots, bus stations and taxi stands . Directory boards and
maps listing all store names and m erchandising categories
should be located at strategic points within protected areas
throughout the cen ter. ldentification signs should be at-
tached to community and public buildings such as audi-
torium, air-conditioning plant, etc. Most signs should be
illuminated for legibility at night.

Sign for single tenancy building.

John \Vnnamaker, Cross County Shopping Center, Yonkers, New
York.
Arc/J itect: Lathrop Douglass
Photograph : Gottscho-Schleisner
 8) Centers with Covered Pedestrian Areas. \Ve have di-
rected our attention until now to design in relation to the
most frequently occurring shopping center types. However,
special conditions, such as limited sites, extreme climate,
unusual topography, demand unusual solutions. Especially
significant is the center with enclosed pedestrian areas, as
represented by Southdale near Minneapolis, Harundale
near Baltimore, and a number of centers now in the con-
struction and planning stages.
The decision to introduce coyered and completely cli-
mate-controlled pedestrian areas was, in the case of South-
1 dale, based on the fact that the clima tic conditions, with
merchandising le\els in a cmered shopping
with indication of tenant sign arrangement.
Center, MiJwaukee, in planning stage.
Victor G ruen Associates
tograph: Gordon Sommers
extremely cold winters and hot summers, were not favorable
to the enjoyment of the outdoors.
The desire to obtain airiness and height for the pedestrian
area, coupled with the economic necessity of keeping the
covered ground area small, led to a multi-level merchandis-
ing scheme. Upper and lower merchandising levels were
made directly accessible from parking areas which slope
clown and up from the surrounding areas. Part of the base-
ment leYel is used for merchandising purposes and is acces-
sible by a stairway in the pedestrian area and through
individual stores.
This basic planning scheme (see Part 11, Chapter 3)
169
In the climate-controlled col'ered shopping mall, store fronts can be partly or completelr open .
Southdale Shopping Ccnter, near 1\Iinneapolis.
Architects: Victor Grucn A ssociates. Ph otograph: \ Varren Rcynolds, Infinity, In c.

res ults in new design problems and possibilities. lnstead

of being a group of buildings, it must be built as a single
structure under one roof. Yet th e cooperative nature of a
shoppin g center has to be expressed. This was achieved b y
introducin~back and protrusions i.!!__g_ch_ a _mann~at
the two department stores. the superma rket and a restau-
rant a~~ clearly defined from ths_ outside. V~ ng color and
_surface trea tments indica te o!her store groups:--Because of
th e complete protecti on of the pedestrian areas, a new
measure of design fre edom \\'as possible for the treatment
of all clements facing or b eing contai n ed by such areas .
Store fron.ts no longer had to be designed to resist bad
weather conditions: e,en entrance doors to stores became
unnccc~sar y . Storc fronts could be par tl y or entirely open.
and movable grills or sliding panels could be used to close
stores at night . Landscaping became independen t of region-
al restrictions so th at subt ropical plants and flowers could
be planted successfully . Open sales stands replaced enclosed
ki osks. A large sidewalk cafe could operate summer and
\\'in ter.
 PART J:J:-CHAPTER 9
Engineering the Shopping Center
A-Structural Engineering
The selection of structural framing is affected by a num-
ber of diverse factors. Because each project's physical char-
acteristics, geograph ic location , and specific requirements
demanda detailed investigaban of possible alternates befare
a selection can be conscien tiously made, optimum or most
economical solu tions cann ot be easily prescribed.
Nevertheless, certain general criteria can be set up to
relate the different component elements of a center to the
structural charac teristics of alternate methods of construc-
tion. \ Ve will fi rs t analyze th ese criteria as they apply to
two extreme types of shopping centcr: Thc ma jar regional
center, and the minimum neighborhood center. \ Ve will
then consider the factors influencing the selection of a
structural system in terms of their application to centers in
general.
l) Structure
a) Structure of th e R egional Shopping Cen ter.* The
regional shopping center will generally include th e fol-
lowing distinct building elements: typical multiple-tenant
buildings; single tenancy buildings ( departm ent store,
superm:.rket ); utility buildings ( power plant, covered
truck roads, loading docks); common sh eltered spaces,
colonnades, overhangs, roofed malls, kiosks) . M ulti-s tory
parking, in sorne instances, may also become an integral
part of a regional shopping center project.
*Statements on planning, designing and construction are repeated
(See Part 11, Chapter 8) here with special reference to their in-
fluence on engineering design and techniques.
TYPICAL l\IuLTIPLE-TENANT BuiLDINGS. Jn general, the
primary factor to be considered in the selection of a struc-
tural system for a multiple-tenant building is flexibility of
space use. During both the planning and construction stages
(and, in sorne instances. even after construction is com-
pleted) individual tenancies are not ye t defined and the
tenants' specific requirements in terms of stair location,
shafts, special equipment and so forth, are not yet estab-
lished. Therefore, it is necessary that the structural system
allow th e greatest freedom for location of openings through
floor and roof framing, and even make possible, with
mnimum difficulties, structural alterations after comple-
tion of construction. From this standpoint, structural steel
is, of course, the most satisfactory fram ing system. Struc-
tural steel framing may not, however, presen t th e most
economical solution especially if, as is the case for most
regional centers, fireproof construction is required by codes.
\Vhen reinforced concrete construction is used, a conven-
tional one-way frami ng system of joists and girders proves
most satisfactory in all owing for the necessary changes and
ad justments for special tenant requ irements.
The selection of the column spacing is affected both by
economic considerations (which favor relatively short spans)
and by space use considerations (which favor th e total
el imination of in terior supporting columns). Solutions in-
va riably involve a compromise between these two extremes .
Column spacing is also affected by the pattern of space
parti tioning into units suitable for typical tenant layouts.
A 4 or 5- foo t modul us is generally most satisfactory for
partitioning the typical tenan t building into individual
stores. For a two-level center (basement and main floor
onl y), a column spacing of 20 x 20 at basement leve]
171
 Roof frami ng of typical tenant building. Note square steelpipe
colum ns with rigid connection to horizonta l frame to resist seis
mic loads. Valley Fair Center, San f ose, California.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: 1\Ielga r Photography
supporting th e heavy first-f!oor loads, and a spacing of
20 x 40 or 20 x 60 at main leve] supporting the roof
framing h as proven very satisfactory. It is both economi-
cal and suitable for easy partitioning of the individual
tenancies. (See photographs of Eastland Shopping Center,
Part JJ, Chapter 8.)
Jt is generally desirable to avoid column locations on
store front 1ines in order to allow for maximum freedom
in store front design. This can b e accomplished by canti-
levering the roof framing past the last row of columns to
the store front 1ine. A problem arises, however, when con-
tinuous covered colonnades are part of the project's design.
The roof of the colonnades is generally lower than that of
the main portian of the buildings and, if supports are to
be avoided on the store front line, the colonnades may be
suspended from the cantilevered edge of the roof-framing
itself. (See photograph of Northland Shopping Center,
Part II, Chapter 9.)
SINGLE TENANCY BurLDINGS. Jn the single tenancy build-
ing, the operational reqnirements of the tenant are sub-
stantially pre-established during th e design stage. These
buildings offer, therefore, the greatest potential for de-
signing the structural stheme m ost economically, and on
occasion most imaginatively, to fit the specific require-
ments of the individual tenant.
172
Roof fra min g in reinforced concrete. To al'oid supports along
the store front line, th e roof of the continuous co1ered colonnade
is suspended from the main roof framing. Northland Center,
Detroit.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Photograph House, Detroit
D EPARTI\IENT STORE. It consists, generally, of multi-level
construction , varying from two to six stories. The merchan-
dising layout strongl y favors a regular column spacing of
equal dimensions in both directions. This spacing is best
suited for the adoption of two-way framing. Two factors,
then- the lesser nced for f! exibility and the equal column
spacing- favor the selcction of reinforced concrete con-
struction. Econom y considerations specifically point to the
selection of a two-way framing, either in the form of
waffie-type construction, as used at Bay Fair Shopping
Center, or of fl at slab with drop panel construction as in
Dayton 's Departm ent Store. Southdale Shopping Center
near .i\ linneapolis. The difference in cost between these
two alternathes is generally 1ery small and may vary from
city to city according to local practice and preferences. In
general, th e waffie slab construction lends itself best to
relathely large column spacing (30 feet or more) because
of its high er rigidity and corresponding lesser vertical de-
flections. The flat slab with droppanel system has the
advantage of minimum framing depth and proves most
satisfactory in column spacings between 24 and 30 feet.
Both types of two-way reinforccd concrete framing have
the adva ntage of relatively shallow depth ( which results
in reduced total building height. with corresponding cost
savings in exterior walls, stairs. pipe and duct work con-
 ' - .

\Vaffie type COIIStmction with 30 X 30 foot column spacing. Bay Th e flat slab with drop panel construction and 30 X 30 foot
Fair Center. San Lcandro. California . column spacing. SoutlJdale Center near 1\Iinneapolis.
Architec ts: Victor Gruen Associates Architects: Victor Gru en Associates
Photograph: l\I oulin Studios, S.F. Photograph : Chester Freden

struction) and prove gen erally more satisfactory than con-
vention al steel-framing construction. One-way steel framing
is not as well suited for equal column sp;~cing in both
directions. Inas much as a removable type acoustic ceiling
is desirable in a department store, and structural steel
framing demands the installation of a second fireproofing
ceiling or of fireproofing of individual steel members , this
dupl ication tends to increase the total construction cost.
On th e oth er hand, steel construction m ay allow, espe-
cially for multi-story buildings, a sh orter construction
schedule than reinforced concrete would, an d thus, in sorne
cases, may prove th e more appropriate choice.
\Vhile the bulk of department-store framing consists of
uniform, uninterrupted spans, th e locations wh ere service
fac ilities are concen trated (elevators, fir e exit stairs, vertical
ducts, shafts, chutes, etc. ) present a number of special
framing problems which force departure fr om the typical
framing system adopted and which , occasionally, requre
the introduction of additional support columns. To resolve
most advantageously the problem raised b y these con-
flicting requircmcnts, a mixed type of construction has
been used for thc l\1ay Company Store in Cleveland where
two adjacent clements (a service tower anda -1-s tory main
building wing) are developed. The main building wing,

C onBicting rcquirements ca ll for a mixed type of constru ction. Combination of flat slab concrete
construction ancl steel frame construction for surface po11er. J\Iay C ompany Store, University Heights. Cleveland, Ohio.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates. Associatc Arcllitect: Ja ck AJan Bialosky. Ph otograph: S. \V. Emerson Co.
 Laminated wood arches for Penn Fruit
Supermarke t (pro to type). Blac k H orse
P ik e S hoppi ng C e nt er, Aud ub o n, Ne w
Tecsey.
Architects: Victor Gru en Associates
Photograph: D ufor Photographic Studios

Hinged base of laminatcd wood arches for

Penn Fruit Supermarkct.
Photograph : Dufor Pho tographic Studios

almos t completely free of special fra ming conditions, is
mos t economicall y framed with fl at slab concrete construc-
tion, wi th column spacing of 30 x 30 in both directions.
The senice tower is fra med in structural steel and has one
in te rmed iate mezzan ine floor between each ]e,el of the
main strnc ture. The column spacing in th e tower is kept
to a 20 x 20 m odule because no long span s are required
and, on th e other hand, maxi mum flexibility for special
fram ing around sh afts and service installati on is obtained.
An additional ad\'antage of this mixed constru ction system
is th at. because of its steel fram ing, the construction of
the sen ice tower can proceed wi th the utmost speed.
Thus. th e installation of special equipmen t (ele\'ators, me-
chan ical piping. air conditio ning equipment, etc.) can
begin \\'hile the construction of th e concrete floors of the
balance of th e building proceeds at its m ost economical
pace.
\Vhile th ere is general consensos on the desirability
of equal column spacing in both directions for depart-
ment store construction , \'aried preferences are encountered
to\\'ard optimum spacing. In recent examples, typical
column spacing has \'ari ed from 32 x 32 (Robinson's D e-
partment Store, Be\'erl y Hills) to 25 x 25 (severa] Macy
stores in different parts of th e country) and to 24 x 24 in
oth er stores . A typical column spacing of 30 x 30 has been
found b y many oth er stores to be th e most satisfactory
not onl y because its cost h as not pro\'en significan tly higher
than th at of a 25 x 25 column spacing (es pecially when

174

\Voo den box girders in food mar
ket.
Green brae Sh opping C en ter, San
R afae l, C alifo rnia.
Architects: Victor Gru en Associates
Photograph: Phil Fein
waffie-type construction is adopted), bu t because of bene-
fits resulting from increase in flexib ility of space use and
in visual openness .
In exceptional cases, ,-ery large spans h ave been used
for roof framing: th e Jordan l\ Iarsh store in th e Framing-
ham Shopping C enter, for example, is roofed by a column-
less steel-framed dom e 220 feet in diam eter. T h e fact th at
this bold experiment has h ad no following would seem to
indicate th at the advantages of columnless construction in
department-store framing do n ot offset th e increased cost
entailed. It is, h owever, probable th at th e development of
new constru:::tion techniqucs (especially prestress ing of re-
inforced concrete framing) will tend to increase within
economical limits th e dimen sions of typical column spac-
Laminated wood beams in Pala
Shopping Center, near San Jose,
California.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associ-
ates
Photograph: Morley Baer
ing, even for floor construction, well above th e present
optimums.
Su PERI\IARKET. U nlike the typical department store, the
supermarket (which almost invariably consists of a single-
story merch andising space) derives th e greatest advantage
fro m long-span column-free framing. Thus, th e grea t po-
tential for imaginative structural solu t ions is offered by
th e supermarket des ign. \ Vh en a fireproof structural system
is not requ ired, wood framing can be used eith er in th e
form of laminated wood arch es, as in th e Penn F mit
Prototype Supermarket, Black Horse Shopping Center,
Audubon , N. ]., or in the form of la minated wood b eams
used in th e Food 1\ larket, Pab Shopping Cen ter, Pala,
Calif., or in th e form of glued, nailed h ollow box girders
175
 1

'1

Pre-stressed girders, superm a rket:!

Bar Fair Center, San Leandro, Cal- :
ifornia. 1
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates .
1

Photograph: J\1oulin Studios , 1

:
,,

used in the Food l\ Iarket, Greenbrae Shopping Center,
San Rafael, Calif. \ Vood framing not only is relatively
economical but also offers, wh en sensitively detailed,
excellen t poten tia! for direct archi tectural expression of
the structural framing and for strong visual identification
of the supermarket structure. Laminated wood beams and l
hollow box girders are economically suitable for a span 1
of from 40 to 80 feet. Glued laminated arches can, on the.
oth er hand, be used for much longer spans and offer one
of the most economical space enc1osure solutions. If the :

Long span open web joists.

La Mirada Center, Los Angeles, California.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates
Plwtograph: Gordon Sommers

Steel columns with wood beam connection.

Pala Cen ter, San Jase, California.
Arcl1itects: Victor Gruen Associa tes
Plwtograp/1 : l\1orley Baer

176
Tapered steel beams for supermarket
at South Ba1 Center, Redondo Beach,
Califomia.
Associated Architects: A. Quincy
Jone~. Frederick Emmons, Vict or
Grucn
Architects for 1\lay Company store:
Albert C . Martin & Associates
Photograph : Melgar Photographers

wood arches are not extended to the ground but are sup-
ported by \'ertical columns, then the arch 's horizontal
thrust must be resisted, either b y tie rods or by rigid
fram e construction of the side wings of the building.
\Vhere fireproof construction is required, the use of pre-
stressed girders may be wise in lieu of laminated wood
girders. Precast and lifted concrete arches may offer a
sa tisfac tory solution for longer span framing. Steel framing
is also used extensil'ely, especially in the form of tapered
steel beams or in the form of open web long span joists.

Sec tion th rough Penn Fruit Supermarket Building, Black Horse Pike Shopping Center, Audubon, New Jersey.
Architect: Victor Gruen Associates

LAMINATED WOOD ARCH

RIGID RIGID
FRAME FRAME

o 50

177

L mnimum column interference. As a rule, structural steel
'
Long span, double cantilel'er, reinforced concrete
bea ms in central power plant of Northland Center,
Detroit.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Photograph House, Detroit
Colonnade. Valley Fair Center, San fose, California.
Archtects: Vctor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Gordon Sommers
UTILITY BurLDINGS. Central utilities for a regional shop- ,
ping center are frequently accommodated in the basement
space, centrally located within the project complex. In other
instances, the utilities plant, where all the mechanical equip-
ment for heating, refrigeration and transforming of electri-
cal service is housed and operated, is entirely separate.
\Vhere separate buildings are provided, the utility building
acquires the character of a typical industrial plant and its
construction is best solved with long-span framing and
will provide the simplest and most satisfactory framing
for this type of installation. In Northland Shopping Center
(designed at a time when restrictions on the use of struc-
tural steel were in force) the central utility building is
framed in reinforced concrete, and its roof is supported by
long span double-cantilever bents.
Whene\'er a covered truck road directly servicing base-
ment areas is provided, special framing problems are en-
countered because of the long span necessary for truck
maneuvering space. As any truck road must be fully fire-
proof, reinforced concrete construction invariably proves
most satisfactory.
Coliili-ION SHELTERED SPACES. The architectural designes-
tablishes the character of colonnades, overhangs, and other
special structures located in the common spaces in a shop-
ping center. Th e greatest variety of opportunities and po-
tentials for simple architectural expression deriving from
the structural elernents can be exploited in these elements
of the project.
Perhaps the most interesting problem of structural space

SKYLIGHT Section B of Southdale Center near Minneapolis.

_..,. A rchitects: Vctor Gruen Associates

~G\N/1/1/1/ /1/l) CLERESTORY

-
2- STORY MALL 1
BRIDGE -STO RE--
rld 1

~H
-STO RE-

BASEMENT

o 50
178

Skylight over pedestrian rnall. Fifth Avenu e South,
\Vashington, D.G ., in planning stage.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
Photograph: Gordon Sornrners
enclosure that a shopping center offers is the covering of
central malls, such as occurs in the Southdale Shopping
Center near 1\Iinneapolis. The covering of such a large
space can be accomplished either by long-span elements
which leave the space entirely uninterrupted by columns,
or by special structural systems which purposely introduce
columns as an architectural element contributing to the
space definition of the central mal!. \Vhere it is desirable
to introduce natural lighting into the central malls, by
means of skylights and clerestories. the structural covering
Section C, \Vildwood Center, J\Jilwaukee , in planning sta ge.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
LAMINATED WOOD ARCH
50
Sculptural quality of struct ure in bus shelter for
Eastland Center, Detroit.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
~--
of the malls is generally raised above the leve! of the
typical roof framing, offering very interesting potential for
imaginati,e design. Thin shell forros, geodesic dome struc-
tures, or other types of special framing may be successfully
adopted for the sheltering of the central malls of majar
regional shopping centers.
Individual kiosks, bus shelters, and other free elements
can provide opportunities for full y expressed structural
forros that help to define the character of the common
spaces, and in sorn e cases achieve almost sculptural quality.
STO RE
179
 Section D, \Vestchester Terminal Plaza,
in planning stage. Partial plan. of typical
retail floor and typical parking level show-
office building ing identical column spacing as utilized in
both cases.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates
e-levotars

skylighted
gorden court

parking

J 1 1 l
TYPIC L RETA l FLOOIR FRAMi l G

a
r-

180
 MuLTI-STORY PARKING. \ Vben a regional center, because
of si te space limitations, requires th e incorporation of multi-
story park ing. very special struc tural problems arise, espe-
cially if the parki ng levels are above or below the m erch an-
disin g levels . In this case, th e column spacing, while con-
formin g with th e factors previously discussed. must also per-
mit effecti,e use of all parking leve! space; th e solution to
this problem will affect th e ultimate economy of th e
structural project to a la rge degree . An ex trem e example of
the integration of parking and sh opping levels occurs in th e
projected \ Vestch es ter T erminal Plaza , wh ere a two-level
shopping center is sandwiched between th ree levels of
base ment parking and two levels of roo f parking. C olum n
spacing in this case was selec ted a t 30 feet in one direction
and alterna ting 30' and 2 5' in the other direc tion . This
spacing allows excellent efficiency of parking layo ut ( angle
parking with one-way circul ation th roughout ) and very
good flexibility in th e subdivision of th e tenan t spaces.
b ) Structure of th e N eighborh ood Shopping C enter.
Because of its ch aracteristics, th e n eigh b orh ood cen ter
requires a type of constru ction of much lower fire ratin g
than th e regional center. lts framing can usually, th ere-
fore, consist of wood and plas ter constru ction , exposed
h ea' 'Y timber construction, or ex posed structura l steel.
The selecti on of the sys tem will depend , as far as econ-
o my is concern ed, on local availability an d h ab its, and,
as far as appea rance is concern ed , on regional ch aracter-
istics and precedents. Because of the red uced fi re ra ting
res trictions, it is possible to take advan tage of th e
selected structural scheme in es tablishin g th e architec-
tural ch aracter of th e center. Thus, econom ically and
without artfice, it is possible to develop a straigh tfor-
ward neighborh ood architecture.
T he Pala Sh opping C enter in Pala, Calif., used glued
\V ood framing in neighborhood shopping center. Pala Center,
San lose, California.
Architects: \'ictor Gru en Associates
Photograph: l\1orley Baer
Exposed steel fra ming in neighborhood center. \ Vaialae Shoppi ng
Center. Honolulu. Hawaii.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates
Ph otograph: Carn era Hawaii
la minated wood girders supported by wood posts fo r its
roof framin g. No t onl y has th e sys tem proved mos t eco-
nomical for th is loca tion which is well served b y fab rica tors
of glued laminated construction . bu t th e cen ter has a very
res tful and pleasan t appea rance stemmi ng from the exposed
and expressed structural fra min g.
In the \ Vaialae Sh opping Cen ter in H onolulu. wh ere
climate condit ions and th e danger of insect infes tation as
well as local un ava ilabili ty of structural lumber discouraged
th e selection of wood framing. an exposed system of open
web steel joist construction proved both relatively econom-
ical and architecturall y satisfac tory.
The neighborh ood cen ter, in general. h as onl y two types
of difieren tia ted build ings - th e multiple-tenan t building
an d th e single- tenant building. The single-tenan t building
will gen erall ~ be represented by the food market for which
th e same considerati ons will pre,ail that have been dis-
cussed for th e regional sh opping center. T h e multiple-
tenant buildin g will. to an even greater exten t th an in th e
regional sh oppin g cen ter, demand fl exibilitv of arrangement
in to individual tenancies. In fact, in th e neigh borh ood
cen ter sorne tenants (such as dru gstore and specialty store)
acquire a position almos t equivalent to th at of th e single-
tenant store in a regional center. Therefore, th eir specific
requirements wi ll usually be incorporated with in th e plans
of th e neigh borh ood cen ter. and th e structure will be de-
signed accordi ngly.
e ) Inte rm edia te Size C en ter. Bet\\'een the extremes of
th e regional ccn ter and th e neigh borh ood center falls
the full range of interm ediate centers th at constitute a
large portion of th e projects being de,eloped. In each
case, th e selection of th e structural system , while affected
by th c general considerations listccl above, will be greatly
influenced by local co nditions and local preferences .
181
 2) Factors lnfluencing the Selection of the Structural
System.
SizE OF PROJECT. Aside from the influence the size of the
project has on the type of construction by virtue of fire
resistance requirements, it will be found that, in general,
it is most economical for a small project to adopt con-
ventional and locally fam iliar types of construction. Neither
the time nor the investment for experimentation with new
systems or new approaches is generally justified in a project
of limited size. On the other hand, a major regional shop-
ping center -located where competitive, aggressive and
experienced contracting firms are available- covering sev-
era] hundred thousand square feet of floor area and de-
signed so that a repetition of typical elements will occur
on a large scale, offers an unusu al chance for the investiga-
tion of the most advanced design techniques and for
original developments conceived to answer most satis-
factoril y the requirements of the larger number of affecting
factors. For such a project, the investment in design and
construction experimentation will be well justified by the
ultimate economies and advances achieved.
LocATION OF PROJECT. Location will affect structural de-
sign in various ways. Difficulties in connection with build-
ing codes (particularly, the reluctance of sorne building
departments to accept new techniques of anal ys is or new
theories, and to depart from obsolete or arbitrary restrictive
rules ) may penalize the use of certain materials. Another
aspect of location that will influence th e selection of the
structural sys tem is climate which may affect one system
more unfavorably than others under extreme conditions.
Location has furth er significance in terms of local avail-
ability of specific materials; for instance, the use of light-
weight reinforced concrete is presently limited by the high
cost of bulk transportation and by the relatively few pro-
duction locations of light-weight aggregate. Lastly, the
location of the project has a very definite significance in
terms of local h abits and preferences of construction
methods. \Vhile, for instance, in sorne cities the selection
and adoption of precasting techniques is accepted as an
almost standard method of construction, in others it is still
frown ed upon as something very daring and experimental.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SITE. The physical
characteristics of the site, in general, will influence the selec-
tion of the foundation method but, unless substantial settle-
ments are anticipated, they will not greatly affect the
selection of the structural system . However, if settlements
are anticipated, especially if differential in nature, it will
be best to adopt, regardless of oth er considerations, struc-
tural steel framing and to design and construct the struc-
ture for non-continuous behavior, so that the differential
in settlements that may occur will not overstress vertical
or horizontal members .
CoNSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES. Although no new materials
have appeared in the construction field in the last half
century unique enough to revolutionize the construction
industry, it is true that a number of new techniques which
182
apply to conventional rnaterials h ave appeared recently, so
that now there are new potentials for materials that had
become obsolete. \Velding for steel, glued laminated con-
struction for wood, and prestressing and precasting for con-
crete offer significant examples. It is probable that further
familiarization with precasting and prestressing techniques
will widen the field of investigation into the framing of
typical tenant buildings in major regional centers. It is
also likely that an imaginative approach to welded steel
construction rnay yield (either in the form of a simplified
space frame or in other forms of a two-way continuous
construction) an economical departure from the conven-
tional one-way joist-and-girder steel framing. This develop-
ment would make the steel structure well suited and eco-
nomical for equal column. spacings and relatively long
spans, thus offering a very des ira ble solution for large de-
partment store construction.
FIRE R.ATINGS. The multiplicity of building codes and
ordinances throughout the country and the fact that, in
addition to local building ordinances, the Fire Under-
writers' restrictions rnust be complied with, make it rnan-
datory that each major project be thoroughly analyzed from
the standpoint of fire rating and its influence on the struc-
tural system. In general, it is possible to adopt a lesser
than Type I construction if the project is subdivided into
a number of elements full y separated by fire walls. The
conventional interpretation of full separation requires that
the fire wall not onlv be extended for the full area of
contact between store. and store but th at it also continue
uninterrupted into the adjacent covered arcades. This, of
course, made it impossible to adop t this solution in any
large center. However, recent re-interpretation of the re-
striction h as allowed limiting the fire wall to the store-
font line which would not interrupt the continuity of the
arcades. \Vith this interpretation it is possible, subject to
sorne sacrifice in flexibilit y, to subdivide major shopping
centers into a number of areas properly separated by fire
walls, thus allowing a lower fire rating classification and
corresponding economy of construction.
CoNCLUSIONS. In view of the fact that many of the con-
cepts th at affect the selection of th e structural system are
closely related to the basic planning and architectural de-
sign of th e center, the creative collaboration of the architect.
and engineer is vital. Tnventiveness and detailing are as
much restricted by economic necessity as they are spurred
by possible solutions of the problem.
B-Mechanical Engineering *
Modern developments in the m ech anical and electrical
fields have found increasing adaptation in the realm of
shopping center construction. Longer shopping hours, due
*This part of the chapter deals \\~th conditions that exist in large
regional shopping centers. However, many of these statements,
when properly altered to fit the situation, are valid for neighbor-
hood and intermediate ccnters as well.
particularly to evening openings, ha\'e justified additional
mechanical and electrical facilities to provide a controlled
environment. The high standards of lighting levels have,
at the same time, created corresponding increases in heat
loads which must be calculated in designing air condition-
ing. Since design and construction costs related to mechan-
ical and electrical systems can add up to approximately
30 per cent of th e total project cost, it is obvious that this
work demands more and more attention from developers
and planners of all centers, particularly regional centers.

1) Heating and Air-Conditioning. Historically, commer-

cial space tenants haYe been proYided 1Yith h eating facilities
for the leased premises. The tenan t normally includes th e
cost of operation as part of his expenses . Air-conditioning,
Central heating pla nt in NorthJand Center, Detroit.
if desired, was subsequently added by the tenant and oper- Architects: Victor Gruen Associates
ated by the tenant. Shopping center leasing today still Ph otograph: Ben Schna ll
follows this pattern and, although certain component parts
of the mechanical system m ay be common to both h eating
and air-conditioning, an attempt is made to segrega te their
costs, and the tenant is expected to pay for the amortiza-
tion of that part of th e combined h ea ting and refrigeration Left to their own devices, with no limitations on the type
system that is applicable to air-conditioning, usually by a of equipment, tenants sometimes will incorporate products
stand-by charge o\'er and aboye the rent. In addition, the of seYeral manufacturers, involving duplication of spare
tenant often pays an operating charge, usually based on a parts, filters of different sizes, and in general a complex main-
pro-rata share of the actual total cost of operation of the tenance problem (which , however, is each tenant's responsi-
system, including fue!, labor maintenance, etc. The type of bility). The amortiza tion of the equipment cost over a short
system installed will vary from center to center; the ex- term lease becomes complicated, and the tenant will want
tremes are a system based on an individual self-contained either to remoYe his e quipm~nt at the expiration of a rela-
package unit located in each store, and a system that sup- tilely sh ort lease or might, if gi1en the option, decide not to
plies chilled water, chilled air, h ot water, or steam to all of install air-conditioning at al!. Lack of air-conditioning is
the tenants from a single central plant. in m ost locati ons detrimental to th e business of the entire
PACKAGE UNITS. The use of indiYidual package units pro- center and undoubtedly affects the sales yo]ume potential.
vides the greatest amount of fl exibilitv for the tenants. TnE C ENTRAL PLANT. The plant for both h eating and air-
These units can be individually contr~lled ; th eir power conditioning (or a combination of central installations)
source may be derived from th e tenant's electrical meter provides th e most economical solution as far as capital
and the burden of design and installation may be left cost and operating cost are concern ed . This statement,
entirely to the tenant, th ereby requirin g little or no invest-
ment on the part of the developer. Service costs, such as
filter changing, may be borne by the tenant, and, at most, Central coo ling plant in Northland Center, Detroit.
the developer is expected to provide condenser water from Architec ts: Victor Gruen Associates
a central cooling source; even this can b e supplanted by Photograph: Ben Schnall
evaporative condensers installed by the tenant. The primary
disad1antages of such a system are space waste and, in
certain states and locations, the requirement of a second
(power) meter for each tenant, ad ding to the cost of the
electrical system. Furthermore, inasmuch as th e tonnage is
computed for each individual space, and since this equip-
ment is available in only a limited number of tonnage
.increments, th e tonnage total for all package units is usuall y
greater than the total tonnage normally required for an
equivalent central plant sys tem. Valuable !loor area must
be used b y the te-nants for the installation of th e equipment
unless the unit is located on th e roof. Roof installations
invohe additional expenses in arder to provide structural
strength and concealing screens to prevent unsightliness .
 however, must be qu alified. Practica] experience has shown THE BALANCED SYSTEM. A detailed analysis must be made
that a number of central plants h ave neith er fulfilled the to determine th e degree of balance between heating and
economic specifications for which they were designed nor cooling requirements befare equipment is chosen. It may 1

have they resulted in fullest satisfacti on to the developer de,elop, as it did in the Southdale Shopping Center near
or tenant. Characteristicall v, tenants who install their own l\Iinneapolis, that because of a compact two-level covered
plants seem to be satisfied with much lower performance mall scheme, cooling is required even during the winter
standards than th ey would expect if central air-condition- cycle, and th at at times during the year an exact balance
ing were provided by th e developer. Because the designing occurs between h eating and cooling requirements.
of central air-conditioning plants for shopping centers is The process of cooling a building may be better ex-
a comparatively new science, mistakes and errors in judg- plained by stating that it is a technique of removing heat.
ment undoubtedl y have been made in th e past. Superior In th e case of a retail establishment, this heat is generated
skill an d experience, and an intimate acquaintance with all primarily by th e occupants and by the lighting load. If the
non-technical considerations, are necessary in arder to heat that is genera ted internally in any given space can
design and construct a successful central plant. be transferred to th e perimeter of the building to com-
Equipment locati ons may be in the basement, on the pensate for the loss of heat through the exposed walls and
roof, or both in combination . In sorn e instances completely roof, no additional h eating generator will be required.
separate utility buildings h ave been con stm cted at .a re- Stated an oth er way, e\ery piece of equipment designed to
moved location. However, improved techniques of isola- chill water generates h ea t as a by-product, and every
tion, vibra ti on dampening, and sound insulation now attempt should be m ade to utilize this heat rather than
make it possible to ]acate all equipment, including com- waste it into th e atm os phere.
pressors, in screened penthouses on th e roof, thereby re- A b;:~l a n ce d system was ;:~cco mplished in Southd;:~le by
ducing mns of piping and making possible a single means of a combinati on of devices . The availability of an
location for all mechanical equipmen t with a correspond- abundance of 50 well water and the proximity of a nearby
ing reduction in operating cost. lake for disposal made it feasible to use this water for pre-
Choice of equipmen t will depend on availability, price cooling all th e incoming air. During the summer months,
of fu els, and prevailing prac tices in any given area. Low th e 120,000 CFl\ I fresh a ir requirement for the en tire
electrical rates justify electrically-driven centrifuga] com- center is introduced at the roof of the garden court. Air
pressors; whereas low gas ra tes favor steam absorption for ventilation enters each of the tenant spaces by means
systems or centrifuga] machi nes with stcam-driven turbines. of grills located on the store fronts and is exhausted at
(Exhaust steam from the turbines at reduced pressure can the rear of th e tenant space into the service corridor. This
be used for kitch en and other h eating purposes.) air is th en circulated through the basement areas providing
secondary cooling. and ultimately into the truck tunnel
where, togeth er with the automotive gases, it is exhausted
The balanced system. Central plant in Southdale Center near to the atmos phere. (See typical section.)
1\ finn eapoJis. At th e operating engin eer's direction, the wasted water
Architects: Victor Gruen Associates m ay b e disch arged into the adjacent lake or it may be
Plwtograph: N orton & Peel
di,erted through diffusion walls to glacial strata immedi-
ately below th e ground surface. Dming the summer
months, when th e cooling load is greatest. this water is
diffused under th e ground at a temperature of 120. Dur-
ing the \\'nter months pumping from this high glacial
stratum yields water at approximately 80 which can be
used effectively for pre-h eating th e ventilating air that is
introduced into th e mall. Thus , th e geological stratum is
utilized as a huge underground reservoir.
Because of th e availab ility of natural gas, it was decided
to driv e th e centrifuga] compressors with gas engines. The
engine jacket water plus water jackets surrounding the
exhaust manifolds, plus tenant condenser water, provide
sufficient h ot water to supply th e complete h eating needs
of Southdale.
AIR-CONDITIONING CoNTROL. The use of individual pack-
age units permits the tenant to opera te his air-conditioning as
h e pleases, and th ose tenants who remain open for longer
hours th an th e normal shopping center's schedule, require
this fl exibility. Control of a central plant is far more

184
 complex, and provlSlons must be made for remote con-
trols, transfer switch es for individual tenants and , to the
greates t feas ible degree, automatic operation by mea ns of
time clocks and programming devices. Addition al capacity
for certain tenan ts, such as departm en t stores, m ay be re-
quired to acco mmodate h eavy sale periods with their
correspondingly large occupan cy loads.
Automatic "stop-s tart" equipment, temperature control,
pressure controls, electronic data h an dlin g, etc., m ake it
possible to conceive of a major mech anical installation with
no operating perso nnel oth er th an those required for peri-
odic maintenance and filt er ch anging. Alarm devices on
critica! equipment can b e relayed to remote locations, such
as a manager's offi ce. i'vlaintenance and service co ntracts
can be negotiated fo r periodic servici ng and emergency
senice calls .
T ENANT'S \VORK ANO WNER'S \VORK. \Vhen package
units are utilized, either as th e sole cooling medium or in
combination with a central plant, the tenant may b e expect-
ed to provide all facilities within his space at his own cost.
The tenant will be expected to contribute towa rd am ortiza-
tion of only that porti on of the owner's work required to
complete th e system , and this may include a central cool-
ing tower, a condenser water loop or similar facilities. If
the owner elects to standardize equipment or es tablish
superior standards of installation (such as ceiling diffusers
versus side-wall grills), then the en tire installation may be
made by the owner. Tenant will reimburse owner, either
by a cash payment or by a stand-by charge to be paid in
addition to rent. as set forth in the standard lease agree-
ment. If a central system is provided, it is preferable that
the latter technique be followed because only a small por-
tian of the system (air h andling units and duct work)
occur within th e tenant's space. The ow ner can elect to
provide th e tenant with an air-conditionin g cash allowance
for th e work within the tenant's space (a nd recover this
cost b~ mea ns of the stand-by ch arge) or cll oose to make
no allowance, and permit th e tenant to do bis own work.
subject to approval of plans and installation by the owner's
uchitect . Although an operating saving can b e achieved
by metering air-conditioning located in a tenant's space
from a central electrical distribution sys tem , th ereby enjoy-
ing th e lowes t possible power rate, th e cost of such a dis-
tribution system can only be amortized over a long period,
md present practicc indicates that it is m ore advantageous
to operate individual tenant equipment from th e tenant's
Jwn electrical m eter. The operating cost, in which tenants
.vill th en sh are on a prorated adjusted area basis, will be
those costs related only to th e central plant but usuall y
include a management charge.
HEATING ANO AIR-CoNoiTroNING PERATING CosTs. Al-
though it is possible to meter steam by measuring qu antities
of condensa te return and to meter chilled water by means of
therm meters (computing both volumes and temperature
:lifferentials) the cost of such meters and th eir operational
:lifficulties make it desirable to eliminate entirely all m eter-
ing devices. Severa! formulas for establishing tentative
m onthly ch arges to be paid in advance for th e operation of
both heating and cooling have been devised . These formulas
are adjusted for occupancy types and areas, and are closely
related to what th e individual actual operating costs would
be for a particular tenancy. Based on th e actual operating
cost for a stipulated peri od, adjustments are made on the
ratio of an individual tenant's payment to all tentative
payments of al! tcnants. For example: If th e total actual
operating cost were 80 percent of th e total tentative month-
ly payments, each tenant would be refunded 20 per cent of
th e amount h e paid.
2) Plumbing. l\ Iost of the problems wi th regard to plumb-
ing requirements th at occ ur in a sh opping center are
similar to th ose encountered in th e planning for individual
stores. 1t can b e anticipa ted th at major stores will provide
toilet facilities for th eir customers. Sorne of th e chain stores
will provide toilet facilities for th ei r employees, whether
th e center provides facilities or not, b ecause th ey do not
want th eir employees to leave th e premises.
Groups of small tenants, on th e other h and, can benefit
wh en the developcr provides combined toilet facilities; the
maintenance of such fac ilities is normally sh ared by the
group. Only cold wa ter is normally made ava ilable to the
tenant, on a metered bas is at preva iling rates, to be sup-
plied eith er by a local utility or by the developer if wells can
be economically installed . Small users (a nd many tenants
will have nothing more th an a single drinking fountai n) are
ch arged a pre-establish ed monthly rate in ord er to save the
cost of meters. Facil ities for h eating wa ter, if required by
th e tenant, are generall y provided by the tenant. Preferably,
small electric wa ter h eaters will be utilized; th e use of gas
for h eating purposes should be limited to a,oid venting
problems. The lease sh ould clea rly stipulate the divis ion of
res ponsibility for providing drains and vents for th ose ten-
ants requiring large plumbing installation s, such as restau-
rants. drv cleaners, etc. Provisions sh ould be made to acco m-
modate .under-f!oor fac ilities. 1t can be ant icipated th at
detailed information will lag behind th e developer's con-
struction sch edule and. whenever possible, !loor slab installa-
tion sh ould be deferred until the la test possible date.
Th e gas company will normally bring sen ice to a single
point wi thin th e center where th e meters will b e located.
Any extension beyond this point should be at the expense
of the tenant. and th e engineering of th e piping must b e
approved by th e gas company.
T h e sh opping center may or may not be sprinklered .
Normally, insurance benefits will accrue only if th e en tire
center is sprinklered, as fire separations betwee n sprinklered
and non-sprinklered areas are difficult to ach ie,e. An mer-all
pattern of sprinkler h eads should be establish ed by the de-
veloper, and any deviati ons from this pattern , because of
tenant partitions, sh ould b e paid for by. th e tenant.
3) l\ lechanical Transportation. Th e growi ng trend is to de-
sign compact sh opping centers in order to reduce walking
dis tances and this has resulted in multi-level sch emes with
185

undergrou nd truck service facilities. T h e movement of large
groups of people and merchandise can best be handled b y
mea ns of mech:mical devices wh en th ey are incorporated in
th e ini tial planning phases. Freight elevators, dumbwaiters
and mechanical conveyors h ave been utilized to bring m er-
ch andise from th e basemen t to th e upper selling fl oors. Pub-
le escalators, besides th ose in individual stores, h ave been
used to connect pedestrian arcas wi th an underground con-
com se (Eas tland ); to connect merch andising levels with
each oth er (South dale); and, in th e pro jected \ Vestch ester
Terminal Plaza will connect ga rage ]e,els with merch andis-
ing levels. Recent narrow ga uge trea d des ign on m odern
escalators will accommodate children's strollers and shop-
ping carts, th ereby eliminatin g th e need fo r ramps.
Parking lots and garages accommodating fro m 6,000 to
10,000 autom obiles may well justify th e installation of
moving sidewalks. Their primarv fun ction is to transport
passengers within arcas n ot des ignated for sh opping, and to
brin g customers from su eh non-sh opping arcas to th e stores.
An excellent example are th e moving sidewalks designed
186
P ublic escalators in th e center
of t h e S o uthd a l e ga rden
co urt.
Photograph : \Varren
Reynolds, Infinity, Inc.
for Dadeland, Florida, wh ere th ey are arra nged on an in-
cline connect ing parkin g arcas with m erch andising arcas
one leve] high er. l\ 1oving sidewalks h ave been incorporated
within th e 4,000 car park ing garage for th e County of Los
Angeles, and th e 5,000 car parkin g ga rage projected fo r
\ Ves tch ester Termin al Plaza, connectin g with escalator
wells and Yertical transportati on.
l\ [oving sidewalks, h owever, would b e out of place within
th e sh opping area proper, because th ere th e customer stroll-
ing leism ely, with out mech anical assistance, becomes th e
m ost desirable sh opper.
The leism ely sh opper, if relie,ed of th e bmden of carry-
ing purch ascs, will spend more time in th e center. There is
a growing trend toward providing package pickup stations,
particularly for department stores and su perm arkets. \ Vith
this system , purchases are accumulated at a single point,
and th e custom er dri,es to th~ s location to load th e pack-
ages. Strategically located spiral package chutes and a sys-
tem of converging belt conveyors are necessary for an
efficient package accumulation sys tem.
C-Electrical Engineering

Iegotiations with local utility companies sh ould begin

early in thc planning phase in order to determine so urces
of suppl y, available \'Oitages, and published rates at various
voltages. The connected load for a regional shopping center
will be of such magnitude th at detailed analysis will be in
order, with particular attention paid to space require-
ments, cost of transformer vaults, cost of distribution at
M aster control panel in Southdale Center, near Minneapolis.
various voltages, dimensions of busduct a nd conduit, ad-
Architccts: Victor Gruen Associates
vantages of purch as ing standardized mass-produced equip- Photograph: Antlwn y Lane
ment, and ava ilability and delivery time.
I\ IETERI NC. Most utility companies wi\1 insist on metering
A. Motor load Ce nter: circuit breokers for oir conditioning, deep well
the 1arious tenants directly, and group meter stations must pumps, elevotors, escalators, etc.; 8 . Pump Control Cubicle! starts, stops
be installcd by th e de1eloper in th e sen ice corridors. If, as ond controls pressures of oir condit ioning system and domestic water
at Northland Shopping Center in D etroit, the utility com- pumps; C . Doto Handling Cubicle : gothers informotion electronically !rom
pany is willing and wh ere state regulation s permit, the de- 75 pressure and flow points throughout air conditioning sydem; D. Dota
veloper may elcct to purchase electric power at a wholesale Handling Typewriter: outomaticolly types the gathered dota handling
rate and sub-m eter to tenants at the prevailing retail rate. information every Y2 hour ond duplicates information en punched tape;
E. Air Conditionng Programme r: automatically progroms pre -estoblished
The cost of transform ers and distribution must b e related
cycles of ope rotion wh e n initioted manually or by thermostats; F. Pro-
to th e potential profits for th e developer. grommer Jock Panel, on which cycles ore orronged.
ELECTRIC SERV JCE. The power com pany will normally
suppl y energy at high voltage, possibly 16, 500 volts to one or
more transformer \oca tions. During preliminary negotiat ions,
it is advan tageo us to insist on at leas t two so urces of high
Yoltage supply, preferably originating at two separate sub-
stations.
The power company will instan transform ers and pro-
tective switchgear in va ults con structed by th e developer, and
th ese will n orm ally b e located und erground in th e parking
areas. Occasionally, th e utility company is willing to install
onc bank of transformers in a penthouse, th ereby providing
scrvicc adjace nt to th e mechanical equipment room so th at
480-Yolt power is read ily available for motor loads. Second-
ary switchgea r ad jacent to the transformer vaults is installed
by th e de1eloper. PROGRAMMER CUBICLE
0ISTR IHUTION. Sound engineering practices ca \1 for distri-
bution of \arge amounts of power a t th e high es t prac tica! A. Visual Annunciotors
voltage. All distribution wi thin the project will be installed B. Visual C y ele Reod Out
at th e developer's expense regardl ess of distribution voltage, C. Manual Cycle Dial

or location or type of m etering. During th e planning of the O. Crossbor Switch

E. Relay
center. an economical balance must be achieved between
many points of distribution with a reduction of distribution
facilities and few points of distribution wi th much h eavier
distribution lin es. Voltages may be 4160 with 480 andjor
120 volt transform ers located in unit substations, or bas ic
distribution may be at 480-277 volts; th en m otors and park-
ing lo t lighting may be supplied directly at 480 volts, sorne
lighting a t 277 volts, and some lighting loads at 120 volts
through air-cooled transformers. Reverse side of cross bar
witch located in pro-
LICHTINC. Lighting leve] requirements for commercial
grommer cubicle, showing
cstablishments are continually increasing. Adequate space
intricote wiring of the
capacity and flexibility sh ould be incorporated into th e 1200 terminals.
tenant metering substations . Normally, th ese substations
are sized prior to th e completion of leasing activity and
main disconnect switches must be selected on th e bas is of

187
prior experience. Substations are a suitable point at which
the owner's work can be terminated, and h e may supply an
allowance to the tenant to cover costs of tenant's wiring
and panel boards. Lighting fixtures are normally installed
by the tenant at the tenant's expense.
A competitive lighting situation may exist between ten-
ants; the developer, in lighting the arcades and malls,
should not add to this problem; on the contrary, light levels
for pedestrian areas should be not more than 10 foot-
candles in order not to compete with show windows, and
an average of one foot-candle maintained in the parking
lot will be adequate. Economic studies of parking lot light-
ing have indicated that a few clusters of color-corrected
mercury vapor lamps mounted on 60-foot standards provide
the same illumination and involve th e same capital cost as
a sys tem utilizing a forest of 30-foot standards. The taller
standards are definitely more desirable in terms of appear-
ance, parking lot layout and area identification.
State and local regulations may require emergency stand-
by lighting facilities for corridors, exits, and firestairs. Spe-
cially designed lighting accent fixtures, illumination of
planting areas, shopping center sign and symbol identifica-
ban, and floodlighting of buildings are necessary to com-
plete the developer's lighting installation. The huge areas
involved and the distances to be traveled, particularly in a
multi-level sch eme, make localized switching impractical,
and a system of remate low voltage lighting control is
desirable.
Lighting sta ndard with cluster of
mercury vapor lamps. Valley Fair
Center, San fose, California.
Architects: Victor Gruen Associ
ates
Photograph: C ardan Sommers
 Col\I l\IUNICATJONS . Of growing importance in the field of
cen ter design is th e installation of low voltage
munication systems. The developer of what amounts
to the equivalent of th e entire down town of a small city
finds that bis lOO-acre suburban loca tion is completely lack-
in th e equivalent fire and police protection that would
normally be found downtown. Although sorne suburban
communities might be induced to patrol a parking lot once
or twice during the night, either complete wa tchman serv-
ice must be provided or modern de1elopmen ts in detection
systems mnst be installed .
The best example of complete comm unications coverage
may be found at Southdale n ea r Minneapolis, and ths in-
stallaton could well serve as a ch eck lst for planning
purposes.
At a pont wh ere the underground truck road m akes a
90 " turn, a glass-enclosed protection office h as been in-
stalled which provides visual control of th e entire truck
area. Ths office is m ann ed 24 hours a day, and serves as a
terminal point of all low voltage devices. A " dead man"
feature has b een incorporated so that in case of lack of
response to a given alarm signal, th e alarm will then be
rem oted to the local police station. At all times, a second
protection officer s making th e roun ds of the center and
is in constant communication wi th the man in the protec- Control pane/s in protection office ol'erlooking part of the under
tion office. grou nd truck road, So uthda/e near 1\ finn eapolis.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates
All lights are controlled from the protection office b y
Ph otograph: \Va rren Reynolds, Infinity Inc.
means of contactors in the pan el boards, and it is possible
for the protection officer to illuminate only the necessary
corridors if a tenant should want to visit the premises after
business hours. Flexibility is provided in terms of alter-
native switching possibilities for the parking lot luminaries.
Certain motor controls, such as the truck tunnel doors, th e speaker area. Signaling de1ices loca ted in th e truck tun-
irrigation water pumps, air-conditioning equipment, etc., nel entrance ramp ann ounce th e progressive movement of
are switched from th e communications panel board. In an incoming truck and, by means of an intercom , the officer
addition to the control of lighting and equipment, th e can communicatc with th e truck driver, or anyone arriving,
communications office is the point of origin of a paging to request identification, etc., before opening the tunnel
system and a programmed music system with speakers doors.
provided through out the public areas of th e center. All of the alarm systems, includin g intrusion, fire protec-
A central TV m as ter antenna is provided to prevent the tion and mechanical equipment alarms. termnate in an
wild growth of individual antennas on all buildngs. Con- illuminated panel board in th e protection office. A com-
nections to the master antenna are pad for by the tenants. plete network of low 1oltage wiring provides lOO per cent
By means of a telephone switch board, fac ilities are provided col'erage for all Sou th dale doors. A comb na tion of rate-of-
to rela y alarms to the local police statio ns, the local fir e rise detectors and "fire eye" (a lead sulfide cell senstive to
station, and to service companies with wh om maintenance mod ulating light ) replaces a conventional sprinkler system.
contracts have been executed . The electronic data-handling equipment for the ar-condi-
The telephone switchboard receives calls from red emer- tioning and h eating system records its information on an
gency phones located strategically throughout the center. electric typew riter located in the protection office, and
Anyone at Southdale, customer or employee, may pick up specific inst ructions related to alarms are read out directly
a red phone to report an emergency, and the protection to the protection officer. All alarms are automatically
officer in the office can dispatch a member of the Sou thdale rccorded on tape, and th e ac tion taken in response is also
protection force or ma y communicate with any appropriate recorded. After th c center is closed, and all doors are locked,
agency. ;m ~o n e entering or leming the center must do so through
At night when the center is closed, the speaker system the truck tunnel under th c suneillance of the protection
for paging and music may be operated in reverse so that the officer (ll'h o. incidentally, h as a Doberm an Pinscher beside
protection officer ma y listen in for sounds orignating in him at all times.)

189
 PABT J:J:-CHAPTEB 10
Leasing the Shopping Center
Jn the Jnt roduction. the authors pointed out that prac-
ticall y every concept relating to shopping center de,elop-
ment would justify a book in itself. Jn dealing with the
leasing of a shopping center, there are obviously ma ny
rnatters in which de\'elopers and other readers would be
interested, but which are essentiall y related to management
aspects rather than the concept of planning.
The authors therefore had to determine which matters
were significant in respect to the planning operation as
such , and which were matters of leasing techniques. For
instance, th e ard er in which tenants should be sought and
related matters are essentially part of a "leasing manual "
which in itsclf could not be accommodated within the
confines of the text.
HoweYer. developers will find that the problem of shop-
ping cen ter leasing is so direc tl y tied to th e fin ancing of
the center that it is impossible to deal with one without
automatically considering the other. Consequently, in at-
tempting to deal with the leasing problem as it relates to
the total planning concept, it is necessary, in the authors'
opinion, to deal first with the effect of financing require-
ments on leasing as a background .
E xperience gleaned over the past ten yea rs in every phase
of shopping center development and management has
taught the developer, the tenant, and the mortgagee, which
fac tors will protect and enhance bis own particular position
in a new project. Developers now have better guides in
selecting tenants who will be able to maintain sa tisfactory
volume ]e,els; ex perienced tenants are better able to evalu-
ate new locations; and mortgagees attempt to establish
more intelligentl y the criteria by which new financing ap-
plications should be appraised .
190
The basic aim of the developer is to select and obtain at
sa tisfac tory rents those tenants who, collectively, will pro-
vide the greatest possible customer satisfac tion over a period
of yea rs and consequentl y, the highes t volume of sales for
his projec t.
T heoreticall y, this should also be the basis upon which
the mortgagee should judge the merits of the financing.
Unfortunately, though, experience h as not yet provided a
suffi cientl y dependable guide to the selection process or to
th e forecasting of revenue o,er a period of yea rs, to justify
th e mortgagee in making loans for th e majar portian of the
capital cost of the project on the same criteria basis that
th e de,eloper uses in tenant selection . Tl1e mortgage lender
is usually in the position of trustee for policy holders' and
other persons' fund s. H e generall y requests that reasonably
lo ng tcrm leases be available, executed b y tenants of prime
credit. to provide guaranteed rentals sufficient to cover a
large part if not al! of the expenses of the project, the inter-
est requ irements, and possibly the principal requirements
of th c loan. There is no set formul a, and requirements in this
respect will va ry, depending upon th e lender, the borrower,
the market at the time, and th e lender's judgment of the
facts of th e case including the amount of the loan, the
strength of the center, the quality of the planning and the
indica ted rent scale for the leases negotiated up to the
poin t of the fin ancing negotiations.
Under most circumstances, in a project with average
strength of loca tion and quality of planning, this require-
ment is likely to mean the renting of from 5 5-75% of the
fl oor area to tenants of strong credit.
T hcse lend ing agency stipulations create problems of
tenant selection for project developers and have a tendency
 to place certain bargaining advantages into the hands of
tenants of strong credit. The renting problem therefore be-
comes one of finding the most effective compromise be-
' tween relatively rigid requirements: the proportion of store
area to be rented to tenants of high credit, and the desire
to achieve sound merchandising planning by selecting ten-
ants for their merchandising ability and customer accept-
ance. The problem is rarely a simple one.
Many developers, especially in the case of intermediate
centers, have met the problem by renting their projects
very largely to high credit tenants. The results have not
always been satisfactory either to owner or mortgagee, as
these tenants have frequently been unable to develop the
volumes of business which they themselves anticipated.
\Vhere such unsatisfactory volumes result, the financing
institutions have achieved protection, at least, for their
policy holders and beneficiaries through guaranteed rents
from tenants of high credit, even though the loan, in retro-
spect, may not be considered a good one . \Vith such ex-
amples of poor operating results in mind, the mortgagees
often feel even more compelled to shape their future policy
in the direction of requiring adequate rents from tenants
able to weather the critica] periods in the development of
weak locations.
The developer therefore faces the fundamental and con-
tinuing problem of reconciling the long-term welfare of the
project with the needs of financing, especially when it be-
comes a question of choice between chains with high credit
rating and local merchants. \Ve do not wish to imply in
an y sense that the chains do not merchandise their stores
competitively. In many cases they perform superlatively
well, with volumes consistently in excess of that produced
by local competitive tenants. Tn these circumstances the
developer is in a very fortunate position. In other cases,
the developer may be forced to rent to high-credit tenants
whose acceptance may not be as great as that of other
merchants with lower credit ratings .
Furthermore, the shopping pattern in an y one city may
indicate that specific tenants or tenant types having the
greatest customer acceptance are not available for a new
shopping center project. The preferred tenant, whether of
high or lower credit rating, may not be able to take space
because the shopping center is located in the vicinity of
one of his own branch stores.
This may also happen: Although the store "personality"
developed by certain individual merchants has achieved the
same recognition locally that many of the large chains have
on a national basis, this local store operator may not be
convinced that it would be desirable, or may not be
eguipped with the necessary financia] and executive re-
sources, to adopt a policy of expansion that would permit
the development of a unit in the proposed center. In the
past, mortgagees have been willing, and still are in many
cases, to Jend on prime retail property located in the 100%
portion of the central retail district regardless of the ten-
ancy or length of lease. This means that many excellent
locations in the central retail district are occupied by ten-
ants of high customer acceptance but with either moderate
credit or with resources inadequate for expansion .
Theoretica1ly, if the owner were not controlled to a
greater or lesser extent by the limitations imposed by the
realities of fin ancing, he would determine by one sort of
analysis or another the tenants in each category who were
most capable of converting the poten tia] volume of business
in that category to cash sales in the shopping center project.
He would then seek out those particular tenants and would
be influenced in his decision to execute leases with them
by th e compromise that might be involved between their
probable producti vity over a period of years and the renta]
terms he might be able to negotiate with them . Genera1ly
speaking. the national chains, on account of their experi-
ence and demonstrated ability, as well as the preferential
position which they occupy due to th e mortgagee's attitude,
are characteristically capable of bargaining for somewhat
lower rents in respect to both guaranteed rent and percent-
age rents. However, sorne local operators, depending on
their demonstrated ability to produce sales for the owner
of the real es ta te in which their branch stores are located,
in communities where they h a v~ developed branch loca-
tions in the past, may be able to negotiate better terms for
both guara nteed and percentage rent than the national
chains.
\ Vith the national chains aware of the strength of their
bargaining position it is quite possible that a renting pro-
gram involving them, which would be successful in terms
of the mortgagee's requirements, would not produce suffi-
cient rent to make the owner's investment attractive (unless
the shopping center owner acts upon a clear idea of the
relationship between his capital and operating costs and
the income implications of his leases in both guaranteed
and percentage rent ). lt is also possible that a center rented
in this fashion would have insufficient customer appeal to
make the location successful as a long-term merchandising
vehicle for the tenants.
\Vithin this apparent conflict of conditions the developer
must attempt to reach the particular solution which best
suits his project, taking all circumstances into consideration .
The selection of tenants in such a way as to harmonize the
requirements for financing purposes with the creation of
merchandise appeal that will guarantee the long term
approval of the customers becomes one of the most critica]
problems of the shopping center owner.
Every effort must be made to provide a complete shop-
ping experience. lt is not enough that a customer should be
able to find each desired tem of merchandise in sorne
particular store. No experienced woman shopper wi11 ever
be satisfied with shopping in an area where there is only
one outlet handling a certain type of merch andise, as long
as she may have available to her, in the older shopping
areas, wheth er downtown or in suburban districts, many
more outlets offering the same type of merch andise in the
widest possible selection of style, quality, and price. This is
191
 particularly applicable in the apparel fields and al~ost
equallv so in home furnishings and many other specwlty
lines. Exceptions to this general situation are found in
stores offering high quality merchandise and those offering
special bargain or "discount" prices. Jn both cases, such
stores are frequently found in rela tively isolated locations.
The problem of the shopping center developer in his
renting process is, therefore, to select a group of tenants
which taken together will provide: Complete merchandise
coverage; competitive shopping for selection of m erchan-
dise, quality :md price; sufficient competition so that the
quality of service will be at least on a par with th at available
to the shopper in any equally convenient shopping district.
An opportunity to create a "sh opping atmosphere". Leases
of a quality that will permit the financing he requires. Rents
under such leases adequate for a satisfactory investment re-
turn on his project.
The renting process must evaluate each tenant on these
qualities. Jnspection of th e opera ti ons of the prospective
tenant in th e city in which th e shopping center is located
may produce a nseful, al th ough not n ecessarily dependable
guide.
A-Rental Terms
The following notes indicate in a gen eral way the renta]
tcrm s and probable productivity levels which may be used
for regional shopping center planning purposes. The rela-
tive tenns are gen erally applicable to all centers except that
in th e smaller centers the rents are n ot likely to be as high,
particularly with respec t to supermarkets, junior department
stores, and variety stores. which in these smaller centers
take on th e characteristics of th e principal tenant and are
sought for promotional pmposes at generally lower rent
levels. The loca ti on of a project, rega rdless of size, exercises
a strong influence on renta] terms, as it does on every other
phase of sh opping center planning. The renta] terms nego-
tiated for a particular center ma y refl ect variations unique
to th e particular community in which it is located and, as
such, may be useful as general background informaban but
not be valid for planning pmposes in oth er projects.
Due to the fact that sh opping center pbnning is still
in th e earl ~ development stage. changes in rent leve) are
occurring continuously. Recent experience indicates a will-
ingness on th e part of national chain stores which, in the
JXlst, havc insisted on negotiating low renta] terms in man y
projects, to pay th e high er rentals necessary to support
quali ty constmction in projccts where th ey are satisfied
with th e location and th e planning concept. The rents
qu oted herc refl ect x1st experience, and mav be Jower than
those currentl y bcing negotiatcd by nation~l ch ai n tenants
for loca tions in ch oice shopping cen ters.
Th e tenant types available (see Part J, Chapter 5) are
approximately H O in number. The followi ng comments
are limited to significant in formation in connection with
th e hroad ca tegories; for more complete inform ation, refer-
192
ence should be made to guaranteed and percentage rent
Jistings in publications of the National Association of Real
Estate Boards, and to data ava ilable from competent real
estate advisors wi th knowledge of shopping center and local
conditions.
1) Department Store. The department store is, of course,
th e majar tenant in th e regional sh opping center and the
signing of the department store lease represents an im-
portant milestone in its developm ent.
Because of its importance to the project, the department
store is gcn erally able to n egotiate favorable renta] terms.
Guaranteed rents in gross leases which also contain per-
centage rent terms typically range from a token amount of
$1.00 in some cases to $ 1.50 per squ are foot in stronger
locations, and more in exceptional cases.
Percen tage ren ts usually range between 2% and 3% of
sales. Frequently the percentage structure allows a lower
percentage as sales increase. A typical example might be 3%
on sales up to $-+5 per squ are foot of total renta] area, 2l'2 %
on the next $20 per square foot of sales volume, then de-
creasing to 2% on sales in excess of $65 per square foot.
Department store productivity vares widely, but an
aggressively merch andised suburban branch in a strong
shopping center can produce per square foot sales volumes
at leas t equal to those of downtown units in the ~ame
community.
E xperience has shown that approxim ately three to five
yea rs may be required befare th e completed center is suc-
cessful in ca pturing its sh are of th e retail potential. The
same is tru c of th e dcpartment store tenant, although the
period of time required for the department store to attain
a maximum productivity le\el appears to depend on the
store size. 1f th e trade area is clearl y able to support a de-
partm ent store of th e size planned, it appears that a large
branch unit carrying fulllin es will attain substantial produc-
tivity much sooner th an a store of limited size.
2) Junior Department Store. Th e junior department store
is often a second strong tenant in regional sh opping centers
and is also found as the majar tenant in the smaller inter-
mediatc developments. This store type generall y can be de-
fined as a less-tha n-full-line unit of a size r:mging from, say,
30,000 to 80,000 square feet, and operates as either the
so-called "co11\'entional" or the "variety" type, as deter-
mined by th c general mode of operation and merchandise
carried. The "co11\'entional" junior department store carries
a limited amount of h ard goods and generally a wide selec-
tion of the other usual departme nt store merchandisf:. On
the oth er hand, the '\ariety" type features a definite
emph as is on merch andise form erly identified with the fi,e-
and-ten cent store operation, with soft goods and other
normal department store merchandise in a secondary
position.
Again, because of the importance of the junior depart-
ment store to th e project, this tenant is usually able to
 negotiate favorable renta] terms although not to th e same
degree as the major department store. Guaranteed rents in
gross leases, which also contain percentage rent terms,
typically range from $.75 per square foot to $1.50 per
square foot depending m ainl y upon th e location of the
project.
Percentage rents usuall y range between 2'12% and 5%
of sales depending partly on the type of store. One chain
has been successful in obtaining locations on a completely
open-end basis with no mnimum guarantee. As in de-
partment store leases, there is frequentl y an allowance for
a decreas ing percentage as sales increase. Th e example
noted previously for the department store would also serve
in this instance.
In the regional shopping center, th e maior depart
Junior department store productivity also va res widely, ment store is t/1e star of the show.
ranging from about $40 to $80 per square foot in the con-
ventional type of unit and from $25 to $60 per square foot
in the variety-oriented unit.
The time required for the junior store to attain full
operating levels is generally somewhat longer th an the
major department store, apparently due par tly to the
limited size of these units.

3) Supermarkets. The supermarket is an important tenant

for a regional center because it con tributes to the complete-
ness of the shopping facilities, and in man y cases, being a
unit of a national or strong local chain, may qualify as a
prime credit tenant for financing purposes.
Typical supermarket guaranteed rents vary frorn about
$1.25 to $2 per square foot. Percentage rents usually range
bet\\'een 1% and 2% and occasionally will step down as
sales volumes increase. Because the supermarket is even
more important to th e interrnediate center, and especially
soto the neighborhood center, renta] terms in th ese centers
tend to be more favorable to the tenant. In the intermediate center, the iunior department
\Vhile productivity levels va r~. as with any oth er t enant store shares the limelight with th e \'ariety store and
type, $90 to $ 150 per square foot of total rentable area is the supermarket.
typical for a strong supermarket in a well located shopping
center.
Certain planners and developers have questioned wh ether
th e su permarke t contributes sufficientl y to the regional
center to justify its inclusion, since its customers are gener-
ally seeking convenience goods and rn ay not be in the mood
for shopping at stores offering comparison goods. The
supermarkct's comparatively high dem and for parking facil
ities is also cited as a possible detriment to the center.
Ho\\'ever, recent studies have indicated th at th e super
markct does function as a primary traffic generator in at
tracting customers to the center, and when properly located
is useful in generating intracenter t ra ffic. The possibility
of hav ing a second supermarket is discussed in Part I
Chapter 5.
Because th e supermarket is more dependent upon acle-
guate adjacent parking than upon foot traffic created by
other tenants, it is usually situated at the outer edge of the In the neighborhood shopping center, the supermar-
building cluster. H so located, its customers have direct ket is the star of the show .

193
 access to the parking lot and at the same ti me, will measur-
ably increase foot traffic in the center.
The size of the supermarket typically ranges from 15,000
to more than 35,000 square feet.
4) Other Food Stores. The small specialty food stores,
candy stores, bakeries, delicatessens, meat, fish and produce
markets, and the like are a valuable asset in the shopping
center. If effectively merchandised, they can add to the
shopping atmosphere and in addition, are able to develop
very satisfactory volumes and rents. Such stores may range
in size from 500 or 600 to perhaps 2,000 square feet. In
strong p~ojects they pay as much as $5 to $6 per square
foot guaranteed rent, and percentage rents of 6 % to 10 %
for cand y and nut stores and 5% to 7% of sales for other
types.
5) Variety Stores. The variety store, or stores, typically oc-
cupy from 4 % to 9 % of th e total retail area of th e regional
shopping center. Store sizes range from about 20,000 to
40,000 square feet.
\Vhile th e sales volumes per square fo ot produced by
variety stores have, in sorne instances, been disappointingly
low, due primarily to excessive store area of this type in the
particular shoppin g center, they are desirable and n ecessary;
desirable because th ey contribute to th e completeness of
the shopping facilities and necessary because they usually
add to th e raster of national chains which qualify for
financing purposes.
In the smaller centers th ey may b e the majar tenant
around which th e cen ter is organized, in which case the
rent terms will be more favorable to them.
D epending on the qu ality of th e location, guaranteed
rent vares from $ 1 to $2 per square foot, and percentage
rent from 3% to 6% of sales.
6) Apparel Stares. In this category every effort should be
made to provide comparison sh opping.
The large, women 's specialty store featuring quality
app:uel and th e large, qu ality men's wear store are import-
ant members of the regional center. T h ey are usually local
or regional in character. The number of such stores is very
limited, and frequently a developer is unable to find even
one that is available and interested in expanding into a
shopping center location. Due to th eir scarcity, these ten-
ants usually occupy a superior negotiating position and are
able to bargain for more favorable rent terms than the
smaller apparel stores, and occasionall v obtain concessions
in the form of extra finishing work ; nd contributions to
fixturing from the developer.
Even though th ese tenants are not national chains, they
frcquently qualify as prime credit tenants for financing
purposes. Guaranteed rents may not exceed $2 per square
foot average for al! rentable space, and percentage rent
rarely reaches 5% .
Rents paid by the smaller apparel stores vary, with na-
194
tional chains occupyi ng a preferred position in bargaining.
Store size is an other significant factor, the proportion-
ately smaller store normally paying a higher guaranteed
rent per square foot.
In this category, guaranteed rent falls within a range of
$2.50 and $6 per square foot with the latter figure applying
to an extremely small store in a prime location. Typical
percentage rents range from a high of 10% in small
specialty stores, such as millinery, down to 4% which rnay
be paid by national stores carrying moderately priced
women's wea r. The local tenant handling men's and
women's wear typically pays between 5% and 7% on sales.
T h e national ch ain sh oe store tenant may occupy an
area of 1,500 to 8,000 square_.feet. The guaranteed rent
leve! ranges fron1 $2.25 to $4.50 per square foot, with per-
centage rents of 5% to 7%.
The children 's wear store is generally operated by a local
tenant, with guaranteed rents commensurate with those
paid by other apparel stores of a comparable size and loca-
tion in the center and with percentage rent of approxi-
mately 6%. The aggregate sales volumes produced by ap-
parel stores in a well located regional shopping center
sh ould average approximately $65 per square foot of total
rentable area, but productivity can range from $ 30 to $150
per square foot depending largely on the merchandising
policy and skill of th e tenant.
7) Hardware Stores. These vary in size from Iess than 5,000
square feet to approximately 10,000 square feet, with rent
of about $1.75 or less per square foot guaranteed against
percentage rent of 4 % or 5%.
The paint and wallpaper store typically occupies less area
than th e comentional h ardware store, usuall y Iess than
3,000 square feet. It will pay a high er guaranteed rent-
between $2.50 and $3.00 per square foot and percentage
rent of approximately 6%.
Stores sellin g this typc of merchandise should in average
cases reach sales volumes of about $45 per square foot.
8) Fumitnre and Home Fumishings Stores. The furniture
store may be less able to make effective use of a shopping
cen ter locati on than oth er store t ypes sin ce furniture pur-
chascs are made infrequ entl y by th e a\erage customer, and
such purchases are usually th e specific aim of a long-planned
sh opping trip during which th e customer is willing to travel
considerable distances to visit severa! stores in an effort to
obtain eith er the precise article or th e most favorable price
and credit terms. In addi ti on, this t ype of tenant requires
considerable storage and sh ow room area, and may be un-
able to justify typical shopping center occupancy costs for
such a large flo or arca on the basis of th e anticipated sales
volumes.
One satisfactory solution worked out in large centers is
to locate the furnitur e store space with the main selling
area in a secondary location, possibly in the basement, on
th e mezza nine, or on th e second fl oor, with only a small
lobby and limited display room in which to receive cus-
tomers on the main merchandising level.
The range of size for conventional furniture stores in
shopping centers is very great-from a few hundred square
feet to possibly 40,000 square feet. Guaranteed rent corre-
sponds to the scale for other stores in the same center,
when the proportion of basement or other secondary space
is taken into consideration, with percentage rents of from
4 % to approximately 6 % .
Smaller stores featuring a segment of home furnishings
merchandise such as floor coverings, draperies and curtains,
radio, and majar and minar appliances, range in size from
less than 1,000 square feet to approximatel y 7,000 square
feet. Guaranteed rents vary within an extreme] y wide range,
controll ed by store size, location and the type of merchan-
dise handled. Percentage rents also range from approxi-
mately 5% to as high as 10 % in certain categories of
specialty furnitm e merchandise. Sales volumes will range
from $ 30 to $70 per square foot.
9) Eating and Drinking Facilities. In the shopping center
these facilities fall into three broad categories: the lunch
counter or coffee shop operation, the cafetera type opera-
tion and what might be termed the quality restaurant. The
operating characteristics and the customer traffi.c require-
ments are completel y dissimilar.
The lunch counter type operation may be expected to
derive its business from the customers and employees of
the various stores during the hours the center is open for
business . The area occupied by this type of tenant will
range from less than 1,000 square feet to more than 5,000
square feet. Probabl y th e most significant determinallt of
the size is the type of eating facility operated. Variations
may include an ything from the stand-up coffee bar to a
restaurant large enough to offer table service to family
groups. The cafetera type serves the same market, but
occupies largcr average space. The range of guaranteed
rents paid by this type of tenant vares greatly depending
on location, size and character. Percentage rent ranges from
4 % to more than 7 % .
The quality restamant is a valuable asset to a shopping
center. \\'hile the label " quality restaurant" is an arbitrary
one, a reasonable definition of it for shopping center classi-
fi cation would be a place to eat with pleasant atmosphere
and decor, and white tablecloths.
There has been sorne reluctance on th e part of quality
restaurant operators to take shopping center locations, as
it is generally believed that the quality restaurant requires
a location which will provide highway traffic in addition to
that generated b y the shopping center. Also, it is important
for the quality restaurant to remain open at times when the
center is not open for business, possibly Saturday evenings
and Sundays. A satisfactory solution has been found in a
few regional shopping centers by locating the quality restau-
rant in an individual building readily reached from the
parking lot and highway, but also intimately connected with
the pedestrian area.
The guaranteed rent vares, depending on the location
and demonstrated ability of the tenant, but will range from
$1.75 to $ 3.00 per square foot in most cases; percentage
rent from 4% to 6% on the sales volume derived from
meals. Revenue produced from other sales, such as liquor,
bakery goods, candies, or froz en foods, depending on the
tenant's operation, may be isolated and a different percent-
age rent applied to such sales . In this particular category
both guaranteed and percentage rent terms are influenced
greatl y by the negotiated division of capital expenditure
between developer and tenant.
The average sales volume of eating and drinking facilities
within a shopping center should fall between $45 and $70
per square foot, but with higher volumes possible in well
managed operations. \Vhile eating facilities in drug and
variety stores, and in the main department store, are not
part of this tenant classification, they should be taken into
consideration in planning the type and quantity of total
eatin g facilities required in the center.
1O) Other Retail Sto res. Gift shops, jewelry stores, hobby
shops, sportin g goods, luggage stores, music stores, and
camera shops are among the stores in this classification.
T hese stores are usuall y' small and operated by local tenants,
with th e possible exception of th e credit jewelry store which
is sometimes operated by a regional chain.
A high degree of selectivity and planning effort on the
part of the developer in choosing these tenants can result
in a sprinkling of attractive small shops, which will greatly
cnhance th e customer appeal of the entire center. These
tenants are also a \'aluable som ce of re\'enue to the center,
as they are capabl e of paying guaranteed and percentage
rent per square foot in excess of that paid by most of the
larger stores and under capable management will produce
a satisfactory re\'enue to the owner, notwithstanding the
characteristicall y higher cost per square foot of finishing
space for use by this type of tenant.
11 ) Sef\ices. Although service shops in a regional center
t:pically occupy a small total area, usuall y not much more
than 2% of the rentabl e area, they are a very important
member of the shopping center famil y of tenants. In addi-
tion to contrib uting to th e completeness of the center, they
are capable of generating substantial customer traffi.c within
it.
C ustomers are attrac ted to a service shop cluster, even if
located in relatil'ely' out-of-the-way areas such as lower leve]
arcade space, alth ough the entrance to this general location
should be fr om the main sh opping core.
Among the tenants in this category are the barber shop,
beauty sh op, red ucing salan, shoe repair and general repair
shop, and oth er simila r types.
Space devoted to scf\icc shops is in small unit areas, more
costl y than average to complete, and yielding correspond-
ingly high guaranteed rent on a square foo t bas is; percent-
195
 age rents range up to 10 % or more. For reference to a
listing of such service types, see Part 1, Chapter 5.
12) Unusual Shopping Center Tenant Types. Opportu-
nities for creating additional pedestrian traffic and produc-
ing a more interesting and varied atmosphere lie in the
careful choice of a few tenant types that are different from
the usual retail tenant. They may attract what might be
considered, initially, non-shopper traffic, but even so, they
fun ction in making more people aware of the center's exist-
ence and serving the total community requirements.
Among the types that fall into this category are libraries,
recrea tional facilities, medica! and professional offices,
utility offices, dance studios, child care facilities, and insti-
tutional tenants, such as banks and post offices, savings and
loan offices, and auditorium facilities.
13) Vending Machines, Public Telephones, Etc. These are
examples of miscellaneous automatic facilities that will
benefit any center and can be placed, by imaginative plan-
ning, where they will provide convenience to the customer
and profit to the owner.
B-The Shopping Center Lease
The provisions of the shopping center lease establish the
financia! charac teristics of the agreement and the basis for
the workin g relationship between the tenants and the de-
veloper; they also set forth additional obligations of each
party. Furthermore, the lease contains the framework for
central control of the merchandising practices of the ten-
ants to insure operation of the center as a retail entity and
to preserve its character and appearance through the years.
\ Vith these qualifications in mind, the following outline
of points to be covered in the regional shopping center
lease has been compiled. Leases for smaller projects are
likely to be somewhat shorter and simpler in form, but
consideration should be given by the developer and his
attorney to the sa me points when preparing them . Each
provision in the outline has been expanded to include a
suggestion as to the manner in which it can be covered and
sorne of the alternatives that have proved to be acceptable.
lt should be understood, however, that in most centers
there are tenants who have been successful in achieving
modification of, or deletions from, the standard tenant lease
used by the shopping center, due in part to special require-
ments of their operations, a superior bargaining position
andj or negotiating skill . (The department store or other
key tenant lease is generall y a special document embodying
many of the follo wi ng points as well as others. Because of
*There ar~ ccrtain elements that are largely a matter of negotiat-
mg techmque between developer and tenant. Since this is not
inten~ ed to be a leasing manual, only those elements of leasing
tec h~tque that are important in dealing with planning and
arclutectural concepts ha ve been brought into the text, such as the
allowance system and the method of dealing with utilities.
196
the pecial nature of this document, the developer should
obtain competent and experienced legal advice in its
preparation .)
The comments in this section admittedly favor the de-
veloper's position . This is in recognition of the necessity of
providing sh opping center management with sufficient
latitude to act in a speedy and effective manner should the
welfare of the center be jeopardized by malpractice or de-
fault of the tenants.
lt is important that the reader bear in mind that the
objective of the authors is to deal with the shopping center
lease in terms of planning concepts, though the prepara-
tion and terms of the lease itself are essentially in the
realm of real estate and legal practice .- This discussion,
therefore, is not intended as a " leasing manual" nor a com-
prehensive set of instmctions toa renta] agent, who will be
guided by his experience and the practices in real estate.
Neither is it a substitute for competent legal talent, nor a
discussion of the legal implications of the typical lease form
or suggestion as to wording or content of any particular
document. It is rather intended to be an expression of the
extent to which the lease document, which establishes the
relationship between the tenant and the developer, must be
taken into consideration in the entire planning operation.
No attempt has been made to use legal phraseology or
to deal with points that may involve local legislation.
Obviously the drafting of the actual lease document is in
the attorney's field.
The provisions outlined herein represent a composite of
the experience gained in man y projects now in operation
and in sorne cases, therefore, may be more lengthy and
restrictive in favor of the owner than any one lease now in
use. In other words, most shopping center leases now in
operation do not contain all these provisions, and still others
contain provisions more favorable to eith er the developer or
the tenants. Individual circumstances, such as peculiarities
in location, leasing climate, management philosophy and
organiza tion, anda number of other variables determine the
content of any one lease. \Ve have chosen t ypical provisions
which are applicable where there is strong central manage-
ment of the project and which at the present time appear
to be both necessary and workable in a number of operating
shopping centers.
l) Premises and Terms. This section normally includes the
grant of use of the premises to the tenant. The premises
are identified as a portian of the shopping center which, in
turn, is identifi ed by a property description. Usually both
the premises and the center are further identified by ex-
hibits attached to the lease, consisting of drawings of the
leased space and of the site plan of the center. The use of
exterior walls (other than store fronts) and the roof is re-
served to the developer.
The lease term is usually set forth as a specified number
of months or years. A separate clause provides for the com-
mencement of the term and gives the developer control
over the opening date of each tenant. This clause requires
the tenant-upon notification by th e developer that the
premises are ready-to finish, fixture, stock the premises,
open for business and commence the payment of rent
within a stipulated period of time. The time allowed to
complete the tenant's work ranges from 30 to 90 days, de-
pending in par t on whether responsibility for finishing the
space is to be undertaken by th e landlord or tenant. A
provision for annualizing the Jease and establishing a com-
mon lease year for all tenants may be included in this sec-
tion. A fisc al year for th e shopping center ma y be estab-
lished upon which the sch edule for tenant sales reports and
developer's audit privil eges are based.
2) Construction and Acceptance of Premises. The pro-
visions of this section are usually integrated with an at-
tachment to th e lease, identified as an exhibit, which sets
forth th e developer an d tenant work responsibilities, th e
architectural and construction specifications, and pro-
cedures for developer's approval of th e tenant's plans and
work. This attachment states in detail architectural and
construction standards concerning store fronts, and restric-
tions on th e locati on, size and character of signs (see Part
JI, Chapter 8).
It is frequen t practice to require th e tenant to furnish a
bond or oth er security, guara nteeing performance of his
work in th e premises.
As mentioned above, th e time allowed for the tenant
work in th e premises is 30 to 90 da ys. The work referred
to here falls into two ca tegories: that normally deemed to
be th e de1eloper's responsibility, and th:Jt traditionally con-
sidered to be the responsibility of th e tenant. Severa! factors
influence the ch oice of arrangement for accomplishing the
finish work, but generally one of the following four
methods, or variations thereof, of allocating the work and
fin ancia! responsibility h ave been used in sh opping centers:
a) The developer assumes th e entire responsibility for
furnishing a completely finished store building to the
tenant's own specifications, or to th e specifi cations as
negotiated. These are usually known as "turn-key" speci-
fications.
b ) In greates t contras t to the arrangement above, is the
one whereby th e del'eloper provides what is essen tially
onl y a bare sh ell. The tenant then ass umes responsibility
for completing th e shell at his own cost. Such arrange-
ments have been known for m any years in th e remodel-
ing of downtown store locations, but h ave b een rather
infrequentl y used in shopping centers with new con-
struction .
e) Division of responsibility between tenant and devel-
oper is se t forth in terms of specific items of construc-
tion. Tl1is has been a common method in shopping center
lease nego tiations and specifications and involves setting
clown in detail each work tem to be performed. In gen-
eral, th e following illustrates a typical division of such
work between landlord and tenant:
La ndlord's \Vork: Standard store fronts, standard
entrance doors, plastered party walls, plas tered ceilings,
interior prime coat of paint, utilities brought to premises,
and h eating facilities.
Tenant's \Vork: Electrical fixtures, interior partitions,
floor coverings, interior painting and decorating, display
windows, plumbing fixtures, signs, air-conditioning, and
mech anical conveyors.
Usually, it is intended th at the fin ancia] responsibility
for th e work coincide with the work item s involved. How-
ever, where the cost of one party's work is increased at
the request of the other party (because of style or quality,
for example), th ere is usuall y a "back ch arge" made to
reimburse the party providing the work wi th the higher
specifications, usually the developer.
d) Division of responsibility for finishing of the tenant's
space is made on a financia!, or dallar, allocation rather
than on the basis of itemized work specifications. This
general method, which h as been used in downtown retail
loca tions for man y years, is often called " th e allowance
system" as applied to its use in sh opping centers in recent
years.
Under th e allowance system, th e financia] res ponsibility
for th e work of finishing the tenant's space is divided by
means of allowances according to cost estimates prepared
on the basis of actual developer an d tenant finishing
specifications . The ph ysical responsibility for work com-
pletion and con trac tin g is un derta ken by th e tenant with
his own contractor, thereby permitting a complete and
coordinated finishing job under the tenant's supervision.
In the typical allowance system, the landlord would
supply th e structural shell, public spaces an d similar gen-
eral construction items, plus fl oors ready for tenant's
floor covering, plus th e party walls, and h eat and other
utilities brought to the premises. The tenant would then
assume th e responsibility for contracti ng other interior
\I'Ork, subject to approval of l:mdlord's architect, in con-
sideration of the landlord's cash allowance which is
provided to reimburse th e tenant for th e cos t of th e land-
lord's portian of finishing th e tenant's space.
In man y cases where th e allowance sys tem is used,
provision is made, in th e case of the smaller tenants not
having architectural or construction supervision experi-
ence, for th e tenant to b e provided with a standard store
completed by the landlord as per th e specifications to
which th e applicable allowance system h as been keyed.
T h ese various wa ys of handling the work of finishing th e
premises are presen ted here, without going into the relative
merits or disadvantagcs of each , onl y to point up the neces-
sity for making a choice and for including in the lease
agreement such controls as are necessary to implemen t th e
method ch osen.
These com ments relate only to the standard lease of the
center and do n ot take into account the inevitable special
concessions to strong tenants th at are often refl ected in the
form of extra work by th e del'eloper. In referring to work
197
 " usuall y" done by either party an attempt is made to sim-
plify th is presentation of alternatives by recogni tion of
custom in the shopping eenter field. \Ve believe that as
experience in the shopping eenter field grows, th e practice
eommon in retail real estate !casing will prevail, in which
all negotiations for rent and the condition of the premises
on delivery will depend entirely on th e circumstanees in
the individual case.
Escape options for one or both parties are sometimes
included. G enerally th e clause allows for cancellation s
within a given period of tim e if construction is not begun
or if the premises are not delivered to th e tenant by a
specified date. An escape clause for the developer is usually
included, in case eireumstances beyond his control such as
ava ilability of fin ancing or change in cost relationsh ips ,
make th e project impractical, in which case he is required
to notify the tenant by a specified date .
The lease will include regu lations refl ecting the agree-
ment between owner and tenant relati ng to th e placemen t
and charac ter of signs, th e design and construction quali ty
of al] work to be done by th e tenant.
3) Rent. This section normally includes provlSlons th at
establish th e amount of guaranteed rent to be paid , a
formula for computing percentage ren t, schedules for sales
reports by th e tenant, and the eonditions and m ethod of
payment.
Usually the lease requires th at the guaranteed rent be
paid monthly, in advance . Percentage rent, determ ined by
th e sales volume of th e tenant, is paid monthly, qu arterly,
or sometimes semi-annually, and is usually based on mon th -
ly sales reports by the tenant with adjustments made at th e
clase of each lease yea r. Leases usually require th at th e
annual sales report be prepared by an independent eertified
accou ntant approved by the developer.
D evcloper audit privileges extending for a specifi ed period
of tim e after each lease year are usu ally incl uded and th e
tenant is usuall y requircd to maintain daily sales reco rds,
copies of tax returns and other evidence of the operation
of his business an d to make this information available to
th e owner for examinati on or audit.
T enants may ask to have th e revenue from sales of
specified types of merchandise or services excluded from
thc computation of percentage rent. Usually h owever such
pcrccntage rent computation is based on gross sales de-
fined to CO\'er all sales made from th e premises and occa-
sionall y certain other sales. No deductions are normally
allowed for uncollectible accounts, and credit sales are
recordcd at th e full sale price during th e month the sale is
made. Among items commonly deductible from gross sales
are cash refunds to customers, all sales tax paid, and
allowances for goods returned to shippers or to other stores
or warehouses of th e tenant. Sorne leases contain a pro-
vision setting forth th e conditions and m ethods of com-
puting rents to be paid during periods when, due to damage
or destruction, condemnation or other causes beyond eon-
198
troJ, the tenant is not able to occupy and merchandise th e
fu ll premises.
4) Common Areas. Common areas include parking lots,
truck roads and loading docks, delivery passages, vertical
transportation equipment, pedestrian malls an d walkways,
plazas, courtyards, public accommoda tion areas such as
rest rooms, auditoriums and first aid stations, landscaped
areas, and all access, egress and interior roads not owned
by a municipality. Sorne leases define th e common areas
by listing the componen ts while oth ers delimit the area
involved by stating that all space an d fac ilities not leased
to, or designed for the occupancy of, a tenant or the de-
veloper are part of the coman area.
This clause includes:
The grant af use af th e common oreas to the tenant.
The requirement that the developer canstruct the specific camman
oreas and that he operote, monoge, equip, police, light, repair, and
maintain the common oreas in a manner determined by him.
The requirement gaverning the minimum capacity af the parking lat
which is expressed in the number af car spaces fa be pravided, or
specified as o relationship between the orea af the parking lot and
the orea of the re ntable spac e of the center, or as a certain number
af car spaces per thausand square feet af rentable orea.
The requi re ment praviding for control by the deve laper of the park-
ing and comman oreas. (This is accomplished by accarding the de-
veloper the right lo make rules conce rning the use af these oreas and
requiring te nant campliance with such rules as are established by the
develope r. Usually the lease specifoes that the tenant and his employees
are required lo park in places designated by the developer and la
assist in enforce ment by furnishing la lhe develaper the license number
af the tenant's ve hicles and thase af his emplayees. Most leases specify
that the d evelaper may charge for parking if such a charge is made
lar the purpose of preventing misuse of the parking facilities, but nat
far the purpose of creating a profit. In such cases, the revenue is
ordinarily applie d lo the cost af aperalion af the camman orea. lf the
center is designed so thot it contoins o roed thot might be used for
public through-traf!ic, a clause may be included giving the develaper
the right la te mpararily clase the parking oreas as aften as may be
require d by local legislalian and practice in arder lo preven! municipal
or public owne rship af the raad t~raugh usage.)
The require ment that the te nant pay his share af the casi af aperat-
i ng, mointoining ond repoiring the common areas. (The lease osually
spe cifies the type af casi items allacable la maintenance af the cammon
orea . Normolly th e se con includ e cleoning, snow removal, fire protec
tion, cost of liobility ond property domage insuronce, workmen's com
pensotion insuronce, personal property fax, withholding and social
security toxes, fe e s for required licenses, supplies, monogement and
supervision of th ese common oreas ond ony other item not chorgeoble
to capital occount, ond exclud e the depreciotion of initiol canstruction
costs. Usual lease ogre ements ex clude real estofe toxes on the parking
lol as an ite m al casi, but specify that they can be included if a charge
is mad e lar parking and reve nu e so derived is subtracted fram the total
mointenonce ond operoting costs befare they ore proroted among
the tenants.)
The monne r in which the chorge is proroted among the tenonts,
w hich vorie s from center to cente r. The bosis for the common areo
chorge mo y eve n vory in on e or two coses within a shopping center,
re fl ecting th e succe ss of strong tenonts in securing far themselves o
more favorable formula lar camputing this charge than is applied lo
the remoinder of the tenonts.
While undoubtedly many different methads are in use, the fallawing
three ore most frequently employed in proroting the costs incurred
in the operotion of the common oreas:
 1) A pro rala charge. This is a fraction of the total maintenance casi
and is calculated on the basis of the relatianship that the orea
occupied by eoch tenant bears lo the total rented orea (or rentable
oreo if so stated in !he lease) of the shopping center. For this purpose
levels which are not moin merchandising 1evels moy, in soma instonces,
be weighted al less than ground level.
2) A fixed commcn oreo charge. This is on estoblished dollar amount
.fhat !he tenant is required lo poy as his share of the cost of main
taining the common orea. This type of comman orea charge is stated
as a fixed sum of money for a specified period af time.
3) A fixed variable charge. This is general/y based on the productivity
af the tenanl. When the common crea charge is calculated on this
basis, it is usual/y axpressed as a percentoge of sales.
Occasionally o clouse in the lease gives the developer the option
of contracting the operation of the common oreas to o third party
if this is deemed by him lo be in the bes! interests af the shopping
center.
5) Care and Use of the Premises. l'vlost shopping center
leases contain provisions relating to th e care and use of
th e premises. These provide for continua] operation by
each tenant in a manner that will contribute most to the
successful operation of the shopping center. They require
the tenant to :
Merchondise 100 percent of !he leosed premises during aoch doy
the center is open for business during the entire leased term. Further
more, the tenant is required te conduct his busine~ activities in such
a manner thot the character and reputation of the center is enhonced
ond, at the sorne time, moximum revenue is produced for the developer.
Abide by restrictions in the leose, affecting the character and appear
once of the center, which prohibit fire and bankruptcy sales, the post
ing of signs in or on the premises without the prior approval of the
developer, the use of the common oreas lo display or sall merchondise,
the operation of o similar business within a specified distance of the
center.
Mes! leoses prohibit the use of phonographs or any audio equipment
that can be heord outside the leased premises.
Operote his business under his specified trade name and use the name
of the shopping center in his business address and in his advertising.
Usuall y th e tenant is further required to:
Keep his premisas and j or show windows lighted from dusk until a
specified time eoch doy during the lease term that the center is open
for business.
Keep the premisas cleon, store all trash and garbage within the prem
ises, and arronge for its regular pick-up ot his expense.
Arrange for the pick-up ond delivery of merchandise in oreas desig
nated for that purpose by the developer, subject lo any rules and
regulotions estoblished for that activity.
In many instances membership in the Merchants' Asso
ciation is mandatory, usually without requirement for man
dator y fin ancia] support, but most often membership is
provided for by a permissive clause requiring the tenant to
" cooperate in the formation and maintenance of the Asso
ciation with the objective of establishing an effective pro
motion program."*
This section usually includes standard provisions that
*For further discussion on this topic see Part III, Chapter 2.
th e tenant conduct his business in such a manner as not
to constitute a nuisance, injure the reputation of the
center, mutilate or abuse the premises, or cause the in sur
ance rates to b e increased. It also provides that the tenant
shall not use the premises for any unlawful purpose or an y
retail use oth er than th e one specified in the lease.
6) Utility Services. The provisions of this section vary in
accordance with the arrangement chosen for th e distribu
tion of utility services. If the center is to be served by a
central source of h eating, electricity, gas, h ot and cold
wa ter or air-co nditioning, the lease requires that the tenant
accept such service from th e developer, or his agents, and
that h e pay for it in th e manner specified. If each premise
is to be scrved directl y from a public source or, in the
case of air-condi tioning equipment, each tenant is to install
and operate his own facilities, th en the lease merely re
quires th at th e tenant be responsible for arranging and
paying for such sen ices.
Jf th e center is to have a central air-conditioning system
it is common practice to require th e tenant to operate the
fac ilities so th at th e temperature is maintained at a con
stant standard . The lease may also include a requirement
that th e tenant pay wh at is frequently termed an air
conditioning stand-by charge. This is a fixed charge to th e
tenant to return to the developer th e capital costs incurred
in the installation of th e chilled wa ter facilities or con
denser wa ter sys tem in th e central plant and for the dis
tribution system, (possibly including th e portian within
th e tenan t's premises if the de,eloper h as undertaken the
fin ancia! res ponsibility for the latter ) . This ch arge is usual
ly calcula ted to amortize th ese costs o,er a gi,en period of
time, plus interest, and is generall y payable on a monthly
basis. \ Vhere central distribution systems are used, the basis
for the charges to the tenan t is specified in th e Jeas e pro
visions for utilities. In sorne instances th e charges are based
on consumption as measured by meters and in other cases
rate sch edules based on leased space are employed. \Vhen
the tenant is requ ired to pay a share of the cost of suppl y
ing th e sen'ice, the billing is frequentl y done on the basis
of an estmate by th e de,eloper. If such is th e case, the
lease usuall y specifi es th e allowabl e components of th e
total cost an d pro\'ides fo r monthl y payments by th e tenant
based on th e estmate, and for yearl y adjnstment of
amounts involved .
7) Repahs. The provisions of this section usuall y reflect
com entional real estate practices with respect to the re
sponsibility of both parties. The developer is usually re-
quired to repair all structural portions, fonndation s, exterior
walls, except plate glass portions, and the roof, except
where repairs are necessitated by negligence of the tenant.
The tenant is usuall y required to repair all oth er portions
of th e premiscs with special reference to th e responsibility
for th e replacemcnt of damaged or b roken plate glass and
for periodi c decorating of th e interior.
199
 8) Installation, Signs and Alterations. 1n this section the
tenant is generall y required to provide and install, at bis
own expense, all interior installations, such as ligbting and
store fixtures, floor coverings, any equipment required by
his operation, and al! interior painting and decorating.
lnstallation by the tenant of any outdoor equipment or
signs; exterior painting of any kind; changes to tbe store
front or any portian of th e exterior are specifically pro-
hibited without th e prior written consent of the developer.
The conditions under which the tenant may make alter-
ations to any portian of the premises are usuall y stated,
and prior approval of th e tenant's plans and specifications
are a condition of the lease.
9) lndemnity. l\1ost shopping center leases require that
the tenant indemnify the developer against any claims for
damages arisi ng from th e operation of tbe tenant's busi-
ness, or any ac t of negligence on the part of tbe tenant
or his employees, or any lien against tbe premises wbetber
it be for services, equipment, material or for any other
reason. The tenant is also requircd to actively defend th e
developer and himself, at his own expense, against any
action arising th rough an act of the tenant or bis em-
ployees. Furthermore, the tenant is usuall y requ ired to
agree not to bring any action for damages agai nst the de-
veloper in th e event of loss due to failures or defects in
the structure in which the premises are located or from
any act or negligence on the part of any tenant or person
in the shopping center.
lO). lnsurance. Generally the lease contains clauses pro-
viding th at the tenant obtain public liability and propertv
damage insurance to specified limits.
It is also generall y required that th e tenant maintain
plate glass insurance protecting both the tena nt and the
developer- as their in terests may require- against break-
age or damage to glass portions of. th e premises .
Leases normall y require that the tenant maintain insur-
ance on his fixtures. The tenant is required to furnish the
polides, or proof that they exist, to the developer. The
developer may purchase the coverage required in the lease
if th c tcnant fails to do so and collect the cost of the
premium fr om the tenant. T his section commonly includes
the requirements that the tenant is not to use th e premises
in a manner that will rcsult in any increase of the insurance
rate of th e balance of the center and often requ ires that
the tenant pay any increase that results from such use.
ll) Damage by Fire or Other Casualty. The responsibil-
ities and altcrnatives of both parties in the event of damage
or destruction of the premises, or of the building housing
the premises, are defi ncd in this section. Often this section
is written in such a manner that it applies onl y to an
insurable casualty, leaving th e way open for the two parties
to reach agreement on whatever basis they wish, sh ould
uninsurable damage or destruction occur.
200
Tenant and developer options to cancel by reason of
casualty differ from lease to lease, but most allow for the
lease to continue in effect, with an appropriate abatement
of rent, if minor damage affecting less than 20 percent of ,1
the premises takes place . Frequently either party may can- 1
ce] within a spccificd period of time, if the damage affects 1
more than 20 percent of the total leased premises. 1
Usuall y the damage provision contains a clause covering 1: 1
a situation wherein the developer may cancel if the build- 11
ing, or even the total project, containing the premises is \1
damaged or destroyed in an amount exceeding a specified 11
proportion regardless of th e damage to the leased premises.
The work responsibility of the developer and tenant for
reconstruction usual! y follows the pattern established in the 1,
initial construction. 1
12) Eminent Domain. The conditions governing the de-
veloper and tenant alterna tives in th e event of the taking
by right of emin ent domain, of a portian of the premises, 1
the building or project h ousing the premises, or the com- \!
mon areas, are set forth in this section. Generally the 1
lease is terminated automaticall y if th e entire premises are
taken. As in the case of the damage or destruction pro-
visions, the cancellation options of the developer and the
tenant va ry from lease to lease. lf less than 20% of the
leased space is taken, th en the owner is often requirecl to
make necessary repa irs or alterations so th at the premises
constitute a "complete architectural and merch andising
unit," and th e lease continues in effect with an appropriate
abatement of rent. In the event of a substantial taking of
th e leased premises- often designated as more than 20 %
of the flo or area or of the building or project in which the
premises are locaSed - cancellation options are frequently
available to one or both of the parties for a specified period
of time. Ordinarily the developer has the option to cancel
if a substantial portion - usuall y more than 50 % of the
fl oor area - of the building housing the premises or of the
total projec t is taken.
A clause is frequentl y included provid ing that each party,
under the same division of work responsibilities in effect
during the initial construction, promptly make the repairs
and alterations necessary to restare th e premises, and that
each party is entitled tq compensation for damages as their
respective interes ts appear.
13) Assignment and Su bletting. The standard leas e form
generall y prohibits th c tenant from assigning or subletting
the premises in any manner, whether directly or through
bankruptcy proceedings. However, strong tenants frequently
gain conccssions on this point.
But, e\'en when tenants are able to bargain for a modi-
ficat ion pcrmitting them to assign or sublet, such right is
rarely ever granted wi th out control. l\1ost often it is stipu-
lated th at onl y a specified portian of the premises can be
sublet and th at the sublet portian must be operated as a
department of the tenant's store. It is sometimes required
that any ass ignment be sub ject to the approval of the de-
veloper, and in most cases wh ere ass ignmen t or subletting
is permitted th e tenant remains fin anciall y res ponsible for
rent and oth er sums due under th e terms of th e lease.
14) Access to Premises . l'viost lea ses allow th e developer
access to th e premises durin g reasonable times for repair-
ing, inspecting, or sh owing th e property to prospective
tenants. Somet im es it is provided th at th e developer may
post a " for rent" sign on th e premises fo r a stipulated
period of time prior to th e expiration of th e lease t erm .
15) Remedies and D efaults. The lease generally con tains
a secti on in wh ich th e conditions of default are described
and wh ere the alternatives availab le to th e developer are
outlined . Leases vary in th e degrees of protection provided
th e developer, bu t in order to give managem ent a reason-
ably suffi cient framework for ac tion th is secti on sh ould
include:
The definition of what constitules default on t he pa rt of the le nan l.
This con include a ssignment for be nefit of cre ditors, on y undischarg ed
attachment or lien agoinst th e pre mises, bonkruptcy o r inso lve ncy of
the tenant that is not dismisse d within a specifie d period of time,
foilure of the tenant to poy re nt or any sum s du e und e r t he lea se
within a slated period of time o nd failure of the lenanl lo pe rform
any of the covenonts of the leo se agree me nt.
The courses of action available to the developer in the
event of default can include any or all of th e following:
The right lo re e nle r and relet the pre mises, wit h t he costs of ree ntry
to accru e ogoinst th e te nant who is to re main res ponsib le for th e
financial obligotions of the lease during the re maind e r of the te rm.
The right lo cure any tenonl defoult al the ex pense of t he le nan l and
lo collecl the costs incurred from !he le nanl. Sometimes !he deve lope r
is entitled to recove r such costs plus interest.
The right of firsl lien againsl the prope rty of the le nanl wi th in !he
premises to guorontee the payment of re nt and th e pe rforman ce of
each provision of the leo se .
The developer's rights and remedies as provid e d by the le ose o re
cumulative, do not so ope rate as to exclude e ach othe r and mo y be
exercised a s ohen as th e need orises during th e le ose te rm.
16) Subordination. J\ lost leases requ ire th e tenant to agree
th at th e lease is to be subordinate to any m ortgage or oth er
fin ancing agreements affectin g th e premises. Tn such cases
it is usua lly provided that, in th e eyent of foreclos ure, th e
h older of such a mortgage or len sh all permit th e con-
tinuance of th e lease if th e tenant is n ot in default and
th e tenan t is usually required to agree to give wh at ever
written assurance may be required by the h older of the
mortgage to assure such priori ty.
17) C onsent N ot to be U nreasonably ' Vithheld . Norm all y
th e deYeloper is required to agree th at h is consent or
approval will n ot be unreasonably withheld in certain
specified cases wh ere such approval is a condition of the
lea se.
18) Es toppel C erti ficate. The tenant is frequently required
to agree to execu te, upon written requ est from th e de-
Yeloper, a statemen t certifying th at th e lease andj or an y
subsequent modifications of the lease are in full force and
effect as well as certifying th e date through wh ich the
rent and oth er charges h ave been paid .
19) Notices. Th e conditions under wh ich notices are to
be ghen - such as th e number of copies, th e desti nation
and th e type of carrier to be used - by one party to the
oth er are set forth in th e lease.
20) Surrender of th e Premises. The conditions of surrender
of th e premises, or continued occupancy, at th e close of
th e lease term are usually contained in the lease. 1t is
generallv requ ired that th e tenant surrender th e premises
in good condition and repair and in th e same condition
as h e receiYed th em. excepting th at all additional fi xtures
or installations th at are permanently affixed to the premises
become th e property of th e deYeloper. Such equipment or
add it ions are usually to remain intact unless the developer
requests th eir rcmo,al in wh ich case the tenant is to com-
ply and repair all damages that m ight occur in th e process .
Leases usuall y provide th at if th e tenant remains in
possession of the premises after th e lease term, such
tenanc\' is to be on a month to month basis and as such
sub ject to all conditions of th e lease. Occasionally a mone-
tarv penalty is levied requiring that the tenant pay twice
th e fixed m ni mum rent required by th e lease during such
continucd occupancy of th e premises. In sorn e instances h e
is required to pay th e greater of either twice th e fixed mn-
imum rent, or th e percentage rent specified for gross sales
transacted in th e prem ises.
21 ) l\ liscellaneons Provisions. The proviSlons relating t o
th e purely legal aspects of th e agreement are usually found
grouped togethcr in th e lease. The poin ts commonly
cmered are:
The na lure of the re lotio nshi p be twee n !he po rties .
Cumu1ative re me dies.
Pravisio ns re lating to voting co ntr ol of te nan t's cor po rotion.
Ap plica bility of the stole law in inle rp ret in g t he le a se .
ln va lidity clau se , lim itin g th e e ff ect of i nvol id ity of one or more
pro vis io ns.
Me a ning an d e ffe ct of captions o r he ading s of leo se a gree me nt .
Provision s re lat ing fa de la ys in pe rformance.
Exte nt to w hic h o g re e me nts ore bi nding o n hei rs, odm inistrotors
o nd a ssig ns.
Re sponsi bili ty far a tt orneys' fees and costs.
Sec uri ty deposit, if applicoble.
Re lotion ship w it h broke rs an d poy me nt of commh sions.
Effe ct of conveyance of e ithe r la ndlord 's o r te no nt's inte rests.
Recording of the le ose and pre paratio n of special docume nl if
desired .
Limitation af d eve lop e r's liability te e xte nt ap proprio te .
T h e comments in this section are intended for th e guid-
ance and assis tance of developers, tenants. and planners.
and not as a substitute for competent legal advice, which
sh ould be ob tai ned in cvery case.
20 1
 PART J:J:-CHAPTER 11
The Shopping Center Budget
An essential part of th e over-all activity of the planning
team is to project the expected income of a shopping
center operation and relate it to th e estimated capital in-
ves tment. These projections are developed step-wise in
intimate an d complete synchroniza tion with all planning
phases. Various projection alternates are tried and weighed
during th e exploratory phase and are refined in consecutive
phases. \ Ve might refer to these as expioratory budgets,
and preiiminary budgets. Before th e start of the final
planning phase, income and capital expenditure projec-
tions should be more accura tely established so as to form
the working l:>udget of the dev~loper. The functi on of the
exploratory and preliminary budget is to guide earl y plan-
ning, leasing, and fin ancing activi ties. The working budget
should control all such activities.
Befare proceeding to set up th ese projections, it is neces-
sary to have a clear understanding of th e term Construction
and Development Cost. O nl y then can th e interrelation
of income and cost be intelligently con sidered. \Ve have
therefore divided this chapter into three sections: Shopping
Center Costs; ln terrelation of Cost and lncome; Setting
up th e Budget.
A-Shopping Center Costs
Confusion and con troversy always develop when attempts
are made to use the records of projects already constructed
as guides for cost estimates of a center about to be under-
taken. The confusion arises from the fact that th e question
of cost embraces not one but severa! concepts, each of
which must be isolated and resolved before th e subject
can be clarified.
Construction costs per square foot are often quoted
202
casuallr among developers, operators, architects and store
executi\'eS. Such qu otations cover a wide range, all the way
from $8 to $30 per square fo ot. Unfortunately, the calcu-
lating methods underlying these figures are so divergent
th at any comparison , wi th out further analysis, is impos-
sible. A wide 1ariety of methods is em ployed with regard
to the two factors which form the equation : cost and area.
For a comparison to be valid, it is obviously n ecessary to
ascertain whether the methods used for th e establishment
of each fac tor h ave been identical. Let us consider first the
fact or of area.
l ) Definition of Area. \Vb en th e squ are-foot area cost of
a sh opping center is quoted, any on e of severa! concepts
may be intcnded, CO\'ering a wide range of implications.
The most commonl v used terms are defined below. lnas-
much as "Total Construction Area " is the most inclusive
term, \\'e relate th e others to it .
Ronge of Ratio lo
Total Construction Area
a) Total Construction Area
The gross orea of all covered and en
closed space on oll !loor levels, including
mezzanines, truck roads and service facili-
ties, plus an allowance of one-holf of the
floor oreo for roofed-over but not enclosed
oreas (such os conopies, colonnodes, cross-
walks). In the cose of covered molls the
roof orea of the mall is usually added. 100%
b ) T-otal Floor Areo
As defined in "o" but without covered
oreas between buildings, ond without ol-
lowonce for overl1angs, conopies, truck
roods, service facilities, ond covered moll
roofs. 87'%-93%*
e) Total Rento ble Area e) C osts created by un usual site conditions, such as un -
The portian of total floor oreo locoted
favorable soil conditions, peat, wa ter, rack or oth er
within premises rented to tenonts or pro-
posed lo be rented lo lenonls, excluding ph ys ical fac tors as well as special expenditure for traffi.c
ouditoriums and other common facilities improvements whether on or off the site.
even though they moy be income-produc- d) Ex penditure for th e im provement of tenant spaces.
ing. In the cose of counter type, free-
e) Expenditu re for revenu e- prod ucing utiliti es, such as
standing retoil stonds within moll or court
oreas as they occur especially in centers heatin g. air co nditioning, distribution of electricity, etc.
with covered molls, on oreo 6 feet in width f) Expenditure for professional fees.
around such retail slonds should be in- g ) Expenditure for taxes, insurance and temporary h eat
cluded in the rentol oreo. 85%-91 % during constru ction .
d) Total Sales Area
Very hard lo define ond identify but fre-
h ) Expenditure for leasing an d management during th e
quently used in specifying desired parking de\'elopment period.
ralios. Presumobly refers lo thot portian i ) Ex penditures for finan cing, mortgage stand by fees,
of the total rentable oreo used by tenonls appra isal. and interes t during construction .
for soles spoce. "Selling oreo" is o term
well known and defined in departmenl
O nl y when it can be ascer tai ned that th e cost figu re is
store and speciolty store operotions and
is the term intended lo be used for this all-inclusive or th at each part is properly identified can one
purpose. The concept is sound in theory judge the comparative costs of various projects.
as it indicates floor orea used for soles Beca use of th e difference between th e fun ctions of th e
to customers ond may vary, depending
neighborh ood and intermediate center and th e more com-
upon the functional concept of the store,
from 60-80% or more of the rentable orea.
plex ones of th e regional type, it sh ould be recognized that
lt is, however, o figure which, for the 1here will be a basic difference in th e services that h ave to
developer, is impossible to determine with- be offered in each. This factor is directl y related to th e
out research ond cooperation of each size of th e project. and does not necessarily reflect quality.
individual tenont ond which vares from
Jt follows th at a ncighborhood cen ter can probably be
time to time os tenonts change the char-
acteristics of their operations. 51 %-73 % co nstructed a t a cost of possibly 20-30 % less per squa re
e) Rentable Area al Graund flaar leve/ foot than a regional type cen ter of precisely th e same con-
Sorne as "e" obove, but excluding base struc tion quality and specifica tions.
ment, upper level or mezzonine spoce. 30%-91 %
a ) La nd C ost T he typical range of land costs has al-
In the case of covered malls, the ratio to "a" would be consider- ready been discussed in Part I , C hapter 3. \ Vhile th ese
ably smaller. cos ts are obviously part of th e total investment and must
be faced by the developer as pa rt of h is t otal expendi-
Jt is our opm10n that the m ost m ea ningful term for ture, th ey are rarely if ever considered as part of the cost
purposes of cost and income projections is "Total Rentable comparison when total constructi on cost figures are dis-
Area," as it represents th e area from whi ch renta] revenue cussed .
is actuall y produced . In furth er discussion th erefore, wh er- b ) Normal Si te Improvements. The cost of si te improve-
ever costs are related to square footage we base area on ments will \'ary from project to pro ject for reasons relat-
the defin ition already given under T otal Rentable Area . ing to decisions by the plann ing team concerning traffic,
The important point in comparing or considering costs parking and similar planning elements. The following
of va rious sh opping centers on a square foot basis is to form part of the expe nditure in every sh opping center
deter mine which meth od of definiti on of area was used. project :
A pro ject quoted as h aving cost $ 15 per squ are foot, if this
refers to T otal Constru cti on Area, migh t actuall y h ave cost Ronge of Normal Expenditure
as much as $ 17.2 5 per square foot on th e bas is of defini - (per square fool of total
re ntable flaar crea of
tion of the term T otal Rentable Area .
buildings in the projecl)
Groding .18 .25
2) Development and Construction Cost. The second fac tor Unde rgro und uti lities
of the equation (cos t per squ are foot) is capital cos t, sorne- Starm drainage .12 .18
Water .08 .12
times referred to as "construction cost" or "capital invest-
Gas (uually by go s campany)
mcnt." To be sure th at cost qu ota tions of various centers Sonitary sewer .Q2 .04
lend th emselves to comparison without furth er adjustm ent, Electricol conduit . 15 .30
we must ascertain wh ether, in addition to basic construc- Telephone conduit .02 .06
tion cost, th ey include : Parking lot poving .40 .so
Parking lot lighting .10 .20
a) Land cost. Curbing and marking of the parking lot .08 .15
b ) Norm al site improvement costs, such as grading, un- Landscoping (including irrigation ) .20 .30
derground ut ilities, parking lot surfacing and lighting. Total 1.35 2.10

203
 e ) Un usual Si te Conditions. 1n discussing the prerequi- the basic land cos t. T h e range of such unusual siteL 1

sites for planning (Part I, Chapter 3) we have pointed
out that the physical characteristics of a site exert a
strong influence on cost.
The expenditures caused by un p<ual site conditions
should be analyzed befare a decision concerning site
acquisition is made. Basically, the cost of al! measures
necessary to correct unusual site conditions should be
regarded as part of the land cost and proper judgment
should then be employed to determine whether the
land cost, thus ra ised, is justified. \ Vhether, for example,
expenditures for additional road construction or other
traffic improvements, the construction of parking decks
or garages due to limited size of th e site, or th e cost
of special foundation methods, wa terproofin g, rerouting
of waterways and so on, can be justified depends on the
charac ter and potential of the particular project and on
costs is very great. Experience has shown that in certain t
quality locations they may even exceed $5 0,000 per acre
with out necessarily suggesting abandonment of the pro-
ject or the substitution of a site in a poorer location.
As a general rule, h owever, total land costs that, includ-
ing the fac tor of unusual site improvements, reach
$ 30.000 per acre require el ose scrutiny.
O ne could obviously be easily misled in comparing con-
struction costs of a center that faced only normal site1
improvements wi th one that expended considerable sums
for the correction of unusual site conditions. :
d ) T enant Spaces. \Vide variations exist in the method 1
of handling the expendi ture for finishing of tenants'
spaces (see Part 1T. Chapter 1O).
The va riation in cost to th e developer may be sub-
stantial in using these res pective methods, but a pro

Th e slw pping center dollar.

LAND CO ST 3c
SITEWO RK s9
FINANCING COST 5(
LAND COST & SITEWl~:K\ ADMIN. & LEASING 4(
ALL FEES 4
BASIC 'PDEVELOPMENT COST 13 ('
BUI LDING
STRUCTURE

STRUCTURAL
BUILDING
SHELL 17('

13e
u
CHARGES 16('

15('
13(1 FINISH - - - - - - --

~ CO NTINGENCY 9r
EQUIPMENT 7 ( / MECHAN/CA L & ELECTRICAL 13 (1

204
 portion ate variation in rent income is likely to resul t.
Thus, cost comparisons must take into consideration the
rent variations that flow directly from the meth od by
IVhich tenant improvements are negotiated in th e leasing
procedure.
1
e ) R evenue-Produ cing UtiJities. Anoth er element exercis-
,ing substantial effect on th e cost structure is the manner
in which h ea ting and air-conditioning plants and the
distribution of electric power and water are h andled. The
factors that sh ould be taken into consideration by the
developer in deciding wh eth er or not to construct central
utility plants and distribution systems are discussed in
Part TI, Chal? ter 9.
\ Vhether heating is done through individual plants, space
heaters, or a central plant, th e capital cost will not vary
significantl y. O n th e oth er h and, only in th e case of a
central plan t will th e opera ting and income statem ents
reflect th e income derived from a utility operation. As
far as other utilities are concerned (air-conditioning,
electricity and wa ter) service should only b e provided by
the developer if th e operating costs plus a return on the
capital inves tment can be derived from th e revenue
billings. C onsequently, when comparin g total construc-
tion costs of va rious centers, the capital cos t of th ese
utilities should not be included with out taking into
account th e resulting revenues.
The same applies to oth er special incom e fun ctions such
as gas stations, car wash facilities, drive-in res taurants
and parkin g space allocated to tenants constructing their
own buildings on land which is ground leased from the
developer. All of th ese items will tend to increase the
investment an d may appear to reflect unfavorably in
cost comparison s with oth er projects - unless th e effect
on the income account is full y noted.
f ) Expenditure for Professional F ees. A portian of th e
inves tment b ud get has to b e allocated to professionals
for planning, clesigning, engineerin g, economic, legal, and
tax consultant services. For this. an amount ranging from
7-13% of th e total construction cos t sh ould be se t as ide.
\Vh en th e arch itect does not perform complete planning,
designin g and engineering senices, pro fessional fees will
also be paid to specialists: landscape architects, structural,
mechanical, electrical and civil engineers, traffic and
graphic consultants, etc.
Because it is in th e nature of sh opping cen ter clevelop-
ment that th e question of wh eth er or not th e pro ject can
be implementecl and what its size ancl ch aracter will be
is only answered at the end of either the exploratory
phase or the preliminary phase, it is an advantage wh en
th e relati onship of th e developer with th e professionals
is fl exible during th ese phases . F ees predicated on a cost
plus overh ead plus profit basis will b e mos t workable.
They may either be based on an hourly rate which in-
2ludes overh ead and profit and is establish ed in advance
for principals and staff m embers, or by payment of a
multiple of th e actual hourl y wages of production p er-
sonnel plus reimbursement for all cash expenditures.
lVI ultiples usually range from 2.5 to 3 and cover overhead
and profi t.
O nce th e work program is firml y establish ed, more defi-
ni te fees can be agreed upon. Sorne of th e arrangements
used are monthly or yearly re tainer fees, lump sum fee
arra ngements, or-and th is applies especially to the
architectural ancl engineering professions-a fee which
is establish ed as a percen tage of the constru cti on cost.
g) Expenditure for Taxes, Insurance and T emporary
H eat During Construction . Th e nature of th e charges in
th is category do not requi re definiti on . In total, th ey will
represen t between 2 and 5% of th e total construction
cost.
t
h ) Expenditure for Leasing and Ma nagemen t During r
Del'elopment Period. Definition is similarly unn ecessary
for this ca tegory. The range of total cost would be b e-
tween 1V2 and -f%% of th e construction cost of the
project.
3) Basic Construction C ost. The term "Basic Construction
Cost" excludes all th e a-h items listed ab ove. Thus, onl y
th e actual construction cost of store buildings of various
types and size embracing single and multiple tenan t struc-
tures ancl the construc tion of accessory facilities, but exclud-
ing th e im pro,em ~n ts of th e tenant spaces, site improve-
ment and the constru ction of self-liquidating facilities, are
h ere considered . These costs are comparable to construction
costs for standard commercial structures not located in
sh opping cen ters. Th ey will be influenced by construction
quality and will ra nge widely, between $6 and $ 13 per
squa re foot of total rentable area. This wide range is only
partl y due to qu alitative differences in design and construc-
tion. O th er fac tors wh ich exert a strong influence are:
a ) Clima te, wh ich will infl uence plannin g and design ,
materials. construction meth ods. heating. air-condition-
ing. surfacing of traffi c and park ing areas, etc.
b ) Local building rules and reg ulations and th eir applica-
tio n to th e cen ter. Smaller centers ca n take advantage of
ch eaper construction meth ods permitted b y such regul a-
tions. Larger ones h ave to compl y with more stringent
ordinances. T he se,erity of building laws changes from
state to state and city to city. Non-incorporated areas
often h ave less demanding building regulations. Building
laws infl uen ce not only th e stru ctural nature of a project
but because of changing exit. entrance and stainvay re-
quirements, the basic planning concept.
e ) Insurance conditions. which might dictate higher con-
struction costs beca use of a des ire for lower insurance
ra tes
el) T h e investm ent policy of th e developer will in flu ence
quality of construction . A long range policy will necessi-
ta te better materials and meth ods in arder to keep main-
tenance and opera ting costs as low as possible over an
extended period. Sh ort ra nge interest, on th e oth er hand,
will permit lower construction standards.
205
 e) \'ariations in labor, construction and material costs in
different arcas of th e cou ntrv will increase or decrease
construction costs. Th us the 'construction costs for two
identical shopping centers m ight differ significantl y if
one is built on th e Atl an tic Seaboard and the oth er on
th e \ Vest C oast.
f ) Cost differences ca used by the changing bidding
clima te in ,arious years, seasons, and localities can be
considerable. Tf th e constru ction industry in a particular
area at a particular time is extrem ely busy, the cost of
construction will be h igh er because competition is weak .
In addition to th is, th e ront ractors are often obliged to
promise overtime and oth er premiu m paym ents in order
to obtain a suf!icien tly large labor force.
g ) Differences resu lting from sch eduling of construction
can be significan t. A construc tion period sh orter th an
reasonable will necessitate overtim e work and premiums
for deliverv of materials on sh ort notice. A construction
schedule th at extends over an unreasonably long time
(o ften due to th e uncertain ty of leasing conditions ) will
cause additional expendit ures on the contractor's side for
overhead and su p ervisor~ personn el and also will result
in hi gher cost of construction fin ancing.
h ) T he contractual relationship betll"een developer and
genera l contractors can ha\'e great impac t on construction
costs. Lum p sum contracts arri,ed at by competitive bid-
ding after a reasonably long bidding period will usuall v
result in lower costs than cost plus or management t yp e
con tracts or lu m p sum co ntrac ts without competitive
bidding. H owever, th e awarding of lump sum contracts
will be practica] onl y if complete contract doc uments
consist ing of working drawings and specificati ons, cover-
ing all the work th e general contractor will h a\'e to p er-
form, are available before bidding starts. lf such complete
con tra ct documen ts are not ;wailable, a large n umber of
chan ge ord ers an d orders for ex tra work will h ave to be
giYen out later; sinee th e general eon trac tor will th en be
acting without competition , the value of th e original
compctitive bidding will be partly or totall v lost.
The importan re of the influenc e of the above and various
o th cr ba5ic conditions cannot be undcrrated . The sam e
conditions also exert their infl uence on thc non-basic items
listeu undcr Devclopment and Cons truc tion Cost. Thus,
th cy are potent fac tors which affect th e capital investmen t
to a dcgrcc often equal to, or larger than. the influ ence ex-
tended bv planning. arch itectural and engineering design .
In discussing sh opping center costs. we h a,e pointed out
that th c comparison of costs incurred in various centers is
onh feasible if the composition of thc en tire ca pital invest-
mcnt is clearh understood and if these costs are related to
a ,a]id conc~pt of area definition. As an example, two
projcct~ of \'aryi ng characteristics but identical quality, cal-
culatcd by diffcrent methods of area definition , mi ght
compare as follows:
206
G ross construction area 570,000 sq . ft. each ,
Rentable area 500,000 sq. ft. each 1
PROJECT NO. 1 PROJECT NO . 2
Ca st-P" Sq . Ft. Cost-Per Sq. Ft.
Totol Rentable Area Construction Area 1
Site improvements $ 750,000 - 1.50 $ 750,000 - 1.32 1
Unusual site improvements 500,000 - 1 .00 nil
Revenue producing utilities 1,000,000 - 2.00 nil
Te nants' work 3,000,000 - 6.00 2,000,000- 3.51 1
Architeelural fees 600,000 - 1.20
Management costs 400,000 - .80
laxes, nterest ond insurance 300,000 - .60
Basic structure (heating
included anl y in Na. 2) 4,000,000 - 8.00
4,300,000- 7.54 1
Total construction cost 10,550,000 -21.10
7,050,000 -12.37
Land 400,000 - .80
900,000 - 1.58 !
Total project cast $ 10,950,000 -~ $7,950,000 -~ !
"Not included in 1he cost colculot ion
B-Interrelation of Cost and Incoine
Budgeting for a sh opping center, as for a business or a
h ouseh old, means essentially balancing expenditures and
income. Because in\'estm ents in a sh opping center project
are Iarge, implementation of the project oft en depends on
outside fin ancing. There is an intimate interrelation be-
t\\'een ca pital imestment, income and outside financing
which works in clockwise mO\ement as illustrated.
The size of th e imestment infiuences quality and
qu antity of renta! space, and through th at, the income
po tential. Th e income potential h as a defin ite bearing on
th e possibility of obtaining outside fin ancing. The avail-
abilit y and amount of financing, in turn , will to a large
degrce make the ca pital investm ent feasible.
F rom this, on e might jump to the conclusion that high
ca pital expenditures will automati call y create high rental
income and , through it, favorable finan cing. H owe\'er, there
are a number of conditi oning factors that exercise an in-
fluc nce on each of th e three links of th e chain . Any one
of th ese influences can be so potent as to change decisi\'ely
each of th e links and thus alter th e entire chai n reac tion.
lncome is influenced by th e existing business potential
which in turn depends upon th e location (see illustration).
If such potential is low. no amount of additional invest-
m ent will res ult in higher rent a] income. Income is also
influenced by th e a\'ailability and the strength of major
tenancies. and it is fin all y influenced by the general eco-
nomic climate. Thus income, instead of being dependent
solely on th e size of th e capital inves tment, is also exposed
to th e effect of th ese three additional forces.
The h pe and amount of fin ancing is influenced by the
fi nancia] strength of the developer and by th e general state
of th e fin ancing market (fin ancing climate). In times of
sh ort m oney supply. even a center with high income poten-
tia] mi ght b e un able to obtain a favorable loa n.
Assumin g th e prerequisities (see Part 1, Chapters 1-6)
h a\'e been met, the true operative value of the investment
Chain reac tion between inl'estm ent , in come and linancing.

PLANNING ANO DESIGN

Secondary factors in th e chain reac tion.

207
..
depends on three main fac tors: management and operating most economical, as it may not create the highest potential l
skill, planning an d design quality, and general price levels income and, furth ermore, m ay result in high operating and 1
pre\'ailing in the construction industry. maintenance costs. Higher capital expenditures are, on the
Since techniques of fin ancing and leasing have been dis- oth er h and, out of arder when not justified by a propor- '
cussed (see Part I, Chapters 5 and 6; Part TI, Chapter 10), tionately higher income potential.
'"e will now primarily con sider th e relationship between TI1e quality of th e planning and design influences, in 1
capital investrn ent and income. varying degree, the items listed on the income side of the
The following tabulation illustrates th e m anner in which lnvestment Justificaban tabulation. Minimum guaranteed 1
individual ca pital imestment items are supported by specific rents, especially those to be paid b y chain store organiza-
items of income. lt does not attempt to express the extent tions, may not va ry greatly with th e quality of physical l
of th e returns n ecessary to justify each item of investment plann ing. \Vh ether a store is located in a superbly planned 1
because this will vary from project to project. center or in a poorly plann ed one, th ere may be only a 1
modera te difference in the minimum guaranteed rent that !
INVESTMENT JUSTIFICATION
a tenant is willing to pay; yet sometimes this difference '
CAPITAL INVESTMENT NET INCOME*
can be very significant in relation to the profit element of 1
A. BASIC INVESTMENT A. NET INCOME FROM
l. Basic ConstrucHon Cost TENANT RENTS th e investment.
2. Lond Cost {of which the guoranteed rent F inancing will b enefi t from good planning and design,
3. Charges Proportionately must be ot least sufficient to
es pecially since man y large insurance companies base their
Applicable lo Basic Con permit adequate flnoncing)
struction Cost
commitments on a th oro ugh analys is of loca tion, and
plan nin g and dcsign features of a center. Thus, it may be
B. SECONDARY B. SECONDARY NET IN COME
expected that loan s on m ore fmorable terms can be ob-
CONSTRUCTION COST
l. Self.Liquidoting Central l. StandBy Charges tained for a sh opping ccnter of higher 0\'er-all planning ,
Utilities standards.
2. Miscelloneous Facilities 2. Renta! from Miscelloneous Th e arnount of additional income derived on the basis 1

Facilities
of percentages from sales may be greatly influenced by
3. Preparation for Futura 3. Post poned lncome from
Expansion Future Tenont Rents design and planning standards. No t onl y can higher per-
4. Special Additional Tenant 4. Repaymenl of lnstallments ccntages fr eq ucntly be obtained wh en leasing a superior
Work {such as fixturing, over Term of Leose or shopping cen ter, but business volume per square foot will 1
interior finishes, etc.) Sooner, or by Recognition
probably be high er in such a center. As a rul e, a poorly
in Lease Terms
5. Charges Proportionately 5. lo Be Added Proportionately loca ted, planned, and des igned center will less frequently
Applicable lo Secondory lo lte ms 14 and less regularl y reach th e sales figures necessary to make
Construction Cost percentage clauses operati,e th an a superior center will.
c. IMPROVEMENTS RELATING c. INCOME FROM 1nasmuch as in come from percentage rents m ay spell the dif-
TO SURROUNDING AREAS SURROUNDING AREAS ferencc bctween ::1 break-e,en and a profitable operation, all
Cost of Land ond lmprove lncome from or lncreased measures taken to obtain such excess rents are highly
ment Allocated lo Surround Valuotion of Surrounding
significan t.
ing Areas (lo the extent such Real Estale
allocation of cost is logical The income from stand-by ch arges is of course con-
in the circumstonces) ditional on th e suppl ying of the values for which such
ch arges are paid. Though th ese ch arges are usually calcu-
In addition to the above equations relating to capital investment, plan-
ning consideration must also be given to operating characteristics:
latccf on ly to amortize the capital costs with interest, they
make possible th e int roduction of features such as central
D. OPERA TIONAL EXPENSES D. OPERATIONAL NET INCOME air-conditionin g. sh opping center-owned and -operated elec-
l. Upkee p, Maintenance l. Net 1neo me from Common trical distribution systems, master tele\'ision antennae, etc.,
and Operotion of Area Charges
Common Areos
which greatly impro,e th e over-all quality and appearance
2. Upk ee p, Maintenanc e 2. Net 1neo me from Sale of th e center. The utilities thus created with a modest
and Operation of of Utility Services increase in capital equity on th e part of the developer
Ce ntral Utilities rnay make feasible profitable sale of electric power and
"'The term " net incom e" refers ta grass in come less those operatianal main- refrigeration. As far as central distrib ution of electricity is
tenance and upkeep ex pe nses which are fa be borne by the developer.
conccrn cd, it sh ould be pointed ou t th at its feas ibility
Good planning will resu lt in the desired profit to the depends on th e willingness of utility companies to co-
de\'eloper. The best planning is th at which achieves capital opera te, and on local regulations. In certain locati ons it is
cxpenditures representing th e minimum required for full also possible to drill wells and sell water profitably to the
utiliza tion of th e potentials inherent in location and site, tenants at prevailing local rates.
whilc assurin g high est income and lowest operating, main- Income or increased values from surrounding real estate
tenance, and upk eep expense. From the above it follows can be achie\'ed by sound planning (see Part 11, Chapter 4).
th at th e ch ea pes t sh opping center is not necessarily the I ncome fr om ren tal of miscellaneous fac ilities is often

208
 CONSTRUCTION COSTS
1L.------------------------~--~~~~--------~- 11 &CHARGES
i lllAND COST l
(j
z
i
<(
u.J

BASIC CONSTRUCTION 1 FRINGE

CONST.
1 --'
o
z<(
z

~
>-
u o
...z --'
zu.J z ::::
:.0: LU >-
<(
u o:::: <( (j
O!
o
O! <(
z (j := z
3: ...
::;
3:
LU
:;: <( z <(
zen zU
...i
w
u
::;
O!
1-
:.0:
u
::;
O!
:X:
en
z:
<l-
S
o
:X:
u
UJ
:;:
::::
z
ou
u..::;
U::Q

en .....
o
z
<(
en
w
w
~
o<(
<(
z
:

m
en 1- UJ --' u..

OF TOTAl = 8 17 2 13 7 13 9 3 4 4 5 = 100%
: ..

IMUM 6 P% 1~~
)ST UNITS = 80 ' 170 ~( 130 70 130 90 30 40 40 50 - 1000UNITS

= 1000
% OF TOTAl = 10 22 2 14 5 12 9 3 7 4 5 = 100 %

STANDARD 74% E2J7 1;> ~

COST UNITS = l5 165 105 37 : QO 67 ' ~ 2 53 3( 37 = 750 UNITS

=750

MINIMUM
% OF TOTAl= 10 . . 32

E0%
15 3 12
-:
.a

m = 10O%

m
COST UNITS = 54 172 80 1~ 64 43 = 53 6 UNITS

=536
% OF TOTAl= 8 31 = 100%
15 412 8
SUB-STANDARD 78%
COST UNITS 37 144 70 1e 56 37 2 - 464 UNITS

=464
% OF TOTAl

STRIP
5 27
"60:)
1 8 .. 7
~ 100%

COST UN 1TS - !t.!~7L----L;14~5~~5~4--l.lol...:t:4:l.w...>~.3L.J

7 ~ = 536UNITS
=536
~~;f.(J
w o en 0 0
O!
z ~ z z
...u
::;
-?;
u..
z
z<(~ (j UJ .::!; ~ V1 u
<( z
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...en
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u ::::
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:;: o <(
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i

ljCONSTRUCTIONill~i-A~-~A-~-~ -~_ _,~

Construction and de\"eloprnent cost chart .

209
 created by imagin ative plann ing which may include th e
introduction of display cases, advertising columns, kiosks,
exhibition spaces, etc.
The functionin g and success of a shopping center will
be enhanced if recognition is given to the fac t th at the
individual renta] area of each tena ncy contains in itself
qualitative differences. Actual sales areas can be regarded
as "primary'' renta] area, and non-selling areas, such as
storage, employees' areas, offices, etc., as "secondary" renta]
areas. If primary areas are so located th at they h ave greatest
contact with shopping foot traffic (th at is, on m ain mer-
chandising levels) and secondary renta] areas are relegated
areas are made, delheries being made fr om the curb. JI T
provides n o cen tralized utili ties and h as n o provisions fw tiJD
futur e enlargement. ~U
e) Th e Strip Center. It is loca ted directly ad joining ~ ; T
suburban high way and consists of on e continuous WI\ J ro~
of stores . Its construction ch aracteristics are th e sam imu
as for th e sub-standard cen ter; h owever, it provides onlr 0011
3 car stalls per I ,000 feet of rentable area . Because it l ~il
immediately adj oins existing utility lines th ere are fur ther ; !fli
savings in th e cost of utilities . It h as fin ish ed elevations fu
only along the highway fro n tage. ~~
D evelopment and C apital Costs are sh own below. Mi

to other than merchandising levels, utiliza tion of space and

The Sosic Capi tal Costs inclicatecl ore:
sales results per square foot will b e greatly improved. In A. Site work.
order to succeed in this respect, it will usually be n ecessary B. Building shell.
to move serYice facilities, such as loading and unloading, C. Finishes, including standard tenont allow
to n on-merchandising levels (see Part II, Chapter 8). onces.
D. Equ ipm e nt, such as vertical transporta-
The Construction and D evelopment Cost C hart illus- tion, conveyors, incinerators, etc.
trates the capital investments for a number of theoretical E. Mechonical ond electricol work, including
shopping center projects . Because it would be im possible th a t cove red by standard tenonts' allow
to express th e numerous fa ctors which infl uence costs in ances.
F. Conting e ncies se t up as o reserve for ad -
terms of dollar amounts it only attempts to illustrate the
d itional te nont requirements and chang es.
relative differences in cost as th ey occur in types of varying The Seconclary Capital Costs inclicatecl are:
quality and to sh ow th e percentage-wise allocation for th e G. Construction in preporation for expansion.
various scgments of th e investment. H. Se Jf.Jiquidating ce ntral utilities.
The Lancl Costs ancl Charges inclicotecl ore:
To eliminate extraneous circumstances, a number of
l. lancl cost.
assumptions have been made: the compared centers are of J. Fees for d eve lopment, plonning and eco
equ al size; contracts are awarded on competitive lump su m na mic w ar k.
bidding; no unusual site, foundati on or off-site work is in- K. Owne r's administration and leasing ex-
penses.
cluded.
L. Cost of finoncing, insurance ond faxes
T h e theoretical examples illustrate: duri ng co nsfrucfion.
a ) The Optimum Shopping Center. It is plann ed and
designed in accordance with th e best practices. Its park- A number of sign ifi can! conclusions can be drawn from
ing area provides space for 7 cars per 1,000 square feet th e study of this ch art:
of rentable area. It is of fir eproof constru ction. It con- In contras! to the widely h eld opinion th at th e greates t
tains an underground truck road, central utilities, and savings can be made by cuttin g the quali ty of basic con-
provisions for future enlargement. st ructi on , th e chart sh ows th at th e costs for th e building
b ) The Standard Shopping Center. Planning and design sh ell (B) \'ary only slightly from the mnimum (sub-
have becn scaled clown. Parki ng ratio is 6 cars per 1,000 standard center) to th e m aximum (optim um center). T h e
square feet of rentable area . It is partly of fir e-resisting, span is less than 25 per cent.*
partly of fire-proof construction . It contains an under- The m ai n differences in th e basic capital cost occ ur
grou nd truck road . Utilities are onl y partly cen tralized. under th e catcgories: Finish (C ), Equipment (D) and
There are provisions for future enlargement. ;\ Iechanical \Vork (E).
e ) Th e Mnimum Center. In order to effect savings, Th e relation between those parts of th e capital inves t-
compromises with regard to so rn e planning and design ment expended for actual constru ction and th ose parts
principles are made. Its parking area provides space for utilized for non-constru ction purposes (Land Costs and
5 cars per 1,000 square feet of rentable area. It is of Charges) changes radicall y percentage-wise.
fire-resisting construction. Senice fac ilities are located on
Lancl Costs
th e surface in screencd servicc courts. It has no central-
Canstructian and Charges
ized utilities or provisions for future enlargement. Opti mum 84% 16%
d ) The Sub-Standard Center. This center sacrifices nearly Standard 81 % 19%
all sound planning and design principles in order to cut Minimum 80% 20%
capital cxpenditures. Its parking area accommodates 4 Su bstandard 78% 22%
Strip 60% 40%
cars per 1,000 square feet of rentable area. It is of non-
fir eproof construction; it employs sub-standard construc- *Additional cost variations do occur but they are due not to
tion meth ods and mater ials. No provisions for service qualitative differences but to the factors listed on pages 205-6 .

210
 This comparison shows clearly th at th e percentage por-
:ion of the total construction and developm ent cost rises
rs the planning standards of the center decline.
The strip center shows a higher over-all cost than the
mb-standard one and an over-all cost identical to a min-
mum center. This is mainl y du e to th e fact that land
:ost for a strip center, b ecause such land ad joins a public
highway and because th e site is of limited depth, is con-
>equently high er. In comparing the strip cen ter cost with
the egua! cos t of the mnimum center it is signifiant that
percentage-wise expenditures for non-construction purposes
are twice as high as for th e mnimum center.
In considering th e results of the D evelopment and Capi-
tal Costs ch ar t it must be recognized that this ch art deals
with th e comparison of costs only, without regard to
income. Under varying leasing conditions it is possible
th at th e renta! achieved might be such as to produce ei th er
a more or a lcss fa1orable investment res ult.
From th e foregoing it m av be concluded that although
th ere is an interrelation between expenditures and eco-
nomic results, it is not neccssaril y a direct one . However,
th ere is a very definite and direct relation between the
qu ality of planning, and the success of an operation. Plan-
ning of high standard may result in h igh er expenditures,
th ough it might also res ult in lower ones; it ma y even
have no influence whatever on th e size of the capital in-
vestment . The only ex pense directly influenced is th e cost
of those senices which are necessary to achieve planning
of greater thoroughness and higher quali ty. Tt obviously
consum es less tim e, effort and stud y to develop a plan that
is just adequ ate, in th e ph ysical and economic sense, than
to scarch for th e b est plan (the best plan b eing th e on e
which will allow th e developer to take full es t advantage
of th e inhcrent potential. ) T hus, in order to arri1e at the
best poss iblc solution, on e sh ould allot sufficient funds, in
rclation to th e total, for planning activities. Tf, under cer-
tain conditions, the expenditures for planning sh ould , in
proportion to th e whole construction outlay, be grea ter
than is comentionall y h eld to be normal, this in itself
should n ot be deemed a disturbing fea ture. Tt is completely
in th e realm of possibility, and h as in effect been repeatedly
proven, that this ei th er does n ot h ave any influ ence on th e
total capital imes tment or may even result in an over-all
saving. lf, for example, as a res ult of successful planning,
the relati onship between renta] space and total building
area is altered so th at a larger proportion of re nta! space
is gained, this will make a significant ch ange on the income
side of th e shopping center budget. Tf skillful leasing plan-
ning results in higher income from either guaranteed or
perccntage rents, th e effects will be similarly favorable. If
superior engineering and unusu all y th orough con tract docu-
ments (working draw ings and specifi cations) result, on th e
one h and, in <m insignificant increase in architectural costs
and, on th e other, in a significant saving in constru ction
cost, th e capital investment side of the budget ledger will
be favorabl y influenced.
Summarizing, th e problem of planning costs should be
approach ed by th e developer with practicality and realism .
1t should be rcgard ed as an integral part of h is investment.
T he developer should keep in mind th at this one invest-
ment tem can strongl y affect both his ca pital inves tment
and his income and th ough, as we h ave stressed repea tedly,
planning (of al! typcs) cannot by itself create potentials
for profitable imestment, it is the ou tstanding measure
through which cxis ting potentials can be brought to the
full est fruition. *
C-Setting U p the Budget
\ Vh en decisions have been made on the various cost
elements outlined in th e previous section, it will be possi-
ble to set up control budgets for the center.
These control budgets will cover three separa te concepts:
The Capital Budget: The Opening Costs Budget; The
Operatin g Budge t.
lt is not th c purpose of this book to outline accounting
meth ods th at are likely to be influenced largely by fac tors
relatin g to th e ownership of th e project. The purpose of
this section is to emphas ize th e need for correctly identify-
ing each tem of expenditure and for recognizing th e im-
portance of in stituting reasonable procedures to assme th e
owner that cxpenditure will n ot unreasonably exceed the
programmcd amounts.
Similarl y. the cxtcnt to which any particular item of
expenditure ma y be justified. or how it may be treated on
th e books of th e de1eloper. will depend in part on financia]
policies of th e owners and on such things as dccisions re-
lating to Federal income taxes upon which the owners'
accountin g p rocecl ures are establish ed.
l) Capital Budget. Construction costs can be controlled
by a com bination of th e following factors:
a) Intelligent architectural supervision an d sound work-
ing drawings ancl spccifi cations.
b) Souncl cstimates.
e) A correct unclerstandin g and admi nistra tion of the
con tingcncy reserves typic all~ inclucled in th c construc-
ti on budge t.
* Larry Smith points to severa! actual experiences: 1 ) Careful plan-
ning. in a specifi c project. res ultcd in raising the proportion of
rentable spacc compared to total building area from 88 % to
9-f 'i'o. This is equi,alent to m ore than a 6 % in crease in income
and was accomplished with the expenditure for addi tional profes-
sioml fees of lcss than 1 'lo of the cost of th e project . 2 ) In sorne
actual cases, a\erage renta! incom e was in creased over original
estima tes b y 1 5(' per sq uare foot, due to coopera tion between
architectural offices work ing on specific retail store planning func
tions and the lcasing age nts. The capi talized valuc of this increase
in renta! (a t 7% %) is cquiva lent to $2 per square foot and was
achieved under an in crcased architec tural fee of 1'7o of the build-
ing cost which was equiva lent to 17t,i per square foo t. 3 ) 1n a
small sh oppin g cen ter th e architectural fees amounted to 13 o/o of
the capital valuc of the project but a very striking solution was
achieved with an m-cr-all capital cost of substantially less than
$ 1O per sq ua re foot.
211
 Toble 1

XYZ Shopping Ce nt e r
Project Budget dot e d 12 / J / 60

Summary
Copitol Co st Bud ge t Budget Costs
Sche dule Estimo te Doled Do ted
No. 6 / 1/ 58 9/ 1/ 60 12/ 1/ 60 Co mmitted Uncommitted
ltem

Con struction $5,000,000 $4,900,000 $4,950,000 $4,600,000 $ 350,000

Tenont
ollowonces 11 1,200,000 1,250,000 1,2 50,000 750,000 500,000
lond & unu suol
site d eve bpm e nt 111 450,000 450,000 450,000 450,000
Archit e ct's &
Engin ee r's fee IV 400,000 390,000 400,000 400,000
lntere st on
fund s V 300,000 275,000 275,000 140,000 135,000
Recoveroble
cash od vonces VI 100,000 150,000 125,000 60,000 65,000
Real estof e
to xes Vil 40,000 40,000 40,000 30,000 10,000
Con sultan ts VII I 75,000 75,000 75,000 65,000 10,000
Misc e llon eo us IX 15,000 15,000 20,000 16,000 4 ,000
Totol cost of
construction 7,580,000 7,545,000 7,585,000 6,511 ,000 1.074,000
Finoncng fees
& e xpe nses X 50,000 50,000 50,000 46,000 4,000
Ad mini stro tive &
Le o sing costs XI 200,000 200,000 200,000 120,000 80,000
Mi sc ellon eo us
pre poid ite ms XII 50,000 50,000 50,000 35,000 15.000

Tota l project
cost 7,880,000 7,845,000 7,885,000 6,712,000 1,173,000

Toble 11

XYZ Shopping Center

Proj ect Budget dct ed 12 / 1/ 60

Sched ul e 1

Ccpitol Cost Budge t Bud get Costs

Sche dule Estimote Do ted Dole d
l tem No. 6 / 1/ 58 9 / 1/ 60 12 / 1/ 60 Committed Uncom mitted

G e ne ral
controct lA
Sit e work lB
Yord work lC
Conting e ncies ID
Cost of
morginol roed 1E
Miscell o neou s 1F

Total 5,000,000 4,900,000 4,950,000 4,600,000 350,000

21 2
.-

INCOME AND EXPENSE ACCOUNTS

300 Inca me 400 Expenses 400 Expenses (cont'd)

310 Rent 410 Administrativa Expense 480 Other Expenses
311 Guaranteed 481 lnle rest Expense
420 Utilities Epense
312 Percenlage 482 Deferred Organization Expense
4 21 Electricily
Written Off
320 Utilities lncome 422 Water
423 Healing 483 Deferred Leasing Expense Wrillen
321 Electricity
Off
322 Water
430 Tenont Services Expense 484 Deferred Finoncing Expense
323 Healng
431 Ar Conditioning Wrillen Off
330 Tenont Services lncome 432 Trash Removal 485 Other Deferred Developme nt
331 Air Conditioning 433 Janitoral Expense Written Off
332 Trosh Removal 434 Mainte nance 486 Other
333 Janitorial
440 Common Area Cosls Expended Expense Sub-Accounts
334 Mointenance 441 Proleclon
NOTE: Each tem ol expense should be con-
340 Common Areo Chorges Billed 442 landscoping
sidered in the light of the follawing possible
443 Mainte nance ond Operotions
350 Mis.celloneous Sources of lncome suboccou nts:
444 Other
351 Vending Mochines 1 Salaries
352 Pay Telephones 450 Expenses Applcable lo Miscellaneous 2 Po yroll laxes
353 Pay Toilels Sources of lncome 3 Unemployment lnsurance
354 Conce ssions. 451 Ve ndng Machines 4 Workmon's Compensation lnsuronce
452 Po y Te lephones 5 Emp1oyee Me dical 1nsurance
360 Other lncome
453 Pay To lets 6 Supplies
361 Air Conditioning Standby Charge
454 Concessions 7 Services Purchosed
362 Other
460 Publicity Expense 8 Professionol Fees.
9 Cammunication
470 Properly Expense 10 Trove!
11 Repairs
12 lnsurance
13 Real Estate laxes
14 Pe rsonal Property laxes
15 Oepreciotion
16 Unclassilied

.~
~

1
d) Renta] procedures maintained within the budget All members of the planning team sh ould be kept fully in- i
fram ework. forrn ed of the current pos ition as a rneans of effectively 1
e) Con trol of such work as is performed on a "cost controlling eosts within their par ticular arcas of responsi- 1

plus" basis. bility.

f) Carefullv dmm contrac t documents.
g) Con trol of costs of tenants' work.
A general form of budgetary report which has been
found useful in the control of such capital costs is shown
on these pages.
Each majar ca tegory of work is supported by a more
detailed schedule identifying the various items into which
the costs are allocated.
Proccdurcs should be establishtd whereby an y expendi-
ture will be correctly identified and reported, and whereby
the adequacy of th e reserve for uncommitted expenditures
can be tested against the anticipated costs of work for
which eontraet authorization has not yet been granted.
The extent to which supporting detailed schedules with 1
expbnatory notes on changes may be used will depend
upon the requiremen ts of the owner in any particular case.
T he important point is that the owner should be kept eur-
rently awa re of the cost situation, and be in a position t o
test the adequacy of the uncommitted funds at al! times.
Th e fact that a shopping center is rarely full y leased
1\'hen construction starts. combined with the fact that even
if leased complete detailing of pbns for the tenants' space
can scldom be accomplished before the general contract s
lct. is the major reason why no single controlled contract
figure s possiblc although the allowance system discussed
in Chapter lO can be a 1\'0rkable tool towards this en d.

213
l
 Consequently, con trol procedures such as th ose indicated
herein are essential if expenditure is to be h eld within
planned limits.
2) O pening Costs Budget. \Vhile not a majar item, this
particular expenditure which occurs subsequent to the
completion of construction and prior to and apart from th e
normal operating budget justifies special mention .
The mechanics of control can follow the same pattern as
that of th e capital budget.
Sorne of the more important items to be considered in
this category are the following: advertising expenses;
speeial promotional fea tures; opening period acti,ities;
eash balances for operations: operating equipment-main-
tenance and janitorial: operating supplies.
As a general rule of thumb. an ap propriation of 50~ per
square fo ot of rentable !loor area for these items will be
reasonable. Expcnditure may be controlled ata lower figure,
but preliminary budgets sh ould make approximately such
an allowance. Tn neighborhood and intermedia te centers,
th is cost might be lo\\'er per square foot.
3) Operating Budget. The mechanics of budgetary con trol
of operations will follow usual accounting prac tice.
This suggcsted chart of accounts indicates the items that
must be considered in the preparation of such a budget.
4)Real Estate Ta.xes. In attempting to make a shopping
center profitable. it is not enough to see to it that tenan ts
pay maximum practica] rents. 1t is also important that ex-
penses be kept at a reasonable minimum. Since real estate
taxes under normal opera ting conditions represent the
greatest single expense of ownership, this book \\'Ould not
be complete with out a comment on real estate taxes as
assessed against shopping cen ters.
lt has become more and more apparent. particularly in
the past four or fi\e years, that taxing authorities through-
out the country have begun to look on shopping centers as
a m a jor so urce of tax reven u es to the ex ten t tha t in sorn e
areas real esta te taxes have reached the point of elimination
of the normal real estate profit from a successful de,elop-
ment. ~ T a n y developers. as well as the majority of knowl-
214
edgea ble lending institutions, have become Yery disturbed 1
by this trend. Unfortunately, the taxing auth orities have
not arrived at any uniform approach to th e problem of
sh opping center assess ment. Severa! commendable attempts
ha,e been made by assessors such as R obert L. M iller,
C.A.E., now retired, form erly Ch ief Assessor for the City
of ~ ! il\\'aukee, to delineate th e problem and adopt assessing
proccdures which place shopping centers in their proper
perspective in the real estate fie ld for taxing purposes .
The majar point of this approach is to recognize several
principies wh ich are peculiar to the sh opping centers as
aga inst any other form of real estate. These include:
(a) The fact that a shopping cen ter developer must
pro\'ide in h is development many improvemen ts, such
as utilities, lighting, on-site drainage, parkin g, police
protection, fire protection. etc .. which are normally pro-
,ided by municipalities to real estate owners. In shop-
ping cen ters not onl y do th e owners have to provide
these facilities from their own funds, both operating and
capital. hut the value of such improvements becomes a
basis for tax assess ment. This in effect amou nts to
double taxation .
(b ) Due to the fact that a shopping center crea tes
praeticall y in one instant a total shopping dis trict, it may
take a longer period of time for a retail store in a shop-
ping center to reach its productive poten tial than is th e
case for a single store placcd in the midst of an existm g
shopping district. If taxes are levied on stores in a shop-
ping center at their inception at the same leYel as would
be applied against the same store when it comes into
being in an exis tin g district. the effect of taxes alone can
make the sh opping center store so unpro fi table as to
jeopardize its ab ility to continue to a more profi table
period.
Tt is important to a de,elopcr. therefore. during the
period of planning and de,elopment, that efforts be
made to contact ancl discuss with taxi ng offi cials the
plans and problems of den:lopmen t. in arder that the
taxing authority be given the maxi mu m assistanee in
prcparing material to be used as a hasis for the assess-
ment procedure, wi th a view to establishing a ba sis for
equitable taxation.
 PART J:J:-CHAPTER 12
Case Studies
Since planning meth ods have been discussed in sorne
detail in the foregoi ng ch apters, it should now b e both
useful and interesting to consider planning and design as
expressed in executed projects.
It is, of course, impossible to furnish an ovcr-all planning
review of th e trem endously large number of shopping centers
now in existence, even if the review were restricted to centers
built during th e last fi\e yea rs. The number of approaches,
th e infinite variety of solutions, are too great. T hree methods
are used here in an effort to convey significant data to th e
reader.
First, a tabulation (see Page 216) drawn up on th e b asis
of information received in reply to questionnaires that were
sent out to representative shopping center developers and
architects in an attempt to collect basic information con-
cerning the size, parking provisions and planning charac-
teristics of various regional sh opping centers. It illustrates
the considerable differen ces in planning and design stand-
ards, differences which can be justilied, more often th an n ot,
by variations in th e requirem cnts of individual locations
and individual sites . In sorne cases, of course, th ere are
inherent qualitative differences which are very often re-
flected in renta] incom e, or in business success, or b oth.
Second, land usage plans of twenty-three centers, region-
al, intermediate and n eighborh ood, drawn to identical
scale, and using identical techniques to indicate various
land uses (see Page 2 19) . In all of th ese plans, buildings
have been indicated in black; department stores are marked
\\'ith th e letter D; markets, wi th th e letter l\1; restaurants,
with th e letter R , and office buildings, with the letter O .
Specially marked also are pickup stations P; bus terminals
B: taxi stands T; senice courts C , and truck roads, rep-
resented by a dash line (----). \Vithin the transportation area
the number of parking spaces has been indicated.
A comparison of th ese twenty-three plans gives interest-
ing clues as to th e infinity of bas ic planning solutions, and
th e great varie ty in size. compactness and arrangement of
pcdcs trian arcas of th e sh opping center. In sorne cases, of
coursc, th e land usage plan does not properly reflect the size
of th c renta] arca because multi-level arrangements of sell-
ing arcas are not expressed in it. In selecting th e twenty-
three ccnters th e auth ors were influenced by th e availability
of plans and bv th e general significance of th e planning,
but not b? criteria of quality. Available space being limited,
it was impossiblc to include all significant del'clopm ents.
Th c thircl meth od is to discuss in greater detail, through
\\ ord an d picturc, a dozen significant sh opping centers de-
signecl bv architects prominent in the shopping center lield.
1n mam cases, th c text u sed to describe th e individual
projects. \\'aS \ITi tten by th e mchi tccts in charge of planning
ancl design. In selecting th ese twehe projects, the authors
\\'ere again influ cnccd by th c sign ificance of the selected
ccnters but also by th e availability of plans and photo-
graph s. It is obl'ious th at because of the small number
\\'hich coulcl be included , somc excellent shopping centers
h ad to be omittecl.
Zl5 ,
 Tabulation of information received on th e basis of questionnaires. T he data for this tabulation was
made available thro ugh the cooperation of developers and architects. Inasmuch as a difference in

NAME LOCATION OWNER ARCHITECT NAME OF DEPT. STATUS OF

STORE OR STORES PROJECT

\j~ Be-rg_e_n
__M_o_I_I___________P_a_r_a_m_u_s_,N--.J.--------AIIied__S_t_o_r_e_s__________J_o_h_n__G_r_a_h_a_m__&

Corporation
__C__o_._______S_t_ern's----------------Compleled----

Block Harse Auduban, N. J. Penn Fruit Co. Victor Gruen Associates Campleted

The Boardwolk Tiburon, Col. Belvedere-Tiburon John Lord King Completed

Developmenl Co.

Capitel Courl Milwoukee, Wis. Capitel Court John Grohom & Co.; Ed Schusler & Co. Completed ex
Corporotion Brust & Brust, Assoc. T. A. Chapman cept Blocks C,
Arch. D, J-Lower
Lev. Structure

Cross Counly Yonkers, N. Y. Crass Proper- Lathrop Douglass Wanama1cer Completed

ties, lnc., Sol G . Gimbel's
Atlas, Pres.

Eastland Covina Area, Cal. Granada Develop Albert C. Martin & May Co. Completed
ment Co. Associotes W. T. Gran!

Eastland Detroit, Mich. Eastland Cenler Victor Gruen Assaciates J. L. Hudson Co. Completed

Garden Stole Plaza Paramus, N. J. Gard en Stole Plaza Abbatt, Merkt & Co. Bamberger's Under Con
Corp. J. C. Penney Ca. struction

Glendole lndianapolis, lnd. Glendale Cenler Victor Gruen Associates Ayres Completed
Block's

Hillsdale San Moteo, Cal. David D. Bahonnon Welton Becket & Assoc. Macy's Completed

Lloyd Cenler Portland, Ore. Lloyd Corpora- John Graham & Co. Meier & Frank Co. In construction
tion, Lid.

Mayfair Milwauke e, Wis. Froedtert-Mayfair Perkins & Will, Morshall Field & Co. Completed
Grassold-Johnson & Gimbel's
Associates
Morshall Field: Loebl,
Schlossman & Bennell
Gimbel's: Welton
Be cket & Assoc.

Mid-lslond Hicksville, L. 1., Stackler & Frank Lathrop Douglass B. Gertz, lnc. Completed
Shopping Pla za New York

Mondawmin Baltimore, Md. Mondawmi n Mondawmin Board af Sears Roebuck Campleted

Corporation Design

Old Orcha rd Skokie, 111. Old Orchord Bu si- Loebl, Schlossman & Morshall Field & Co. Completed
ness District, 1nc. Bennett The Fair

Pala Son Jose, Col. Mclntyre & Porker Victor Gruen Associates Completed

p Roosevelt Field Long lsland, N. Y. Webb & Knapp- l. M. Pei & Associotes Mocy's Completed
Raosevelt Field, 1nc .

Southdale Minneapalis, Minn. Southdale Cenler Victor Gruen Associates Da yton's Completed
Donaldson's

Valley Foir San Jase, Cal. Valley Fair Victar Grue n Associates Macy's Completed

Wildwood Milwaukee, Wis. Wildwaod Cenler Victor Gruen Associotes Schuster's Plonning
Bastan Stare

Waialae Hanalulu , Hawaii Trustees of B. P. Victar Gruen Assaciates The Liberty House Completed
Bishop Estofe
216
 terminology exists regarding parking space and area measurements (see Part II, C hapter 3) the data
contain ed herein cannot be regarded as abso lutely comparable. Quoted in rou nd figures, the table

DATE OF TOTAL SQ. FT. TOTAL SQ. FT. TOTAL SQ. FT.
RENTAL AREA RENTAL AREA NO. PARKING NO. RESERVE
OPENING RENT A8ALE AREA SPACES S PACES
DEPT. STORE A DEPT. STORE 8

1958 Phcse 1- 1,000,000 1

300,000 8400 Non e
Ultmcte- 1,700,000 1

r 1955 82,000 693 1

lt
Februory, 1956 36,400 136

793,762 (including lj
~
' September, 1956 8locks C, d, j when
Present- 241,000 Present-63, 149 5127 308 l.
Future- + 17,280 Future- + 12,216
completed) ~

1955-56 968,000 208,000 208,000 5200 incl. reserve (lncluded

& unpcve d oreas in 5200)
'1
October, 1957 752,000 363,000 42,200 5000 Non e

1957 899,737 513,000 8300

Stcge 1-4/57 1,150,000 340,000 92,000 6300 through 45 ocres

Stoge 11-5 / 58 Stoge 11

1956 525,000 140,000 117,000 3,365

1954 702,227 187,000 3000

Summer, 1959 1,200,000 300,000 8490 1888

1958 / 1959 1,100,000 25% Gimbel's 30% Field's 6000 1000

Octcber, 1956 911,000 300,000 6000 2000 unde-

veloped

October, 1956 475,000 180,000 4000

- 1958 918,438 310,000 121,116 6000 1500

1955 38,000 210 3 acres

August, 1956 1,150,000 320,000 7000 11,000 11

(final stcge)

1956 670,000 183,000 145,000 5200 4 ocres

'"
1957 505,849 152,000 2700 Non e

Uncertain 698,000 176,000 111,000 4300 850

Octcber, 1958 152,652 76,000 1055 6 acres

Fold out pcge 21 8 fo r lost sectio n el tcble ->-

21 7
L
 is presented as a useful indica tion of the basic concepts underlying the design of significan t projects
and is not represented as a statistically accurate comparison.

EXCLUSIVE ALLOWANCE FOR

HANDLING OF COMMUNITY
PEDESTRIAN EXPANSION OF
SERVICE TRAFFIC FACILITIES
AREAS RENT AREA

Und e rground Truck Road Malls, Pedestrian Bridge across High- Auditorium, Public Toilets, Meeting Yes
way No. 4 Rooms, Medical Building

Service Courts No Yes

Service Courts Covered Walkways and Court Public Toilets, Library, Post Office, Yes
Christian Science Reading Room,
Dining Terrace

Und e rground Truck Road Molls, Courts Public Toilets, Meeting Rooms Yes (as described)

Und e rg rou nd Truck Rood for Malls Meeting Rooms Limited

Mojority; Se rvic e Courts. for Min-
o rity; O ve r C urb for Limited
Numbe r

Un d e rgrou nd Truck Road Malls Yes

Un derg ro un d Truck Road Malls, Court

Und e rgro u nd Tru ck Ro od Molls, Courts, Public Concourse Auditorium, Public Toilets, Meeting Yes, lo
under Mall Rooms 1,700,000 sq. ft.

Unde rground Truck Rood Auditorium, Post Office , Yes

Malls, Court
Public Toilets, Meeting
Rooms, Restaurants

Un de rground Truck Rood Malls Public Toilets Yes

2 Und erg ro und Truck Roads, Malls, Courts, Pedestrion Walks al Auditorium, Public Toilets, Meeting Yes
Tr uc k Service Alley & 2d floor 2d floor level Rooms, Skating Rink, Spectator
Sy stem of Truckwoys with Turn - Facilities
tabl es fo r Ropid Re ve rsol of
Traffi c
Un d e rgro und Truck Road Molls, Courts Non e Yes

Un de rg round Tr uc k Ro od Malls, Courts Small Auditorium, Public Toilets, Limited

Meeting Rooms

Un derg ro un d Tr uck Rood Malls, Courts, Covered Walkways, Public Toilets, Meeting Rooms Yes
Arcade, Entranceways

Un de rg ro un d Tr uck Road for Malls, Courts Professional Building, Restaurants Yes

Mo rs holl Fie ld; Service Co urt s
for Oth e r Tenonts

Se rv ice Courts Court, Covered Walkways No Yes

Und e rgroun d Truck Rood Malls, Courts Auditorium, Public Toilets, Meeting Yes
Rooms, Skating Rink

Truck Rood Enclose d Air-Conditioned Court Public Toilets, loo, Auditorium, Yes
Child Center

Service Courts Malls, Court Public Toilets, Meeting Room, Child Yes, to
Play Center 575,000 sq. ft.
Truck Road Molls, Court Yes, to
793,000 sq. ft.
Service Courts Malls No Ves, to
21 8 215,000 sq. ft.

See other side of this sheet for plons.

 LAND USAGE PLANS OF 23 CENTER S DRAWN TO ID ENT ICA L SCALE.

O 5CO
"'"-=------

A o N

l Northgote Cente r, Gorden Stote Plaza,

& Com pany ..

~
Seatt le, Washington .
Architects: John Grohom & Compony
___..-
Paramus, New Jersey.
Architects: Abbott, Merkt & Ca . !
::ra e- - o
Raase ve lt Fie ld Shap pin g Center, Capita l Court, Eastlond Shopping Center,
Nassa u Ca unty, l ong lsland, New York. Milwaukee, Wisconsin. De troit, Michigan. 1
Architects: l. M. Pe i & Assa ciates Architects: John Groham & Compony Architects: Vctor Gru e n Asso ciates
~A rch i t ecl: R. C. Br ugnon i ~----- ~~

F ~ ~ '\__/
e Mayloi r Shopping Cente r, Northlond Shopping Ce nter,
Old Orch o rd Sho pping Ce nte r, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Det roit, Mchigon .
Skokie, lllinois. Architects: Perkin s & Will, G rosso ld- Architects : Viciar Gruen Associotes
Arch itects: loebl, Schlossman & Be nne lt Johnson & Associo tes
G Q
Cross County Sh opping Center, Valley Fa ir Shopping Ce nter,
Yonkers, New York. Son Jase, Ca lifornia.
Architect: lathrop Douglass Architects: Vctor Grue n Associa tes

H R
Mon d owmin Shoppi ng Center, Hillsdole Sho pping Center,
KEY TO PLANS Ba ltimore, Morylancl. Sa n Ma teo , Cal ifornia .
Arch itects: N.ondawmin Boa rd of Desig n Architects: Welton Becket & Associ otes

S
Eastland Center, Mid- lsla nd Shopping Ce nte r,
West ( ovina, California. Hicksville, long lsland, New Yo rk.
Parking Architects: Albert C. Ma rtn & Associotes Architect: lothrop Doug lass

11 Buildings J T
Wildwood Shopping Center, Sho p pe rs' Wo rl d,
Parks Milwa ukee, Wisconsin. Fra minghom, Mossa chusetts.
D Department Store Architects: Vctor G ruen Associotes Architects: Ketch um, G in a nd Sharp

M Market K u
B Bus Terminal So uth d o le Shopping Cen ter, Waia lae Shopping Center,

o Office Building
Min neo polis, Minn esoto.
Architects: Vctor Gru e n Associates
Honolulu, Howaii.
Architects: Vctor Gru e n Associates
R Restaurant
p Pickup Station
L V
G lenda le Shopping Ce nte r, Th e Board wal k,
E Elec. & Air Cond. lndiono po lis, Indiano . Tiburon, Califo rnia.
Architects: Vc tor Gruen Associates Architect: John lord King
Central Plant
T Taxi Stand M \_ /-..... w 1

e Service Courts Bergen Maii, Shopping Ce nte r,

Parom us, New Je rsey.
South Be y Center,
Re d ond o Beach, California .
Truck Roads \ Architecls: Jo)>-:, Groh a m & Ca . Associo te A rchitects: A. Quincy Jones,
"-...__ / Fre d e rick Emm o ns, Vct or G ruen
__ )
77~
e D
S 221 T
 1s presented as a usefuJ indica tion of the basic co ncepts un derJying the design of significa n! projects
and is not represented as a sta tisticalJy accurate comparison .

EXCLUSIVE ALLOWANCE FOR

HANDLING OF COMMUNITY
PEDESTRIAN EXPANSION OF
SERVICE TRAFFIC FACILITIES
AREAS RENT AREA

Und e rground Truck Rood Molis, Pedestrion Bridge ocross High Auditorium, Public Toilets, Meeting Yes
woy No. 4 Rooms, Medico! Building

Service C ourts No Yes

Service Courts Cove red Walkways ond Court Public Toilets, librory, Post Office, Yes
Christian Science Reading Room,
Dining Terrace

Und e rg round Truck Rood Melis, Courts Public Toilets, Meeting Rooms Yes (as described)

Und e rgrou nd Truck Rood for Melis Meeting Room s limited

Mo jo ri ty; Service Courts for Mn -
o rity; O ve r Curb for Limited
Numbe r

Un d e rground Truck Roed Melis Yes

Un derg ro u nd Truck Roed Melis, Court

Un d e rg ro un d Truck Roed Molls, Courts, Public Concourse Auditorium, Public Toilets, Meeting Yes, to
under Mali Rooms 1,700,000 sq. ft.

Underground Truck Roed -Auditorium , Post Office, Yes

Melis, Court
Public Toilets, Meeting
Rooms, Restaurants

Un de rground Truck Rood Melis Public Toilets Yes

2 Un de rground Truck Roods,
Truc k Service Aliey & 2d floor
Sys te m of Truckwoys with Turn-
to b le s for Ropid Re ve rso! of
Tr offic
Malls, Courts, Pede strian Wolks at Auditorium, Public Toilets, Meeting Yes
2d floor le ve ! Rooms, Skating Rink, Spectotor
Facilities

Un de rg roun d Truck Roed Melis, Courts Non e Yes

Und e rground Truck Roed Melis, Courls Smali Auditorium, Public Toilets, limited
Meeting Rooms

Un d e rgroun d Tr uck Roe d Molls, Courts, Cove re d Walkwoys, Public Toilets, Meeting Rooms Yes
Arcade, Entranceways

Un d e rg rou nd Tr uck Roed fo r Molis, Courts Profess.ionol Building, Restaurants Yes

Morshali Fie ld; Se rvice Courts
fo r Other Te nonts

Servic e Courts Court, Covered Wolkways No Yes

Unde rgrou nd Truck Roed Me lis, Courts Auditorium, Public Toilets, Meeting Yes
Rooms, Skoting Rink
Truck Roed Enclose d Ai r-C onditioned Court Public Toilets, Zoo, Auditorium, Yes
Child Center
Se rvice Courts Melis, Cou rt Public Toilets, Meeting Room, Child Ves, to
Play Center 575,000 sq. ft.
Truck Rood Melis, Court Yes, to
793,000 sq. ft.
Service Courts M o lis No Yes, to
21 8 215,000 sq. ft.

See other side of this sheet for plons.

 LAND USAGE PLANS OF 23 CENTERS DRAWN TO JDENTICAL SCALE.

"'

A
N D
\.

\ N
Lloyd Cente r, Northgote Center, Gard en State Plaza ,
Portlond, Oreg on. Seottle, Wa shington. Paramu s, New Jersey.
Archite ctS!-J olm-6rah~m pon y Architects: John Graham & Company Architecls: Abbott, Merkt & Co.

~;old Shopp;og Co.,J,

Nossou County, Long lslond, New York.
r- ------/
Capitel Court,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
o
Eastland Shopping Center,
De troit, Michigan.

1
Architects: l. M. Pei & Associote s
~Ar<:hitect : R. C. Brugnoni
Architects: Jahn Graham & Company

~
~
---
Arch itects: Victor Grue n Associates
. .....__
. \___/
, ..... ~

F
e Mayfair Sh opping Center, Northland Shopping Cente r,
Old Orchord Shopping Ce nter, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Detroit Michigan .
Skoki e, Jllinois. Archi tects: Perkins & Will, Grassold- cts: Victor Gruen Associates
Archite cts: Loeb l, Schlossmon & Be nne tt Johnson & Associates
G .

Cross Caunty Sh cppin g Cente r, Va ll ey Fair Shopping Center,

Yank e rs, New York. San Jase, California.
Architecl: Lathrop Douglass Architects: Victor Grue n Associates

H R
Monda wmi n Shopping Center, Hillsdal e Shoppin g Center,
KEY TO PLANS Baltimore, Maryland. San Mateo, California.
Arch itects: N.ondawmin Board of Design Architects: Weltcn Becket & Associates

S
Eastland Center, Mid-lsland Shopping Ce nte r,
West (ovina, Cal ifornia. Hicksvill e, Long lsland, New York .
Parking Architects: Albert C. Marti n & Associates Architect: Lathrop Douglass

11 Buildings J T .1
1
Wildwood Shapping Ce nte r, Shoppe rs ' World,
Parks l
Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Framingham, Massachusetts.
D Department Store Arch ite cts: Victor Gru en Associates Architecls: Ketchum, Gin and Sharp
1,

M Market K u
B Bus Terminal Southdal e Shopping Cente r, Waialae Shopping Center,

o Office Building
Minn ea polis, Minnesota.
Architects: Victor Gru e n Associates
Honolulu, Hawaii.
Architects: Viciar Gru en Associates
R Restaurant
p Pickup Station L V
Gl en dale Shopping Center, Th e Boardwalk,
E Elec. & Air Cond. Jndianapolis, Indiana. Tiburon, California.
Archite cts: Victor Gru en Associates Architect: John lord King
Central Plant
T Taxi Stand M \.._ / / -. w
e Service Courts Berg en Maii, Sh opping Center,
Para~us, New Je rsey.
South Boy Center,
Redondo Beach, California .
Truck Roads 1
Arch:tects: John Graham & Co. Associate Architects: A. Quincy Janes,
'--- / Frederick Emmons, Victor Gruen
__ ,
77~
 OLD ORCHARD SHOPPING CENTER, Skokie, Illinois
Owner: Old Orchord Business District, lnc.
Architects: Loebl, Schlossmon & Bennett

Consultonts: Landscoping, Lowrence Holprin & Associotes; Mechanicol

& Electricol, Robert E. Hottis Engineers; Structurol, Alfred Benesch &
Ass.ociotes; Civil Engineering, Joseph A. Schudt & Associates; Troffic
Consultonts, George Bartan; General Controctors,. lsland Construction
Co.

T he plan is developed around the main magnet, the large

I\Iarshall F ield & Co. department store branch. To each
side of the department store is a shopping core of which
one is anchored to The Fair department store branch, the
other to a large professional building. Services are taken
care of in well-shielded truck courts.
The outstanding features of this center are the shaping,
design and landscaping of the pedestrian areas and the skill-
ful handling of the appearance of the parking areas. The
pedestrian areas are organized into spaces of varying scale,
shape and treatment. Yet, there is an underlying bas ic unity
and a clearl y expressed interconnection of the individual
spaces. Pcdestrian areas are enlivened by low fi eldstone
walls containing planting beds, by fountains and a serpen-
tine pool. The buildings are linked by co\'ered walkways.
The parking area has been enriched in its appearance by
a large number of sizable trees, parking lot lighting has been
integrated with the planning and thus, the usual mechan-
ized appearance of the parking area has h ere been success-
full y humanized. Skillfull y arranged tall f!agpoles proclaim
the center to the driving public. View of offi ce building from one of the small courts.

Informallandscaping in one of the courts.

224
 Landmark sign \\'ith symbo1 near access road.

Ph otograpl1 s: Hube H enry, Hedrich- BI,ssing

Elongated pond with

bridge in main co urt.
 MONDAWMIN SHOPPING CENTER, Baltimore, Mary-
land.
Owners: Mond o wmin Corporation
Archite cts: Mondo wmi n Board of Design: Pietro Belluschi; Don Kiley;
Ke nneth Welch; Wilbur Smith; Seward Moti; James Reuse; and Fisher,
Nes, Campbe ll & Associates

l\ Ir. Charles H. Richter, Jr. of the firm of Fisher, Nes,

Campbell & Associates, describes the center as follows:

The basic opprooch in plonning Mo nda w min wa s to recreote the atmos-

phe re of Baltimore's Lex ington Stree t in o more ple asant, flexible and
convenient monner. lexington Street is o norraw thoroughfare containlng
mon y smoll shops with department stores al each e nd . We tried te follow
t his fundam e ntal criterion in our de sign . Th e ow ners hod set up a build-
ing conte nt al 430,000 square feel. The Board of Design suggested a
parki ng ratio of one cor per 100 square feet of re nta! orea. The structure
was te be situoted on e 46 o cre site loco ted we lf within the city limits
o nd surro und ed by importan! stree ts. The topography from ene end al
th e site te the oth e r hod a grade dif!e re nce of 60 f ee t.
We approach ed these problems or attributes by first considering o two
leve l ce nter du e te the extre me difference in grade. This difference in
g rad e a lsa cau sed our parking ratio te be ad juste d. We did no! want
te exceed a 7 % slope in any parking oree . JI additional parking spcces
ore neede d, a doub ledeck scheme wi ll be cansid e red.
Because th e ce nter wos viewed from o network of important roods, the
backs of stores or service oreas had te be eliminated. This was accom -
plished by ho ving double fronted stores and en underground service
roa d .
Our reaction to the completed project is favo ra b le. We are pleosed with
o two -leve l cente r be couse of its compoctness ond convenient occessibility
to oll stores. The intimacy of the courts is outstonding . Befare construc-
tian, we fe lt thot the smoller e nes lea ding te the departmenl store from
the mo in court were too narrow, but these feors were unfounded. The
dimen sion from store front to store f ront is 52 feet and gives a feeling of
pl e asant shopping spoce. Th e concrete circular st oir has received favor-
abl e comm ent ond shows thot such sculptu ral f eotur es ore well worth-
whi le, lending distinction. In the relotion of parking sp oce te shops, the
walking distance from parked car to canopy, with the exception of
e mployee parking, was kept te a ma ximum of 300 feet te preve n! shop
pers from seorching for spoces c_loser to t he stores.

Bird'ser e l'ie11 witl1 indica tion of majar tenants.

Plw tographs: 1\Iaps, In c., BlakesleeL ane, Inc., SussmanOchs, Francis DiGennaro

Two level merchandising in mal!.

226
 View from pla ne of transportation area and shopping core.

JI lain co urt with two- lelel merchandising and stairwar connecting lower and upper levels.

227
 HILLSDALE SHOPPING CENTER, San Mateo, California.
Owner: David D. Bohonnon
Architects: Welton Becket & Associoles
Real Estote Consultonts: lorry Smith & Compony

l\1r. Jack \Vhitehouse of \ Velton Becket's office describes

th e Hillsdale Shopping Center as follows:

Deve lopm e nt al the plan involved the best lond usoge lor o rectangular
40 acre site, with existing Sears Roebuck stare ond existing market at
the south end al the property, locing the moin highwoy-EI Comino Real
- with cross streets culting through the prope rty neor the ouler ends ond
ccnnecting lo o residenticl slreet running porollel lo the moin highwoy.
The shopping cente r desired wos ene prcviding lar o deportment slore,
form e r's marke t, 50 shaps af varying sizes, limited office space, twa
banks, a post office, a service stotion and a medical building with under
graund se rvice to all stores prefe rred ond a mnimum porking ratio
el 2%: l.
The mol! wos d esigned running parollel te El Comino Real with the
majar de portm e nt stare, Macy's, in th e center af the plan, facing the
highwoy . The mol! wos stoggered lar interest ond, lo break up the
long run, with o smoll islond of shops lacote d whe re this break accurred.
Parking wos provided lar 3,500 cors ond moy be e xpended by double
decking ore as lo the west. The clie nl lelt the odvonloges al the under-
graund se rvice autwe ighe d th e additional expe nditure in excavating far
e leve ! site. Also underground is o ce ntral plont lar heoting ond air-
canditianing as we ll as a lawe r mall with post affice , insurance office,
becuty salen ond osse mbly hall.
Build ing oreo of 750,000 sq uore l eet wcs provid ed , with provision mode
far furth e r e >< panson . The re quire d numbe r of buildings were can-
structe d of lig ht slee l from e, including sleel roof joists with ligh!-weight
gypsum ond campasitian raafing. The edg e ol the prajecting ca napies
are olso constructe d of pointe d stee l from ing , three feet wid e , which
se rves os o bo cking for te nonts' signs.
Of unusuol inte rest is a re staurant be law grade, odjocent to Macy's,
which is approache d by a ramp circumve nting o re flecting pool, set in
inte resting tropical plonting. Other lond scoping thraughout the center
is co ntained in roised concre te block bo xes in th e moll oreas. which also
feoture a pe rman e nt exhibit of sculpture by Be niomino Bufono.
Floodlightin g of departmen t store front and trees.

Bird's-eye l'iew.

22 8
 1\fall area al night.

Photographs: Herbert Bruce Cross, 1\ Ioulin Studios

Ramp connec ting lower and upper

merchandising levels of department
store.
 EASTLAND SHOPPING CENTER, Detroit, Michigan
Owners: Eostland Ce nter, lnc .
Archit ec ts and Enginee rs: Vctor Gruen Associates

Partner in Charge: Karl O. Van Leuven, Jr. Praject Director: Raymond

O. Brinker. Land scape Architecl: Edward A. Eichstedt. Electrice! cnd
Mechanical Eng in eers: Hyde & Babbia, lnc. Civil Engineers: Hubbell,
Ra th & Clark . Real Estate Cansultanls: Larry Smith & Ca. Traffic Con-
sultan! : Llay d B. Re id. Sculptars: Marris Brase, Jaseph Bullane, Marshall
Frede ricks, Louise Kruger, Mary Callery, Lindsey Decker, Thamas Mc-
Ciure a nd William McVe y. Ge neral Cantraclars: O. W. Burke Co. cnd
A. A. Sm ith Ca . Mec hanical Cantractar: Danald Miller Ca. Electrice!
Co nlracla rs : J a hn H. Busby Ca . and F. J. O'Taale Ca.

Eastland Shopping Center, in the D etroit area, is an

illustra tion of how factors other than those inherent in site
or location may exert strong influence on planning and de-
sign . In this case the planners were faced with an unusual
ra nge in trade population. How they met this problem
and turned it to the advantage of th e shopping center is
interestingly brough t out in an ar ticle titled "Three Suc-
cessfu l Shopping Centers" that appeared in the Archi-
tectural Foru m of October 1957, in which a parallel is
drawn between Eastland and its sister shopping center,
Detroit's N orthland. \ Ve quote from the Forum article:
Eastlan d ha s the same back e r- the J . L. Hudson Ca.- as Narthland, same
archite cts, sorne main stare, many of the smaller tenants, is almast the
sorne size (a millian sq . ft.) and almost the sorne distance fram down-
tawn Detra it (eight miles). lts basic planning and facilities ore the same,
tao.
Bu! Eastland is na carbon capy af Narthland, largely because of differ-
e nce in clie ntel e . Eastland 's t rade papulatian is na! the middle class af
Narthland 's. lnslead, it includes Detrait's highest incame papulotion-
the Grosse Painte peaple- and a large segmenl af relatively law-incame
families. Eastland, like the city dawntawn, is built lar bath, the first
shapping ce nle r la attemp t such a spread. This has affected the scheme
in majar res pects.
Me rchandise planning : Eastland has, lar example, al the high end of
the scale, a wamen's specialty stare, Sie gel's. lt is higher priced thon
any Nar thland sta re, much bigger than its nearest equivalent there, ond
in its awn distincti ve building. At the ather extreme, Eastlond has a
very law-price d spe cialty stare three tim e s as large as its nearest North-
land equivale n!. Hudsan's al Ea stland includes bath the high-style, high-
priced Waadward Sh a ps af the paren! stare and a fui!, papulorpriced
base me nt star e with its aw n entity emphasize d, neither af which is true
al Hudsa n's Narthland. Similar leaning taward ane end of the income
scale ar th e ath e r can be faund amang many ather tenants.
Appe arance: He re the distinctian is subtle but very real. Eastland-just
as handsam e ly built, planted and equipped as Narthland-is, hawever,
more informal, laase r. This is partly a matt e r af more curves in the
landscaping , but al so be caus e faur af th e main tenanfs - Hudsan's,
Sie g e Ps, Stauffer's and Krager's - ar e in buildings each with its own
se parate characte r. Th e infarmality warks hand-in-glave with the palicy
a f pulling diverge nt publics. The las! thing Eastland's awner ond architects
want e d was fa mak e custam e rs cansciaus af class distinctians, and in the
ard e re d infarmality al Eastland the diffe re nces betwee n the grander and
le ss grand te nant g rauping s da appe ar as pe rfe ctly casual incidents of
p hys ical arrangem e nt and archite ctural variatian. lt wauld toke an ocute
ab se rve r ind eed to se ns e the provisian far different publics.
Site planning : The d iffere nces he re arise fram Ea stland's longer, narrawer
site, which dete rmin ed a clu ste r mere elangated than Narthland's tighter,
ce ntralized g raupin g. But again, this warks hand-inglave with the cim of
f ree r archite cture.

230
 ...'

View of shopping core and bus terminal from parking area.

Photogra phs: Alexandre Georges

Vew from one of the arcades fowards mall.

 BLACK HORSE SHOPPING CENTER, Audubon, New
Jersey.
Owner: Penn Fruit Co.
Architects: Victar Gruen Assaciates
Partner in Charge: Ben Southland

1l1is is a neighborhood shopping center organized around

the main magnet of th e 44,500 sq. ft. Penn Fruit Super-
market. T enant stores are arranged to either side of the
market. Parking is located in such a manner as to be most
easily accessible from the two main roads. Al! service traffic
approaches from the rear and al! loading and unloading
functions are taken care of in a central service court.
It was the owner's desire that th e design for the market
itself should establish a pro totype for further development
of the chain . (In fact. a large number of Penn Fruit mar-
ke ts generally following th is prototype design have since
been const ructed.)
Of particular interest is the integration of parking area
ligh ting standards with feature signs for the center and
the supermarket. Special attention was given to the design
of al! graphic expressions. It was possible, however, to keep
all signs wi thin a comparatiYely modest size, as th e charac-
teristic shape of the struct ure itself ac ts as a landmark.
l\ Iain body of the building is covered by means of lamin-
ated wood arches wh ich , in th e front portian of the market,
res t on reinforced concrete buttresses just above grade.

E xterior l'iew of market and adjoining stores .

. ~

~ - ... --
232
 P ho tographs: Lawrcncc \Villiams

Plan of neighborhood cen ter.

Florist.

N ight l'iew.

7 ") )"
_
THE BOARDWALK, Tiburon, Californ ia
O wne r: Be lvede re - Ti buro n D evel cp me nt Co.
Architect: Jahn lord King

landsccpe Architect: Tha mcs D. Church. Structurcl Eng ineer: lsc d a re

Thampscn. Mechcnicc l cnd El ect ricc l Engineers: Kelle r & Gcnnon .
Civil Eng in eers: Punn ett, Parez & Hutchison. G e ne ral Controctor:
Shcrp & Robinson.

The owne r cnd crchitect of this 45,500 sq. ft. shopping center had
mcny a im s in co mmo n with th e owner and architects of the giants in
t he precedi ng pc ges (i.e. Narthlcnd cnd Eostlcnd ), cnd the results
show in the little ce nter a s surely a s in the big ones.
So the Bocrdwc lk wo uld be e p reserving, not blighting, influence -
ond at the sorne time be fun to co me to - its charocter is that of a
well-bred resort, co mp lete with outdoor cofe ond e second-floor cudi-
torium much used by amateu r th eater groups. Consid eration for th e
neig hbcrhood extended even to deed in g adjoining home owners wide,
p lc nted bock-yord buffer strips, with e mcinte ncnce cgreement by th e
rec ip ients. The site is a silted-in lcgoon; th e wood -decking scheme, on
concrete pod footings, tur ned the fo undation proble m into an asset.
In merch ondise plan ning, the owner bro ke sorne rules- for sound local
reesons. He put fabr ic and furnis hing shops in so small a ce nter be ceuse
these were wel l-estoblished out lets for local crtiscns, we ll pctronized Bridge fro m parking area to shopping core.
by e growing pop ulction of yo ung fo mil ies. He clso e xceed e d the 30,000
sq. ft. oree w hich e n ece no mic study pegged a s advisa ble, and business
hos justified him. Soon c fter t he openi ng in Fe b. 1956 eve ry tencnt
wcs pcying cbove the guorcnteed mi ni mum; they ore doin g 20 to 25%
higher per sq. ft. than forecast, in s pite of th e 50 % incre ase in size.
Architecf urcl forum
Octobe r 1957

Plan of neighborhood center.

1\ Iarket exterior.

234
Gas station .

Pedestrian court .

235
 CAPITOL COURT SHOPPING CENTER, Milwaukee,
Wisconsin.
Owners: Capital Court Corporotion
Architects: John Grohom ond Compony, New York ond Seotlle
Associote Architects: Brust and Brust
Real Estofe Consultonts: Lorry Smith & Campany

This center was deYeloped on an L plan , necessitated b y

the triangular shape of the site. The Ed Schuster & Co.
dcpar tment store is situated where the two arms of th e L
mcet. One arm of the L is anchored to the large Chapman
specialty store, th e other to the su permarket. The planning
of the parking area was influenced by a desire to satisfy the
hca\')' parking requirements of the food stores while, at the
samc time, kceping them separa te from the shopping goods,
the comenence stores and the department store. Services
are handled by an underground truck road.
Pecles trian walks are protectcd by wde overhangs and/ or
colonnacles. The center is presently being enlarged.

J\lall arca.

236
Bird's-eye view with indica tion of main roads.

C overed walkwa)'. (N ote inform ation signs placed nea r win dbreaks.)

Fron t trea tment of b rge spec ial ty store.

 GARDEN STATE PLAZA, Paramus, New Jersey
Owners: Garde n State Plazo Corporation
Architects: Abbott, Merkt & Compony
Re al Estofe Co nsu ltonls: Lorry Smith & Compony

In th e planning and design of this sh opping center a

number of difficultics h ad to be overcome. A brook h ad
to be re-routed, accessibili ty h ad to b e improved in coop-
erati on wi th th e highway department, and difficult found a-
tion problems had to b e solved . The center was designed
for futur e expansion and sin ce the opening day in 19 57
the expansion has b een carried forward in a plan ned fash-
ion . The addition of a second department store (Gimbel's)
is lW\\' und er wav.
The first stage of th e center development is organized
in cluster-like fashion around th e large Bamberger store
. l
. ~
b ra nch. An interesting feature of the center is the Arcadian 1 ~ t'
Ga rdens. an establishment selling plants and garden books 1', t
in a supermarket m erch andising fashion . The owners con-
trol considerable areas around th e center for which, at th e
present time, land usage plans providing office buildings,
medica] buildings, laboratory and resea rch structures, etc .
are und er wav. Pedestrian areas are strictly separated from
transportati on areas and all service activities are taken care
of in th e basement, accessible by underground truck road.
\ Vhen completed, this will be one of th e largest regional
sh opping centers.
Entrance court.

Bird'sere view.

23 8
Mall area.

Bamberger's department store. Photographs: Felix Gilbert, Bucky M cDonnell

 EASTLAND SHOPPING CENTER, West Covina, Cali-
fornia
Owners: Granado Develapmenl Ca.
Architects: Albert C. Morlin and Associates,
Architects and Engineers .

The natural topograpl)y lent itself readily to a two-level

scheme IYith th e lower leve] directed toward th e Freeway.
Thus, th e sh opping goods stores were arranged in a corn-
pact block of two-level shops in th e center of the site.
A sclf-service drugstore was set next to the market, since
th ese two units remain open nights whcn the rest of the
center is closed .
Th e lower parking area was brought into clase intimacy
with the mall by an outdoor "up" cscalator at the westerl y
end of th c mall. A free-standing famil y restaurant wa5
loca ted so as to be easily seen from majar access roads.
One of the difficulties which h ad to b e overcome in this
pro jcct was th at a brook, th e Char ter Oak Creek, divided
th e site in to a north erly and a southerly portian. At a cost
of ap p roximat el ~ $180,000 this was re-routed into a 1300
foot long concrete ch annel.
Th e mall was regarded as th e fo cal point of the design.
Special features in this pedestrian area are the metal space
framcs with colored plastic pan els which span it at in-
tenals. Th e malls are generously landscaped, the parking
area is enli1ened by se1eral jaca randa trees which existed
on th e site. and a row of palm trees which also existed
werc re]ocated in a ra ndom pattern th ro ugh out the park-
ing area.
Tl1 e rnain mall.

View of slwpping core fro m parking area.

240
Steps to mall le1el. D etail near !llay Ca. departm ent store.

Bird's-eye view. Ph otographs: Kelly-Holliday, Vctor Ha\'eman

1
1

241 l_..
 LLOYD CENTER, Portland, Oregon. (In construction)
O wner;: Lloyd Corporation, lid .
Architects: John Graham & Co mpony

Re al Estote Cansultants: Larry Smith & Compony

Troffic Consultants: Harland Bartholomew & Associates

Lloyd C enter is not a suburban but an urban regional

shopping center. It is located within the down town area of
Portland, Oregon, separated fr om the existing business core
by a river. D riving time from th e heart of the downtown
area is only six minu tes. Besides shopping facilities, it will
contain a 300-room h otel adj oining an already exis ting
large office building (Bonneville Power Administrat ion
Building).
The air-cond itioned. reinforced concrete buildings are
arra nged in th e form of a huge T . A branch of Meier &
Frank C ompany department store is situated where th e
three wings of t he T meet . Parking as well as merchandis-
ing is multi-level.
In the malls, sh ops will be protected from inclement
wea ther by covered walks, balconies and overhangs . Park-
ing space fo r 8, 500 crs will be provided . C ompletion of
th is cen ter is expected in 1960.
It is in teres ti ng to note that the economic realities of
a downtown location with its h igh land cost has decisively
influenced the design of th is center, necessita ting greater
compac tness and therefore multiple-deck parking and mer-
ch and ising which would be neither necessary nor feas ible
in most sub urban locations.

Bird' se~e 1iew. Ph otograph : Roger Dudley

242
Supermarket .
1\lall with two leve! merchandising.
ROOSEVELT FIELD SHOPPING CENTER, Nassau Caunty,
L. 1., N. Y.
Owners: Webb & Knapp
Architects: l. M. Pei & Assaciates

Project Stalf: O. Aftreth, A. P. Moore, J. LoPinlo, A. Candido

Graphics He ad: Don Poge. Associate Architect: R. C. Brugnoni
General Contractor: George A. Fuller Co. Consultonts: Structural,
Severud-Elstad-Krueg e r; Mechanical, Syska & Hennessy; Special
Lighting, H. Abe Fe der; Londscape, Roberl Zion; Traffic Engineers:
Wilbur Smith
Market Analysis: Larry Smith & Company

Architect l. l\1 . Pei says :

The site plan is essentiolly o free-flowing ring surrounding o central

building group. The stores form o compoct cluster, minimizing walking
distonces ond heightening cumulotive drowing power. The relatively
One of the mall areas.
norrow molls encouroge cross shopping, double the presentotio'n of
merchondise, ond heigh te n the impre ssion of activity. The shopper's
route le ads him through slre ets of dilferent widths and varying archi
te cturol treatme nts, offording o voriety of experiences. Trees, flowers, Significant features of this center are: the great amount
music, fountoin s, goy awnings, ond bold use of grophic art combine
lo make the retoil atmasphere. Variety of store fronl design along
of attention given to graphic design , the achieving of color
molls wos encouroged. :md movement by fountains, flags and banners, the intro-
Store fronts focing parking ore as ore designed by the cenler architect duction of kiosks used for advertising and selling con-
to give the impression of o plonned center, yet provide tenont identifi- cessions.
cotion. A modu lar syste m of dork-brown steel fromes, rough-foced
Th e cen ter is presently being enlarged b y the addition
ofJ-white brick ond gloss wos use d. Within this system, eoch store wos
given individuo! treotment.
of a department store branch (Gimbel's) on the extreme
Archifecfural Record opposite end of the double mall from the existing branch
September 1957 of R . H . l\Iacy.

Fou n tains in mall area. Photographs: Ezra Stoller. Frederick J. 1\f

Store front treatment in muJtipJe -tenant buildings.

J\ Ierchandisig plan.
245
MID-ISLAND PLAZA, Hicksville, L. 1., N. Y.
Own ers: Stockler & Frank
Atchilecl: lolhrop Dougloss
Markel Anolysis: l orry Smilh & Company

Architect Lathrop Douglas states:

The sq uare level sile hes a principal highway an one side only; other
mejor highwoys are o few blocks owoy. The sile plan hod lo provid e
fo r en original deparlmenl slore ond olso for a possible future one,
hence lhe T-Moll plan. Unexpecled problem: lhe five story heighl of
lhe Gerlz Slore accenluoled lhe wind vel ocity in lhe Mall. Colored
plaslic lattices subsequ e nlly ploced over porlions of lhe Mall reduce
lh_e wind velocily whi le adding vis ual inlerest. The dominante of the
five story dep artment store ha s preved very advantageous in giving
sea le lo lhe projecl. Th e com pocl plan and si mple 50' wide MoJI arrong e-
ment gives th e shopper on eosy grasp of w he re she is going and whot
stores are in the project.
Parking is al 90 wilh lwo way Iones and raads throughoul, moking
it easy for shoppers lo go direclly where lhe y wonl lo go.

Mal/ view.

[\ [ al/ near G ertz depa rtment store .

J~~~l ~/F------~
1

l.

, ~
..

En trance to truck road.

Bird's-ere \'ell'. Photographs: Fairchild Aerial Sur\'e)'S, Inc., Gottscl10-Schleisner

247
PART 111

THE COMPLETED CENTER

The inheren t >O ten ti al esta blishecl

by the prerequisites and clevelo>ecl

by planning must be fully utilized.

2-+9
 PART J:J:J:-CHAPTER 1
Opening and Pro:motion
The future of a new shopping center is bound to be
influenced by the manner in which it is introduced to the
public. Th e opening is an important event and calls for
imaginaban as well as careful planning. During recent
)ears a great number of sh opping centers, varying in size,
ave been opened th roughout the country with ceremonies
ranging from th c quiet, unobtrusive type involvi ng the
opening of a few stores at a time, to mass open ing cere-
monies las ting severa] days and featuring va ri ous kinds of
attention-getting p romotion.
Two inherent dange rs .should be born e in mind in plan-
ning the opening. First is the danger that the tremendous
number of buyers and shoppers and the even grea ter num-
ber of observers who will arrive on opening day may
overtax the various facilities of the center, causin g con-
fusion all around. People arriving by car would th en h ave
to wait in lin e; others would be unable to find parking
space; crowds in malls, courts and stores might be un-
comfortably large and eating facilities overburd ened.
On the othcr hand, there is the danger that too few
people will kn ow about the opening of the center and
that those who do come will be disappointed by the lack
of vitality and cxcitement ordinarily engendered on such an
occas ion. TI1e cffect on retailers of such a discouraging
lack of business during opening days is too apparcnt to
necd furth er comment .
Opening Day at Mondawmin Shopping Center, Baltimore, Mary-
Jand.
James Rouse wit/1 C overnor Th eodore R. M cKeldin .
Photograph: Sussman Ochs
The opening of a large regional shopping center, if prop-
erly publicizcd, can be an event of interest to the entire
metropolitan area. In that case, the spreading of opening
cercmonies over a number of days is to be recommended.
Each day may be given special importance through the
issua nce of invita tions to differen t segments of th e popula-
tion . The first day, employees of all stores might be invited
to attend with their families. In this manner employees
gai n fam iliarity with their new surroundin gs befa re starting
to work. E xperience has shown that to schedule an "Em-
ployees' Day" fi rst has the additional benefit that sorne of
th c opera tional difliculties can be discovered and remedied
befare customers arrive. T he second day might be " Press
Da,." includin g a dinner or cocktail party for representa-
ti,es of the local and national press, a conducted tour and
a presentation to the press of the history, special fea tures
and principal tenants of the center. This event establishes
an excellent basis for future relations with newspapers and
other peri odicals. Th e third day could be "Neighborhood
D ay." O n this day the center is opened to residents of
the immcdiately surrounding arca who have been invited
either through announcements in local news papers or b y
d irec t mail. T he fourth day is then the oflicial opening day
for the general public, well ad,ertised, and very oft en ac-
compan ied by special events. H owever, in cases where the
center itself p rmides enough intrinsic interest, it might be
ad,isable to postpone the holding of special events for the
fut ure. since the desire to see the center in tself will
attract a suflicicnt number of people.
lnasmuch as a successful shopping center is the p roduct
of integrated planning, it is recommended that the large
ma jori tv of storcs be ready for business on opening day.
25 1

Press pre,iew at Southdale Center, near Minneapolis.
Photograph: Anthnn y Lane
PRESS KIT
Cover of press kit issued to
all reporters at Southdale Gen
ter at Press Day ceremonies.
252
If this is not the case, custorners who expect a complete
shopping environrnent will be disappointed and pedestrian1
shopping traf!ic will not function as planned. As a result,
business success will be spotty. Furtherrnore, continued,
construction work , with its accornpan ying noises and
hazards, will interfere with shopping activities. Srnall
tenants, especially, are ap t to suffer serious financia] dif.
ficulties during early rnonths of operation if the center is
opened on a piecerneal basis.
For these reasons, rnost shopping center operators and
planners agree that rnass opening (at least 75 per cent of
all tenant spaces at the same time) is necessary if the center
is to rea p the full benefits of th e planning effort. Mass
opcnings offer the opportunity to establish the center frorn '
thc outsct as an entity in the rninds of both potential
custorners and tenants. Though the benefits of a rnass
opcning undoubtedly accrue to the cen ter as a whole, those ,
who benefit rn os t are, perhaps , the srnaller tenants who
dep::nd to a greatcr or lcsser degree u pon the rest of the '
center and for whorn th e first rnonths of operation are rnost
critical. Th e~ are th e ones who are in greatest need of the
initial stimulus that is supplied Ly the mass opening.
In ordcr to achie,e an effecthe rnass opening, the stage tl
must be sct early in the planning and construction phase ' 1
of the sh opping center. The opening date will h ave to be ' n
cstablish ed durin g th e leasing negotiations with majar a
tcnants on th e bas is of established retail practices. Thus,
1
certain pcriods of the ~ear during which in creased pressures
on business occur, such as th e Christrnas and Easter 1 n
seasons. will be eliminated as likel) opening dates. l\Iany , 1
dc,clopcrs and merchants believe that it is advantageous 1
to open in a cornp:.uatively quiet business period. In this
respcct. .l\Ir. Horace C arpenter, Vice President of North-
land and Eastland. states. "The ideal time to open a majar
regional shopping ccnter is the dullest business season of
th yca r." An) opening later than the rniddle of October,
for example, would be dangerous as it would expose in- 1
experienced h elp and untried facilities to the sudden
seasonal onrush of pre-Christrnas sh oppers. In Part II,
Chapter 2, we have stressed the irnportance of setting up
a rcliable and reasonable schedule which would provide an
ample period of time for the training prograrn and for the
fixtming of the individual stores . Only if this is done will
an effective rnass opening be possible.
Openings, in arder to be effective, rnust be publicized
for rnanv weeks befare the actual event. This is accorn-
plishcd through articles in the local press dealing with
various outstanding features of th e new center. its tenants,
location, etc. If possible, these should be illustrated with
photographs of construction work, or with sketches show-
ing sorne of th e architectural features.
Even with the rnost careful scheduling, sorne of the stores
will probably not be completed by opening day and a few,
perhaps, not even leased. These unfinished spaces could
present an unsightly appearance, especially since they rnay
very welllie between active. open stores. It is recornrnended
 Eastland Ccnte1 News

Opeuin,;i Day 3 cl, cd ul <<l f()l' late }uly

"" Comp ll'linn J) l'(,, j., a re 3et tl cd

Opening D a)'. Parade t h roug h shopping ma ll . Opening publicity. " 1\ I ast" of Eastland Center \\'as
P hotogcaph: Ed 1\Iile)', St. P aul distributed regularl)' to inhabitants of surrou nding
area many months befare opening.

therefore that such tenant spaces be enclosed attractively

with temporary plywood partitions which could carry the
name of the fu tu re tenant and an announcement of the
approximate opening date. This should follow a general
pattern that will insure consistency in size, color, etc.
There are, of course, exceptional situations in which a
mass opening cannot be implemented. There might, for
example, be a competiti,e situation which would make it
essential that th e major store or a portion of the center be
opencd as quicklv as possible, or a sudden , unfavorable
leasing market might develop, making it difficult to secure
tenants. It migh t th en be in the interest of th e developer
to open th e portion of the center that has been leased .
HoweYer, it is still recommended that th e developer pro-
ceed in h is leasing and scheduling arrangements along lines
that would make a mass opening feasible. Should circum-
stances develop which preclude a mass opening, then the Opening D a)' ad for Southdale
developer has at least retained a choice between opening Cen ter, near Minn eapolis.
pieccmcal or accelerating the development schedule to con-
forro to a mass opening date.
During th e fi rst weeks of a shopping center's operation,
it is visited by tens of thousands of people who are still
unfamiliar with the new environment. They usually ex-
perience difficulty in asccrtaining the best access routes to
the center, in getting to the proper parking areas and
spaces. and in findin g their way around once they have
cntered the shopping core. For this reason, it is important
i
1 1

I nco m plete tenant spaces are attractil'el)'

enclosed in Valle)' Fair, San Jase, Ca lifor
nia.
P hotogcaph: 1\ [ orl e)' Baer
 Cover of information booklet con-
cerning bus transportation. Eastland
Center, Detroit.
Cover of information booklet con-
cerning location of stores, buildings,
roads and par kin g lots. Eastland
Center, D etroit.
Cover and one page of broclmre dis tribu-
ted to shoppers. Carden State Plaza,
Paramus, New Jersey.
254
to have prepared, for dissemination on opening day, a 1
directory in simple and understandablc form containing
all pertinent information. Jt might include, though not be t
limited to, the following: a map indicating bus routes to
the center; information about automobile approach; how
to find the parking lot nearest to the stores one wishes to
visit; parkin g lot and parking lane identification; a listing 1
of all stores with a map showing their location; a map
indicating by name the various public spaces, like malls and 1
comts; a listing of all public facilities such as auditorium, .
community center, public toilets, police oflice, special l
events building, pick-up stations, etc.; information concern- 1
ing business hours, night openings, and so on.
Information of this type should be posted throughout the
5hopping center in areas specially designed and reserved
D:lRECTORY
fo r this purpose. Jt should also be disseminated in leaflets
distributed to the shoppers, or mailed in advance, or both.
Sorne of the information might be published in the daily
newspapers, es peciall y in the opening day ads.
Because difficulties in connection with traffi c and direc-
tions will be most apparent in the first weeks of the
center's operation, it is essential that all signing, traflic
signalling, parking lot lighting. etc., be completed befare
the opening date. Postponement of the compl etion of these
featurcs will lcad to confusion during the opening days and
might ha\e a discouraging effect on the many who will
\'isit the center during that time .
. . . .~. LASA
,.._ __
.., --
ot - --
,-.--~-
IJ -~~
-- _.,......,.....,.,_,_
111--
_
.. -----
.. ----
-- ' -...
Cover and p~ge of brochure
di stributed to sh oppers.
R oosel'elt Field, Nassau
County, L. I ., Nell' York.
 PABT J:J:J:-CHAPTEB 2
Merchants' Association
It is a nationally recognized tenet of shopping center
opcration that group or joint promotion by th e tenants is
vital. T he ;'\ Ierchan ts' Association of a sh opping center is
an outward expression of this. H owe\'er, opinions differ
about the best meth od of achicving tenant cooperation in
implementing joint needs.
Th e fi rst thing to be decided is wheth er membership in
the l\ [erchan ts' Associa tion is to be made m andatory; then
it becomes necessary to outlin e and delim it the scope of
ac tivitics and power of the proposed Associa tion .
T he first question , that of the desirability of mandatory
membershi p, has never been completely resolved. \Vhile
de\'elopers of some of the earlier shopping centers voice
the opinion th at mandatory participation is a necessity
(or th at thev wished that such had been the case in their
particular center), it has become evident that sorne experi-
enced tenants are opposed to signing a lease which contains
mandatory membershi p in a l\Icrchants' Association as one
of the conditions of the lease. Paradoxicall y th ese same
tenants agrec that joint promotional effort is necessary and
state th:lt they full y expect to con tribute to such activi ties.
Since controls on the activities and expend itures of the
Merchants' Association cannot be properl y defin ed durin g
the leasing stage, experienced tenants object to b eing re-
quired to agree to an open-end commitment as a condition
of the lease. In sorne cases a workable compromise has been
evohed which gives th e association a substantial start and
encourages full participation. It eliminates the necessity
for prolonged negotiations mer the question of mandatory
membership by including the following clause in the 1ease
agreement:
Th e te nant agrees to cooperate in forming and mointaining on effective
Merchonts' Assoco ti on omong the te nonts of the shopping center ond
to use its best efforts to deve lop a promotional and public relations
policy.
Such a clause makes it unnecessary to discuss promotion
costs or activities of a proposed M erchants' Association
during the lease negotiations, but leaves th e way open for
the O\\'ner to initiate the organization of th e group at a
later time, just prior to, or after, th e opening of th e center.
It is considered desirable that the l\ [erchan ts' Association
be organized prior to the mass opening of the center; the
opening acti\'i ties can th en be planned by the association
and sorne costs distributed among its members. However,
more often th e prac tice is to organize the association as
soon as possible aft er opening.
It will probably be up to the owner to actva te the asso-
ciation to tl1 e extent of either proposing a program and
budget. or getting together a group of tenants to do this.
A method of assessment and voting must be devised for
approval by th e assoc iation at this earl y stage. It is also
necessary to establish the framework for th e permanent
fun ctioning of th e gro up by draftin g a proposed constitu-
tion or articles of incorporat ion and b y-laws. If tenant
255

' ~ o
., ' '
M eeting of Jl lerchants' Association.
Photograph: Courtesy Chain Store Age.
participation is not a mandatory requirement of the lease
it is likclv that sorne tenants will not join at first . Experi-
ence has shown however, that if th e first promotional ac-
tivities of the l\Ierchants' Association are well conceived
and conducted, the hold-out stores soon become interested
in supportin g group promo tion .
The finan cia] structure of th e l\Jerchants' Association
varies with the in di\idual organiza tion involved, but each
includes a basis for tenant assessment and for controlling
the expenses incurred by the group. In most instances, the
owner con tributes to the expenses of th e association-
usuallv about one-third of the total budget. The remaining
two-th irds is prorated among the tenants. The M erchants'
Association of one regional center assesses its members ten
cents per square foot of selling area. Severa] centers use
a formula which provides that each tenant pay a pro rata
share calculated on the merage of the following three
figures: 1) Ratio of tenant's gross rented area to total rented
area of the center; 2) Ratio of tenant's sales area to sales
arca of the ccnter; 3) Ratio of tenant's annua] rent pay-
men t to total ren t of cen ter.
256
Wh;, th;, focmnb ;, mo.e compk"'d th'n w m' oJ
the others in use, it permits the productivity, as well as 1
the size, of each tenant to be taken into account in the
assessment . Still another method is to share the first 35%
of th e bndget equally among the tenants with the remain-
ing Ci 5% prora ted on the basis of rented space. Promotion
budgets vary fr om center to center, but most fall within
the range of 7- 15 cents per square. foot of rented area.
The typical l\ lerch ants' Association is organized with a 1
board of directors which ad ministers its affairs and works
with the project management or its agents in devising the
promotion programs and, in general, sets the pace of the
assoc iation. The board of directors is usually elected b y the
membership. which reserves the right to approve its pro-
posals. Experience h as shown that a l\Ierchants' Association
opcra tes best wh cre management assu mes an active but
in direct role - active to the extent of providing assistance,
but indirect in that the tenants are permitted to " run their
own show." The amount of assistance pro,ided by manage-
ment is an individual matter, but it usually includes help
in planning th e promotion program, staff and secretaria!
ass istance, ::md th e use of center cquipment and fa cilities.
In some instances th e manager, or a member of his staff,
occupies a position on th e board of directors while in other
cases management is completely in the background. The
degree of management participation should be governed
by the wishes of the group and should be in the form of 1
cooperation, sponsorship and support, rather than of direct-
ing the association and its ac tivities.
\Vhile the primary purpose of the l\Ierchants' Associa-
tion is to engage in collective promotion of the center, it
can benefit th e center in many other respects. The scope
of activities undcrtaken by l\Ierchants' Associations varies,
of course, but most do not confine themselves to promo-
tional efforts. In sorn e centers it determines the hours of
operation. Som etim es the Association can be more influ-
ential than th e owner in securing favorable treatment in
matters such as public transportation, street lighting, police
protection and th e like. It can also be of ass istance in
gaining acceptance and enforcement of various policies and
regulations affecting the operation of the center, such as
parking regulations, sign control. merchandising practices
of the tenants, and related matters. In this manner the
Association can be a clearing house for tenant problems,
while th e owner's enforcement problem can be lessened
to the extcnt that the group is able to exert control over
th e individual members.
Benefits that are less tangible, but equally important,
oft en res ult when the l\Ierchants' Association is a "going
concern " with center-wide participation. An active and
effective Association composed of all the tenants of the
center may provide the means for bolstering sagging indi-
vidual tenant morale, creating pride in the appearance and
character of the project and cultivating esprit de corps
among the ten::mts, which, in turn, contributes to the
stability, character and atmosphere of the shopping center.
 PART J:J:J:-CHAPTER 3
The Use of Public Areas
The broad aspects of operating and management will
not be covered in this book except to point out that the
problems of general management, maintenance and upkeep
in a shopping center more or less foll ow the principles
gmernin g good real estate practices. Nor do we concern
ourselves here with th e usual problems connected with
merchandising operations and merchandising methods;
these are primarilv the concern of th e individual tenant
rather than of the shopping center operator. However, it
should be emphasized that the high est possibl e type of
merchandising operation on the part of each tenant is
essential to the well-being of the center as a whole.
Inherent in shopping centers, however, are certain op-
erating and management problems which do not occur in
ordinary real estate operations. Planning which follows the
principles outlined in Part TI creates not onl y stores and
the buildings in which they are located but also public
areas in the spaces between and around these buildings.
It also brings into being community facilities, such as
auditoriums and meeting rooms. This is done with the
cxpress intention of creating an environment which , if
properl y utili zed, will establish the shopping center as the
focal point for the life of a community or a number of
communities. In a rder to take advantage of the oppor-
tunities thus opened u p. shopping center management must
ac t with imagination and with a high degree of organiza-
tional ability.
Since there is no large body of common experience, such
as exists in older types of property management, to provide
guidance along these lines this as pect of shopping center
activity merits furth er discussion.
Obviously, those organizations and individuals who, over
many years, have managed and operated shopping centers
which providc public spaces and community facilities h ave
acquired considerable ex perien ce and knowledge in this
respect. Such developers and executives h ave provided the
source material on which further commen ts are largely
based, and include: \ Villard A. Brown, Vice President of
Arthur Rubloff & Company; Horace Carpenter, Jr., Vice
President and G eneral Manager of Northland C enter, Inc.
and Eastland Cen ter, Inc.; \Villiam Crear, Jr., Executive
Vice Presid ent of Southdale Center, Inc.; )ames B. Doug-
las, President of Northga te Center; James \V. Rouse, Pres-
ident of Community Research and De\elopment, lnc.;
and D on C urtiss, J\ Ierchandising Manager of Redbook.
The activities we speak of take place in courts, malls -
whether open to the sky or enclosed - in auditoriums and
community cen ters. It will be seen that while many of
these ac tivities follow a fairly standard pattern, others,
because of opportunities offered by special features of the
individual center, have a unique quality.
Horace Carpenter points out that these activities fall into
two large categories, the fi rs t being cultural, educational
and recreational in charac ter, the second having a m er-
chandising function. Under the first head ing we find such
events as concerts, art exhibits, square dancing, entertain-
ment for children , ice skating, theaters, etc. Under this
heading we would also group facilities afforded to the com-
munity, in auditori um s and community centers, for club
and other ci\'ic group meetings, church fun ctions, wed-
dings and similar events.
Merchandising ac tivities embrace such events as the
257

celebration of Father's Da y, ~ lother's D ay, Christmas;
model h ome and sports shows, fashion shows, dallar days
and the like.
C oncerning the whole field of special acti\'ities carried
on by the shopping cen ter, James \V. Rouse h as this
to say:
1 would like to underscore our conviction thot we consider good live
promotion essentia l to a successful center, On e of the greot opportunities
of a shopping center d erives from the foct thot it fits into the woy of
life of its shoppers in o manner that downtown and the old suburbon
centers can seldom, if ever, accomplish. The integrated plan~ the con
ven ience, the eosy, casual, reloxed atmo sp he re of th e shoppin g center
constitute o speciol opportunity for effective promotion. The integroted
ownership mak es it easy for the shopping center to orgonize o thought-
ful promotion progrom. To ge ther, th ese foctors of p lo nned ownership
co nstitute one of the greot apportunities for a market development for
a shopping center. lf the owner turns his bock on th ese opportunities,
he is shortsighted indeed ....
Speciol even ts are designed to establish and continually strengthen the
shopping ce nter's position as a reol community center. Th ey should be
pro grammed so as to oppeal over o period of time to the spe cial in-
terests of various individual groups which, in the oggregote, constitute
most of the purcha sing power. The y mo y or may not hove any direct
ond immediote ef!ect on shopping traffic at the time of the particular
eve nt, but the cumulative effect of bringing people to the center at
these times is to estoblish close identificotion by the public with the
center, and thu s serve ultimote ly to increo se traffic and business. Mony
ti mes these special eve nts ar e not even held at actual shoppi ng hours;
ond yet they con be importont to the center's growth ... ,
258
Fashion show at Southdale Gen
ter near l\1inneapolis.
Photograph: Anthony Lane
As an example of one of these off-h our planned activi-
ties, ~Ir. Rouse points to the symph ony concerts h eld at
:\ londa\\'min Center during th e summer months, which
dre\\' an mnage of 3,500 people at each performance . They
\Yere held at nine o'clock in the CYening, just after the
storcs closcd, and in ~ I r. Rouse's opinion, "constitute one
of our most successful promotions." He has also found
that Sunday is a good time, in h is area, for holding special
e\'ents.
A similar e1ent is the yearly Symphony Ball, one of the
great civic e1ents of the city of :\ lin neapolis, \\'hich was
held for the first time, in 19 58. at the Southdale Shopping
Centcr ''"here it attracted 2.500 guests. This is an instance
1\"here a special attribu te of the shopping center- South-
dale's large cmered and air-con ditioned garden court-
presented an unusu al opportun ity that was utilized with
imagination bv the deYeloper under the direction of its
executi,e ,ice president, \Villiam Crear, Jr.
The subject of off-hour acti1ities is one that interests
shopping center executiles \\'h o feel that the park-like,
open spaces of majar shopping centers may be enjoyed,
ll'ith profit to both center and shopper, not onl y during
regular sh opping h ours, but in th e e\'ening and on Sundays
<md holidays as well. During these periods, window shop-
ping is an important activity which benefits the stores on
subsequcnt shopping days. In arder to meet this desire of
Hawaiian mu sic at Stonestowu
Shopping C enter, Sa n Francisco.
Photograph: Skclton Studios

Display o{ autiqu e automobiles

in Southdale's garden co urt .

259
 1)
l.
(
Children's playla nd on roof of buildings, Stonestown, San Francisco, California .
Photograph: Robert Cleveland
suburbanites to use " th eir" shopping eenter outside of
business hours, most of the larger eenters ha\'e regulations
whieh oblige tenants to keep their lights on until ten or
eleven o'elo: k at night. ln th e majority of centers, this
regulation also applies to Sundays and holida ys. Northland
and Eastland report that during favorable weather as man y
as 2.000 cars are eounted in th e parking lots on Sundays
and h olida ys.
At Eastland, D etroit. on 1\ Ion day nights, a stage is ereeted
in th e gmden eourt where entertainment is provided in
the form of organ eoneerts, barbershop quartets, etc. The
public is urged to bring folding ehairs and cushions.
\Villard Brown states that Evergreen Plaza features square
dances, an aetivity that has also become a feature of North-
land, where a series of harvest square dances are held on
the terraee.
Malls and eourts are often used for speeial events even
in mid-winter. For example, at l\1ondawmin Center an
outdoor ice skating rink is ereated for public use in the
main court. Northland Center treats this same activity in
a somewhat different mann er, utilizi ng its geodesic dome,
100 fe et in diameter, as the loca le for its ice skating rink.
This dome, which can be moved from one location to
anoth er within th e general sh opping eenter site, functions
as a publie events building. Eastland, on the other h and,
has a permanent special events building, in add ition to its
260
auditorium and meeting rooms, that is used largely for
indoor exhibits and also contains 'a radio station.
There is much e\'idence, aecording to 1\lr. Rouse, to show
that "the existenee of a well organized, well patronized
eommunity eenter goes a long way toward eementing good
eommunity relations." He goes on to say that in one
Baltimore shopping center the eommunity center building
is used by ci\'ic and chureh groups for m eetings and func-
tions, among whieh are weddings, birthday parties, dances
and indoor exhibitions.
At E\ergreen Plaza there is at present a relatively small
eommunitv eenter (the rooms now hold no more than 50
people) b~t. aceording to l\1r. Brown, plans are under way
for an auditorium with a eapaeity of 250 to 300.
An interesting de\elopment of the use of the public area,
one that has resulted in great prestige for the eenter in
the eommunity at large, is the summer theater. Horace
Carpenter, eommenting on the suceess of the summer
theater at Northland, whieh seats 1,400, says:
This has o gre ot deol of influence on shopping center business in the
summertime. lt has publicized the center ond mo de Northlond- even
lo o higher degree thon befare - o focal poi ni of the community. 11
has lured people out of their homes and lo Northland Cenler, even
though they were no! interested in shopping. This is very importan!-
people learn aboul Northland and coming there becomes a habit.
 Dancing in Eastland Center malls, Detroit.
Photograph: Louis Goldenberg
Nor th gate Center h as a movie th ea ter within its com-
plex. Says James B. D ouglas:
The experience with it ha s been exce llent. The theater tenont is not
anly a gaad rent-payer, but has also bee-n extremely impartant
building lraffic far the center.
Among the other events th at contribute to th e cultural
life of th e community are th e art exhibits and competitions
th at fl ourish in many of th e sh opping centers an d are often
participated in by local or regional ar t groups. A good ex-
;J mplc is th e art exhibit held in the Capitol Court Shopping
Center in l\ [ilwaukee in the summer of 1958, which has
bcen described as the largest art exhibit ever witnessed in
th e area. It was sponsored by th e Mihvaukee Art Insti-
tute and \Visconsin Painters and Sculptors, and attrac ted
thousands of customers and art enthusiasts. Northland
Center arranged an art show in which professional as well
as amateur ar tists were invited to participate, and which
included an artists' mark et. Photographic competitions are
h eld periodically at both Eastland an d Northland, under
th e auspices of the United Camera Clubs of Detroit. Sorne
of th e oth er centers that have successfull y promoted art
and photographic exhibits are Northgate, Evergreen Plaza,
l\Iondawm in, Southdale.
Flower shows sponsored by local garden clubs are tre-
Sports show at Northland Center, Detroit.
Note divers on diling board in background.
mendously popular. Thc children, too, come in for th eir
share of attention in a variety of recreational and educa-
tional activities. Southdale, for exam ple, operates a veritable
children' s paradise in its lower concourse. It fea tu res a zoo,
in
\'mious rides and games, and a refreshment center. North-
gate runs a Kiddieland wh ile Eastland's animal exhibition,
under the name of Animal Land, attrac ted 65,000 visitors
at E aster time in 19 57 and upwards of 200,000 in 19 58.
Evcrgreen Plaza sponsors children's events; Mondawmin
runs a Foreign Doll Show; and of course there is th e
inevitable Eastcr Rabbit (at l\ Iondawmin Center he is 35
feet tall and talks) and Santa Claus that contribute, season-
all y, to the enjoyment of thc future generation of shoppers.
In the realm of merchandising promotion the fashion
show is. of course, a natural even t for th e shopping een ter
and much imagination and ingenuity have gone into the
most successful of thesc. D on Curtiss of Redbook states
his belicf that fashion sh ows on th e mall, in which all
merch ants take p:ut, "h a\e a tremendous appeal for fashion-
conscious women, " and urges that m alls and walkways be
wide enough and large cnough to acco mmodate activities
of this naturc. Like l\ lr. Rouse and many others, h e, too,
feels th at special events, being a unique attribute of shop-
ping centcrs, set sh opping center merch ants apar t from
their counterparts in downtown districts. During fashion
shows at Southdale, near l\linneapolis, as many as 100
261
 Ch ristmas at Eastland Center, Detroit.
Ph otograph: Louis Goldenberg

Christmas tree at No rthland Center, Detroit.

Ph otograph: Photograph House, Detroit

models ha,e participa ted in a single e\'ent for which shoe

stores, je\\'elers and hat shops joined with the department
stores. women's apparel shops, children's shops and men's
stores.
N orthland and Eastland, according to l\lr. Carpenter,
found that their boat sh ows resulted in a good deal of
direct selling. A model home sh ow, during which an actual
model house ,,as const ructed on the terrace of Northland
Center and was furnished, success ively, by three different
stores, attracted 500,000 people during a period of six
mon ths. At Northga te, outdoor space is used for boat
shows. home shows, automobile shows, and for many other
functions. The onl y limiting factor, reports Mr. Douglas,
is the weather, adding that Northgate averages about ten
promotions a ~ear , including D allar D ay, Easter, Spring
Festival, Fashion Show, Birthday of the Shopping Center,
Summ er Festi\'al, Back-T o-School, Fall Fashion Festival,
Fall Dallar Day and Christmas. E\ergreen Plaza holds out-
. door exhibits of merchandise on the occasion of their sports
shows, fashion shows and automobile shows.
It may be of interest to list the activities and events
which took place at one shopping center, l\tlondawmin,
during the first twelve months of its operation .

l. Fashian Shaw (Outdeer, Foil and Spring).

2. A series of five Sympheny Pep Cancerts perfermed by members
of the Baltimore Symphony Orcheslra en successive Saturday nights
during the summer.
3. United Notiens Festival, including exhibits end the appearance al
United Netions officials.
4. Outdeer Automabile Show.
5. Ice skating rink in the MoJI for six weeks, in February, March and
early April.
6. Outdoor living Show.
7. Autamebile Giveaway Shew.
8. 11 County Fair," with rides, etc.
9. Fareign Car Gymkhana.
10. Extensive Christmas celebralion, with Santa Claus.
11. Easter decoratians, featuring a 35-foot talking Easter Rabbit.
12. Twe Flewer Shaws.
13. Foreign Dell Show. Choral singing in So uthdale's C arden Court.
14. Lucky Key promotion - keys ta Treasure Ches! distributed lo Photograph : Anth ony Lane
Mondawmin Star recipients (this is the big ne wspoper of the
center) and also distributed te the sleres.
15. Armed Forces Week Show with various service bands, weapons
exhibits, etc.
16. Amateur Art Show .
17. Charity Bezaar.
As we have indicated, sorne of the larger centers provide
Mr. Rouse observes that the most successful of these indoor community center facilities. Northland and Eastland
events were the pop concerts, the lucky key promotion, the have auditoriums and meeting rooms wh ich are furnish ed
skating rink, Christmas and Easter celebrations and the to various organizations on a rental basis. A prospectus of
United N ations Festival. During the one-week "lucky key" the Eastland Center community auditorium and meeting
promotion, 50,000 keys were tried in the treasure chest's room facilities which also contains the outline of a rental
lock. agreemen t, reads as follows:

Lec ture in community build-

ing.
Manchester Center, Fresno,
California.
Photograph : Courtesy Chain
Store Age
 '

Welcome to Eastlond . The auditoriu m a nd me eting ro oms a re designed Fe b ruary 19th: Bey Sco ut t roop, Rooms A and B, meeti ng, nigh t use . 1
for the use of civic groups o nd clubs. lt i ~ our desire to p rovide a year Lead e rship training, Room C, meeting, nigh t use. 1
around p la ce where you a nd your f riends can gel together and hold Art Adventurers, auditorium and kitchen, night use. .
meetings, cr just to hove fun. Ou r fa ci li ties are completely cir-conditioned Feb ruory 20th: Hardware Mutual Salesmen's meeting, Rooms A cnd j
for summer use and heoted for win ter use and are located in th e Eost- B, meeting, doy use. 1
lond concourse al the foot of the escalato r. To e nable us lo provide the Corporate Enterprise, stockmarket counselling, Rooms \1
most service to you, we osk that yo u fill in the necessory informotion on A and B, class, night use. 1
the reverse side. United States Caos! Guard - Auditarium meeting, night 1
(Sig ned) Eastl and Cenler, lnc. use.
Seating ca pacity: Auditoriu m 250 Nation Wide lnsurance Co. meeting, Room C, night 1
Room A, 75 use.
Room B, 35
There is still anoth er activity peculiar to the shopping
The outline of the agreement, and th e accompanying center which migh t be called: Services. Since the large
rate card, are shown below: shopping center represents, in many respects, a good-sized
community, it is required to provide most of the services
The following establishes the rental agreement betwee n East land Cenler,
l nc. ond the organi zatians wish ing to rent the Co mmunity Cente r facil -
usually furnished by a municipality. Northland and East-
ities. We ask t hat you observe the followi ng ru les: land, like most other shopping centers, have police forces,
l. Unde r no conditian will alcoho lic bevera ges or gam bling be permitted. about which l\Ir. Carpenter has this to say:
2. We can not be responsible for lost orticles. We do not hove ode quote
starage space, so we ask th at you take oll of yo ur articles with you The fu nctio n of the po lice d e portme nt go es la r beyond prolecting t he
upon campletion of your pr ogr om . p rop e rty. This is really a public re lotions department, with policemen
3. Yau will be held responsible for an y domage la the pre mises. Ple a se being he lpful in cases like th e following:
da not attach anything to the wolls of the rao ms wit hou t permiss ion . W hen a custome r's cor gets stalled on ene of the parking lots, the police
4. When refreshments are served, regardless of whet her or not the force helps out. They petral the parking oreas againsl theft. In 1957,
kitchen is used, a cleanu p charge wi ll be added lo t he re ntal charg e. 105 cors we re stole n in th e Northland orea in spite of this petral. How
We do not provide dishes, cups, silve rwore or coaki ng ute nsil s. An larg e a number would hove bee n stalen without police protection is
ollend an l will help you wi th t he makin g al coffee, if ya u desire. anybody's guess.
Receptacles are provided fo r l ra sh and garboge. When e ve r a car runs out of gasoline-and this happens on an average
5. To ena ble us lo keep o n time, p lease foll ow t he sc he dule shown of once every other doy, the police department furnishes gas, with the
belaw. compliments of the cenler. This represents a comparatively small ex
penditure, but the return in good will is tremendous. People in shopping
6. All reservations mus! be acco mpan ied by 50% d e posit which is no!
centers seem lo hove the hobit of losing their children. The police de
refundable for non-use. The bal a nce shall be paid prio r lo room use.
partment he lps find th e m . . . The police preve n! youngsters from riding
Please make checks payab le lo Eastland Center, lnc.
bikes on the malls or on th e sid e walk s ta safe guard an environment
CLEAN -UP which mus! be sale for shoppers and small children.
RATES NOO N N IGHT SUNDAY CHARGES
Auditarium $25.00 $40.00 $40.00 $10.00 In conclusion, we once again quote l\ Ir. Carpenter who
Room A 10.00 15 .00 15.00 5.00
Room B 7.50
has had vast experience in the management of Northland
10.00 10.00 5.00
HO URS: Noon or Luncheon-1 0: 00 A.M. to 2:30 P.M. and Eastland Centers.
Night or Dinner-4:3 0 P.M. la 11:00 P.M.
Sundays-12:00 P.M. lo 7:30 P.M. The arrang emenl al spa cious oreas betwee n t he b uildings of t he shop
ping core is al tre me ndous importance. lt would be impossible lo hold
To illustrate the kind of usage for which the auditorium e ffective public eve nts or promotions if such spaces were not ovailable.
Arrangement of such events in parking creas would not be as effective
and meeting rooms are rented, it may be helpful to quote
since they would be removed from the actual slore portian of the center.
from a report of N orthland Center for three typical days:

Febr uary 1 Bth: Rotary Club in Roams A B, and kitchen, lunche on . Reports fr om these and other leading personalities in
Chamber of Commerce, aud itorium and kitchen , sh opping center management indicate that the planners'
luncheon.
hope to establish th e majar shopping center as the commu-
Southeastern Michigon Tourist Asso ciotion, Room C,
class, night use. nit? focal point, as the place in which merchandising,
Southeastern Associat ion of landscape and Nursery, cultural, recreation, sport and civic activities flourish side by
Rooms A B and kitc hen, nig ht use. side. is being fulfilled.

26-f
EPILOGUE

THE FUTURE OF

SHOPPING CENTERS

lnfluence of tbe sbopping center planning

concept in other fiehls and on downtown areas.

265
 EPJ:LOGUE
The Future of Shopping Centers
Though the phenomenal advances made in the planning
of shopping centers since their early days seem impressive,
it can be safely stated that this is just the beginning of the
potential development of this building type. Barring the
possibility of a man-made or natural catastrophe, more and
increasingly better centers will be built, as foreshadowed in
present plans and thinking.
Forecasts estmate a population growth in the United
States of bctween 50,000,000 and 60,000,000 within the
next twenty years. Inasmuch as the rural population is
expected to remain fairly stable, nearly all of this growth
will take place within metropolitan areas. The automo-
bile population, it is estimated, will reach 81 ,000,000
by 1965. The United States national income in 1956 was
$34 3,620,000,000, according to statistics from the United
States Department of Commerce. It is estimated that by
1960 it will rise to $400,000,000,000.
Obviously this phenomenal growth will lead to the build-
ing of new communities and the expansion of existing ones.
New opportunities will open up for the development of
shopping centers of all sizes.
The growth of the automobile population will occur as
more families own two automobiles or more. In 1941 only
2% of the families in the United S tates had two cars; in
I9S5 it was 8% and it is expected that as early as 1960,
13% of all families will own two automobiles. The number
of one car families will also increase. The next fifteen years
will see the implementation of a proposed gigantic Federal
highway program and it can be expected that the Federal
Urban Renewal and Redevelopment program will continue
at stepped-up intensity.
Technological developments, especially the use of atomic
power for peaceful purposes and the automation of fac-
tories, will bring about a shorter work week, and thus create
more leisure time. These are all strong influencing factors
which, if properly considered in planning and design, can
have positive influence on suburban shopping center de-
velopment.
The shorter work week and work day will result not only
in more leisure time for the individual, but in more shop-
ping time for the family as a un t. Larger family income will
mean larger buying potential, and a greater interest in
higher quality merchandise. \Vith greater leisure and addi-
tional mobility, ncw categories of weekday customers for
th e suburban shopping center will emerge.
The shopping center which can do more than fulfill
practica] shopping needs, the one that will afford an
opportunity for cultural, social, civic and recreational
activi ties will reap the greatest benefits.
New highways and freeways will bring about a reorganiza-
tion and reorientation of metropolitan traffic patterns.
Fresh opportunities will open up for the locating of shop-
ping centers. \Vith the shifting patterns, it is likely that
while certain existing shopping centers will gain through
bettcr accessibility, others may suffer. By the same token
sorn e downtown business areas will become more accessible
and will, if advantage is taken intelligently of the given
opportunity, offer strong competition to suburban shopping
centers.
The government-supported Urban Renewal and Redevel-
opment program offers potentialities for the comeback of
downtown areas. \Vhether this potential will be utilized
depends on the wisdom with which it is implemented.
It is apparent that many forces are at work which will
267
 MORE NEW ADULTS ENTERING SIX.FOLO GROWTH
IN DISCRmONARV SPENDING POWER
THE MARKET
165 _
~
,
SINCE 1940

INW-NUMBER Of PERSONS
REACHING 18 YEARS
OF AGE IN q51 100

Tabulation of adult population in Ta buJation of spending power in

th e United States of America. the U nited S tates of Amcrica sin ce
Courtesy J. \V alter Thompson Co. 1940.
From Pr ocee din gs of S e c o nd
AnnuaJ C onvention of the Interna-
tionaJ CounciJ of Shopping Ceriters.

,----------------------------------,
1
1
1
1
: U. S. Population in 1965 ... lf :
1
1
fortuats; thty ort simply
Thtst tigurfs ort not
1. Prtstnl ltnl of ftrtihty continuts .
Projection: 42 million births by 196S . pra,tctions bCistd on
tht thru ossumptions of
1
I96S population : 193 .4 mill ion . whot might hC1pptn .Rt(trU populolion projtt-
1
2. Ftrtility rate-11 obstntd in 19SO-S3 continuts. tiorn hovt bun too low . lhf' populotion, by 1
Projtttion: 39 mil1ion birth11.
Jq6S populotion: 190. 3 million .
age- groups, shown in th is toblt is base-d on 1
thrtt ponibllitie-s ope-n la Mr . ond Mrs. U. S.
l . llttwnn now ond 19bS lertihty ratts drop rfgulorly
from tht 195053 Inri to rou9hly tht pre-wor lt't'eol. (itian.
Projt1tion: 3 S mi Ilion births .
196S population : 186.3 million.

Perce nt
Ag 1950 1955 41 mill.on 39 mll ion 3 5 m.ll ion cho n g e
C en ~ v s IJ uly ) b trtln by '65 bt rt hs by '65 br tns by '65 1955-65

(000) (000) (000) (000) (000)

Total ... .. ...... 1S1,677 16S,248 193,346 190,296 186,291

Undr S ... . . ... 16,312 18,307 20,413 18,881 16,26S Tabu la ti on of pop uJ a t ion in th e
1 S-9 .. . ..... . . .. 13,300 17,148 20,2S2 18,734 17,34S United States of America in 1950,
1 10-14 1955 and 1965.
1 1S-l'l
11 '144 13,340 19,1S2 43.6
CourteS)' SaJes J\fanagement M aga-
10,680 11,186 17,199 S3.8
1 20-24 ....... ... 11,621 10,766 13,461 2S.O zine
1
1 2S-44 4S,49S
46,94S 46,373 -1.2
1 4S64 30.761 33,429 39,12S 17.0
1 6S and ovr ..... 12,364 14,127 17,371 23.0
1
1
1

--------------- -- -----------------~
268
 Charles River Park Urban R edevelapment Praject, Bastan, l\1ass.
Architects: Victar Gruen Assaciates. Phatagraph: Cardan Sammers

favorabl y shape the future of the suburban shopping center.
Sorne of these forces may be helpful to the downtown areas
as well; all of them tend to bring about more intense com-
petition among al! types of shopping facilities. Therefore,
only if accompanied by a steady improvement in quality of
planning, design and construction will these new forces
spell continuing success for the shopping center.
The future will see advances in planning and design along
many lines. The residual features which shopping centers
still retain from the design of the con\'entional highway
store will eventually wither away. The pedestrian area will
gain in importance as the main shopping area, while en-
trances and sh ow windows directed toward parking areas
may graduall y disappear. The smaller shopping center -
neighborhood and intermedia te- following the lead of the
regional center, will separate mechanized traffic from foot
traffic and establish protected pedestrian areas.
The shopper, the tenant, the developer and the financia!
institution will al! become increasingly knowledgeable and
expert as time goes on. Each, for individual reasons, will de-
manci more shopping comenience, a more enjoyable atmos-
phere, better construction. As a result of increasing op-

269
 The pedestrian area will gain in importance as a main shopping area, while entrances and show
windows directed toward parking areas may grad ually disappear. This is exemplilied in the pedes-
trian area of the projected \ Vinrock Center, Albuquerque, New 1\Iexico.
Archi tects: Victor Gruen Associates. Photograph: Gordon Sommers

Central business district sales do not keep pace either with

popu lation or metropolitan sales.

portunities to work together, planners, architects, engineers,

and artists will achieve greater integration of architecture,

/1
landscape and art.
Developers, architects, economists, and real estate brokers
and managers will use the experience and expert knowledge
gained through their involYement in shopping centers in
, , new, though related, field s. Cluster type developments of
,'
,,
, ,,l
,.
,'
,,l' regional health centers, research centers, light industry
centers, home outfitting centers, will emerge. This fonvard
,l ,' planning step is illustrated by projects now on drafting
ot" ~-
..-/,:
boards, and by sorne actually in construction.
Th e concept behind these plans, following closely those
,,' ~, ... of shopping centers, provides for strict separation of auto-
... ,' . '-"' w.. mobile, sen ,ice and foot traffic; for traffic distribution by
' ,.
, , ~~------- --
_n."l~:.-
1 .....
ring roads; for landscaped pedestrian areas; for buffer areas
.. ~--
' ',. , ....... / between the center and surrounding areas; and for supple-
~==-- menting the main functions to which each center is devoted

270
 by complementary commercial, social and leisure time
facilities.
So far as central business districts are concerned, the feel-
ing is constantly growing that something must be done to
revitalize them . The dissatisfaction of merchants and the
concern of Federal and city governments and business lead-
ers have undoubtedly been triggered, at least in part, by
the success of suburban shopping centers. Downtown de-
terioration is blamed on different factors, as demonstrated
by a polling of the members of the N ational Retail Mer-
chants Association. The results showed that 81.3% believe
the principal reason for downtown's trouble to be lck of
parking; 78.6% attribute it to traffic congestion; 38.2% to
antiquated buildings; 30.6% to poor public transportation
systems; 27.3% to poor retail promotion; and 16.4% to the
existence of slums around the down:own district.
These criticisms are all essentially valid but they must be
regarded in_th eir entirety. Attempts by many cities to cure
one or anotner of these problems without regard to the rest,
have invariably failed. The construction of a parking garage
here and th ere, spot rehabilitation of slums, the building of
freewa ys and attempts in any of the other directions, when
undertaken without guidance of an over-all master plan,
have generally proven costly and worthless in the long run.
The real need is for an improvement of th e entire enviran-
mental quality of the urban core and an integrated attack
on all problems.
So long a~ people deliberately avoid the downtown dis-
trict, th e core area will continue to deteriorate. Los Angeles
l\1ode 1 of l\1idtown Pla za Project in the heart of tl1e d owntown area of Rochester, New York.
Architects: Vctor Gruen Associates. Photograph: Gordon Sommers
is an extreme example of this condition . R . L. Duffus, writ-
ing in the New York Times magazine section, observes that
" Los Angeles has a neighborhood called downtown, but
there is no center-no area in which people by common
consent congregate in their lighter moments."
The solution calls for an understanding of what people
need and wan t in their daily lives, but as Edgardo Contini,
speaking at the Aspen Design Conference in 1955, stated,
" not being manufacturable, environment has seldom been
the subject of organized interest."
Nevertheless, it is safe to assume that within the next
twenty years the importance of environmental planning for
downtown will recei,e greater recognition and understand-
ing from those who are in a position to act, and that out of
the present despair will be born the will and the where-
withal to accomplish the reshaping of our city cores.
The lessons learned and the experience gained in the
planning of regional shopping centers will contribute im-
measurably to the successful carrying out of this task. This
can already be seen in the number of projects* crrently en-
visioned or already in work. The project for the Midtown
Plaza in Rochester, New York applies the covered mall
concept to a portian of a central business district. Charles
*The architects for these projects are Vctor Grucn Associates for
the projects in Rochester, Fort \ Vorth , St. Paul , Kalamazoo, and
Fresno; Rogers, T alia ferro & Lamb for th e project in Baltimore;
1\iitchell and Rtchey for the project in Pittsburgh; and J. 1\L Pei
for the project in Denver.
271
 Center m downtown Baltimore, Mellon Square in Pitts-
burgh, l\Iile High Center in D enver and others represent
new cluster formation s wi thin existing downtown areas.
Master plans for revitaliza tion of th e cities of Fort \Vorth,
Texas; St Paul, l\ Iinnesota; Kalamazoo, Michigan; Fresno,
California, and many oth ers envisage traffic separation,
creatio n of lively pcdestrian areas and methods for accessi-
bility as exemplified in the suburban shopping center, trans-
lating these concepts into the urban vernacular.
An excellent existing example of a new downtown
pedestrian environment is in the Lijnbaan in the rebuilt
core of Rotterdam, H olland. Located in the immediate
vici nity of the City Hall, and surrounded by high-rise apart-
ment b uildings, sixty-s ix quality stores and a major depart-
ment store are arranged on both sides of a broad landscaped
mall, reminiscent in design of American regional shopping
centers. This specific example, like the new shopping dis-
trict in C oven try, England, was built as a res ult of total
demolition by bombing during \Vorld \Var II. Let us hope
that the destruction of a city is not required in order to
resh ape our downtO\m areas into a livable and enjoyable
urban environment.
Considering the entire field of retailing, each form of
sh opping facility-the neighborh ood center, district center,
regional center and cen tral business district-h as its own
particular and distinctive role, and all of them can flourish
simultaneously. The res ult of such h ealthy competition will
be a raising of quality not only in the design of shopping The re1taliza ton plan for the City of F ort \\1 orth , Texas. Brd's-
facilities. but in urban and suburban environment as a e}e 1ew of redel'eloped downtown area. .
whole. Arellitects: Vctor Gruen Associates. Photograp/; Gordon Sommers

C01cred mall in th e I\fidtown Pla za Project, Roches ter, New

York, in planning stage.
Archtects: Victor Gruen Associates. Photograph: Gordon Sommers

272
 The rev itali za ti on plan for
the downt o wn are a of the
City of F ort \Vorth , Texas.
View ot pedestrian maH ad-
joining multi-deck garage.
Architec ts: Victor Gruen A s-
sociales
Photog ra ph: Gord o n Som-
mers

H ypo tJ e tica l map of shopping center

distribution in a city of 1.372 ,00 0 inh abitants.

_,-~
)
APPENDJ:X

Glossary
Bibliography
lndex

275
1
1
'
1
1

1

ANCHOR TENANTS - See Key or Principal Tenants
ALLOWANCE SYSTE!\1
A method whereby the landlord installs standard store front s,
h ea ting equipment, floors, walls and ceilin gs or pays the tenant a
sum of money equivalent to th e cost of such standard fini shin g.
The cost in excess of this am ount would be paid by th e tenant .
AssiGNI\IENT
The method of transferring the rights and/or obligations of one
party in a real estate transaction to another party. In leasing, this
relates to th e tramfer of the lessee's rights and obligat ions for
the entire period of the lease.
CAPITALIZATION RATES
The rate of return necessitated by risk and other fa ctors that
would justify a given t ype of investm ent . The result of dividing
the net in co me b y this rate of return is the capitalized value of
a given project.
CAPITALIZED VALUE
The computed present value of the right to collect future net
income. Tt is determined by dividing the net incom e by a rate
of return ( capitalization rate ).
C0!\11\ION AREAS
All that area within a shoppin g center that is n ot designed for
renta! to t enants and which is available for the comm on use of
all tenants or groups of tenants.
COI\IPAR Tl\IENTALIZATION
Grouping of stores in a shopping center into clusters of the sam e
or similar types of establishments.
EcoNOMIC V ALUE
The present value, in dollars, of a given investment.
EQUITY FINANCING .
The portion of the total cos t of an investm ent which is supplied
by the owners.
fRINGE PROPERTY
The property surrounding a shopping center. The value of this
APPENDJ:X
Glossary
property may well increase rapidly in the futnre as the sh oppin g
center may attract other intensive land uses such as office build -
ings, h ot els, etc.
FuLL PERATING L EVEL
The leve! of sales expected after the center has becom e well es-
tablish ed and accepted in the trade area.
GAF
General m erchandise, apparel, and furniture and appliance store
types.
GRO SS fLOOR ( OR BUILDING) AREA
Total !loor area of all buildings in the project , including base-
ment and upper fl oors. This fi gure sh ould be the basis for quoting
building costs.
GuARANTEED RENT
The mnimum rent from the premises guaranteed by the tenant
irrespective of the leve! of sales.
ll\IP ULSE BunNc
The purchase of goods other than those previously decided upon.
l NTERI\IEDIATE SHOPPING C ENTER
The interm ediate shopping center is generally design ed to serve
a trade area population of from 40,000 to 150,000. The total area
of a center of this type is typically between 100,000 and 2 50,000
sq. ft . This type of center creates some com parison sh opping fa-
cilities as wcll as a complete selection of convenicnce facilities,
but it does not h ave the strength of the regional ccnter nor is its
major tenant a full-line dcpa rtm ent st ore. A principal diffcrence
betwcen the intermediate and regional center ls the size and
character of the major t enant. Tn the intermediate development
the major tcnant is normall y a junior department st ore or a strong
special ty store. U sually this tenant will occupy an area of from
25,000 t o 75,000 sq. ft . and will res trict its merch andise t o the
soft lines, i.e., apparel, dry goods, etc., with little or n o furniture
and other typical h ard lines which the full -line department store
does provide.
KEY (PRINCIPAL ) TENANT
The key or prin cipal tenant - departm ent sto re, junior depart
277
 ment store or supermarket depending upon th e size of the de-
velopment - is the primary traffic generator which attracts
customers to the shopping center. While it .is possible for a
center to operate without such a tenant, the realization of a
maximum retum on the investrnent requires the presence of such
a major tenant.
K !O SK
A very small, free standing building used for sale of such items
as newspapers, candy, etc. usually located in the central mall.
MERCHANDISING PLAN
The arrangement of all stores in specific locations according to
the plan of the shopping center.
MoRTGAGEE
The party, usually an insurance company or other financia! insti-
tution, that makes a loan secured by real property in accordance
with stipulatons of a mortgage.
MoRTGAGOR
The one who borrows money from a mortgagee and uses his
property as security for the debt.
MuLTIPLE TENANT BuiLDINGS
Buildings designed for use of more than one tenant.
NEIGHBORHOOD SHOPPING CENTER
The neighborhood shopping center is generally designed to serve
a trade area population of from 5,000 to 40,000. lts principal
function is to provide convenience shopping facilities and the
principal tenant is normally a major supermarket. The size of
this type of development may vary from 30,000 sq. ft. to as much
as 100,000 sq. ft.
NoN-CoNFORMING UsEs
Uses contrary to the regulations for a particular district in which
they are located. These uses are typically existent when the zoning
ordinance is adopted.
PERCENTAGE RENT
Rent based on a given percentage of gross sales of an establish-
ment.
REGION~L SHOPPING C E NTER
A regional shopping center is generally designed to serve a trade
area population of from 150,000 to 400,000 people. The size of
this type of center may range from 300,000 sq. ft. to over.
1,000,000 sq. ft. Department stores are the dominant tenants,
and normally occupy about on e-third to one-half of the total area.
The function of such a center is to create complete comparison
shopping fa cilities with a strong attraction for customers living as
much as 1O to 15 miles from the si te, depending, of course, u pon
existing competitive fa cilities, access routes, etc.
RENTABLE AREA
That part of the gross area within buildings which is used ex
clusively by individual tenants and upon which renta! can be
obtained.
SALES ( SELLING ) AREA
Rentable area minus storage space .
SAL ES P o TE N TIAL
The volume of sales expected for stores at a given location under
normal competitive conditions and usually after a few years of
278
operation when the center has become well established and ac-
cepted in the trade area.
SINGLE TENANCY
The occupancy of a building by a single tenant rather than sev-
era! tenants.
SITE fMPROVEMENTS
Buildings, paving of parking lot, and other fixed additions or
improvements of the buildable site.
STANDBY CHARGE
A fixed periodic charge to the tenant to amortize (with interest )
the landlord's investment in the installation of air conditioning
equipment (and sometimes heating) .
STRIP DEVELOPl\IENT
The arrangement of stores m a straight line usually along a
fhoroughfare.
SUBLETTING
Th e transfer of the lessee's rights under a lease for a part of
the tem1 of the lease.
SuBORDINA noN
Agreement to submit property rights pertaining to land as a
guarantee for a mortgage.
SuBURBAN SHARE
The suburban share of total retail expenditures refers to that por-
tian of those expenditures which would be made in suburban,
e.g., non -downtown stores, providing adequate suburban shopping
fa cilities are available. The determination of suburban share de
pends upon the distance of the area from a major downtown
shopping district, the presence of other suburban stores within
the area, existing shopping habits, store preferen ce, etc.
TENANCY
The holding of certain rights to occupancy of given premises
for a stipulated time, usually in accordance with a lease.
TRADE AREA
The area of inflnence from which a shopping center could expect
to derive as much as 8 5% of its total sales volume is defined
here as the trade area of the center. This area is delimited by
various factors which include driving time; topography; natural
and man -made barriers such as coast lines, rivers, swamps, high-
ways and railroad tracks; and the existence of strong competitive
fa cilities. The primary trade area is the area of strongest influen ce,
normally three to six miles from the site. The secondary and ter-
tiary areas are those of lesser influence.
TRAFFIC GENERATORS
The stores such as the department store, large apparel stores, etc.
in a regional center and a supermarket in a neighborhood center
that attract customers to the shopping center.
TRAFFIC UsERS
The stores in a shopping center whose business is dependent
upon the traffic ge nerated by the larger stores .
V ARIANCE ( ZONING )
Permission granted to the owners of a specific property for es-
tablishing a use not consistent with the zoning of the district.
Variance is usually granted where unusual circumstances lead to
unnecessary hardship for a particular property owner.

BOOKS
BRANCH STORES
Edward l\1. Stanton
National Reta il Dry Goods Association, 1955
COI\I I\IUNITY BUILDE RS' HANDBOOK
Community Builders' Council
U rban Land Institute, revised 19 56
U. S., H awaii, Canada
DIR ECTO RY OF SHOPP I NG CENTE RS,
National R esearch Bureau, lnc., 19 58-59
DOWNTO\\'N AN D SUBURBAN SHOPP I NG HABITS
J. P. Alevizos and A. E. Beckwith
College of Business Administration, Boston University, 1954
FOR~IS AND FU NCTIONS OF TWENTIETH CENTURY ARCHITECTURE
Talbot Hamlin, F .A.l.A.
Columbia University Press, 1952
LADENBAUTEN
Alexander Koch
Alexander Koch : Stuttgart, Germany, 19 50
LOCATING CONTROLL E O REGIONAL SHOP PI NG C ENTERS
Eugene Kelley
E no Foundation for Highway Traffic Con trol, 19 56
PERCENTAGE LEASES, 9 th Edi tion
National Insti tute of Real E sta te Brokers, 19 57
THE SELECTION OF RETAIL LOCATIONS
Richard Lawren ce Nelson
F. W. Dodge Corporation, 195 8
SELECTEO ANO ANNOTATEO BIBLIOGRAPIIY OF THE
PLANNEO SUBURBAN SH OPP I NG CENTER
Jack D. L. Holmes
Bnreau of Business Research , University of .Texas, 1957
SELECTEO ANNOTATEO BIBLIO GRAPHY ON SHOPPING CENTERS
The Kroger Com pany, 19 57
Design a nd peration
SHOPPING C EN T ERS :
Geoffrey Baker and Bruno Funaro
Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 195 1
SHOPP I NG CENTERS :Planning and .Management
Paul E . Smith
National Retail Dry Goods Association, 19 56
Bibliography
SH OPPING C EN TER S VERSUS DOW NTOWN
C . T . Jonassen
Bureau of Business Research , Ohio S tate Universit y, 19 55
OTHER REFERENCES
AMER ICAN I NST ITUTE OF PLANNERS
"The Developm ent of Planned Shopping Centers," Howard
T. Fisher. 195 1
AMERICAN I N STITUTE OF REAL ESTATE APPRAISERS
"Real Estate Appraisal Practice." 1958
AMER ICAN MARKETING ASSOCIATION
"Forecasting Shopping Goods Sales in Proposed Suburban
Centers," Harry J. Casey. Published in Proceedings of
Convention, J une 19 56
AMERICAN PLANNING ANO CI VIC ASSOCIATION
".Modern Shopping Centers," Kenneth C . Welch . 1948-49
"The ]m pact of New Shopping Centers upon Established
Business Districts," H oward T. Fisher. 19 50
1, "Location and Design of Shopping Centers," Kenneth
C. \Velch. 1951
" Economics of Urban and Suburban Shopping Centers,"
Howard T. Fisher. 1952
" Regiona l Shopping Centers," Arthur Rubloff . Published in
Am erican Planning and Civic Annuals, 19 53
AMER ICAN SOC I ETY OF PLANNING OFFICIALS
"New Commercial Areas," Karl Van Leuven, Jr. Published
in PLANNlNG, 1952
"Shopping Center Districts," Laurence P. Smith, .Moris
Ketchum , Jr., and l\1 . \ Valker \Vallace. Published in
PLA N ING, 1953
" Criteria and Standards for Shopping Center Stores. " lnfor
rnation Report #47, February 1953
"Site, Design, Parking and Zoning for Sh opping Centers."
Information Report #59, February 1954
AMER I CAN SOCIOLOG ICAL REVIEW
"Suburbani zation of Retail T rade in the Standard 1\Iet ro-
?.79
 politan Areas of the United States. 1948- 1954," H . D . " Southdale Shopping Center - An Tnvestment in Coo<\
Tmer. August 1957 Planning." October 1958 'I!N'u
"The Crowth of l\'l etropolitan Suburbs ( 1940-50) ," Leo )J
F. Schnore. April 19 57 BUSINESS ECONOI\ IIC REVIEW
"The Shopping Center Revolution and Its Jmpact ," S
APPRAISAL JOURNA L Shaw. April 1958 unos
" Shops, Sto res and Shopping C enters," Leo n \V. Ellwood ~
and Robert Arrnstrong. January, April , July and October CHAIN STO RE AGE
1952 "\Vhat to Look for in Shoppin g Centers," Vctor Cruen.
v "Appraising Shopping Centers," Arthur K. Beman . April July 1948 \
1957 "Yardstick for Shopping Centers." Victor Cruen. February
" How Shopping Centers are Financed," Frank D. Hall.
Jul y 1957
"Outlying Shopping Centers vs. Downtown Retail Trade, "
R. Nelson. October 19 57
J J~~ to 0
l\ Teasure a Trading Area, " \Villiam Applebaum and ,l
Richard F . Spears. January 195 1
An nual Shopping C enter Survey. l\ ]ay Issue 195 3-1958
\
Ul ~:
"Ciassi fi ca tion and Significa n! Characteristics of Shopping j nnl
Centcrs," 11omer lloyt. April 1958 C0;\!1\IER CIAL AND FINANCIAL CHRON ICLE
" Retail Sto re Loca tions," J. A. Lowden. October 1958 "Financing Shopping Centers," Vctor Cruen. l\larch 26,
"Shoppin g Cen ters: Some Prob1ems in Connection with 19 53
Shopping Center Leases," J. Benton T ull y. October 1958 S.\11
DEPARTI\IENT STORE ECONOI\ IIST
AR CHI TECT AND ENGINEER "Suburban Branches," John Cue rnsey. JuneSeptember 1951
"\\'hat l\lakes a Successful Shopping Center," Frank Emery "The l'\c\\' Yardstick of th e Departm ent Store l\ larke t,"
Cox. Jul y and Augm t 195 4 Perry l\ leyers. January 19 58
S.\1
ARCIIITECTURAL FORUI\I DUN'S REVIEW AND 1\IODERN INDUSTRY
"Suburhan Retail Dist ricts." August 19 50 " Piann ed Shopping Centers," Vctor Cruen. Jul y 1953
"New Thinkin g on Shoppi ng Centers," _L~ rf}' Smith and
Vctor Crucn. l\ larch 19 53 FORTUNE
" Hm,; To Plan Successful Shopping Centers," Larry Smith "Lush New Suburban l\larket." l'\ovember 1953 )1
and \'ictor Cm en. l\ larch 195 4
"Northland Slwppin g Ccnter." Jun e 19 54 IIARVA RD BUSINESS REVIEW
"Big Shoppin g Center wit h no 'l\lr. Big.'" June 195 4 " D ynami c Planning fo r R eta il Areas," V c t or Cruen.
"\ Break Through for Two-Level Shopping Centers." De- No,ember December 1954
cemher 1956 "The Personality of the Retail Store," Pierre l\lartineau.
January-February 1958
ARCIIIT EC TURAL RECORD
"l\ !arkets in th e l\ !eadows." l\ !arch 1949 IIICIIWAY RESEARCH BOARD
"Regional Shoppin g Ccntcrs, " Kenn eth C. \\'elch. Build "Tra1el to Commercial C enters," Cordon B. Sharpe;
in g Types Study # 172, l\larch 195 1 "Factors in Plannin g Regional Shopping Ccnters," Kcnncth
"Shoppi ng Ccnters." Buildin g T ypcs St udy # 20 3, Octoher C. \\'elc h.
1953 Both published as llighway Resea rch Bulleti n # 79, 195 3
"Building for Rctailing." Building Types Studv #232, Scp- " \Vh at Parking l\leans to Business." Published by Au tomo
tember 1957 ti1e Safety Foundation, November 1, 195 5
"Shopping Can Be A Pleasure." Building Typcs Study
# 2 50, Septemhcr 19 57 INSTITUTE OF TRAFFIC ENCINEERS
"Shops and the l\ larkct Place," l\lorris Ketchum, Jr. Oc "Traffic Impact of th e Automotive Shopping Centcr," Larry
tober 1958 Smith . Procecdin gs of Scptcmhcr 195 4 meetin g

ARC IIIT ECTURAL REVIEW !0\\'A HUSIN ESS DI CEST

"Regional Shoppi ng Centers." Jul y 195 1
L' ARCIIlTECTURE o' AUJOURD' IIUI
" Centre D 'Achats, Framingham." April 1952
"Lijnhaa n." Janua ry 195 4
ARTS AND ARCIIIT ECTURE
"Shopping Ce nters of Tomorrow," Vcto r Crucn . January
195 4
"Architecture and Sculpture - Th e Northland Regional
Shopping Ccnter," \'ictor Cruen. l\!ay 1955
BOECKII 's !\!ANUAL OF APPRAISA LS, 5th Ed ition. 1956.
C hapter IX : Cos ts - Large Area Stores and Shopping C en
ters.
"Shopping Ccnters - An Evolution in Retailin g," H . Vred
enburg. April 19 58
JEWELERS CIR CULAR KEYSTONE
" \Vh at Jewelers Think About Shopping Centers." l\1arch
19 58
JOURNA L OF PROPERTY 1\IANACEI\IENT
"Shoppi ng Ccnter l\ lanagcment. " December 1957
JOURNAL OF RETAILING
"Thc Rise of Shopping Centers." Spring 19 55
"Shopping Centers and Local Cmernm ent - Collision or
Co-operation?" Summer 19 55
"lmpact of Shopping Centers Locally and Downtown,"
C. H. Stedman . Summer 1956

BUILDINGS LAND ECONOI\ IICS

"New Approach to Shoppng Center Ai r Conditioning," "Shopping Centers in Urban Redevelopment," Robert l\I.
A. l. l\lcFarlan . June 1958 Lillibridge. l\lay 1948

280
~ I E DI CAL ECONOJ\ IICS
" Shopping Center Practice H ere to Stay," l\1auri Edward1.
Septem ber l 9 54
NATIONAL ASS OC I ATIO N OF ASSE SSING OFFI CE RS
"Shopping Centers - Analysis and Appra isal for Assessment
Purposcs." Assessment Informaban Servicc, Tnformation
Report #2 , September 19 55
"Appraisal and Assessment of Shopping Centers." 19 57
NATIONAL ASS OC I ATIO N OF BUI L DI NG OW NE RS AND ~ I ANAGE R S
"Streamlined Neighborhood Development," Larry Smith .
4 5th An nual Com ention Proceedin gs, l\ Tay 19 52
NATIONAL CO~ n ll T TEE 0 :-1 H OUS JN C
"Piannin g N eighborhood Shopping Centers," l\ 1arcel Villan -
ueva . 1945
NATIONAL JNS TITU TE OF R EA L ES T AT E BRO KE RS
" Outlying Shoppin g C enters - Planning and Opera ting,"
Larry Smith . Third Annual Comm ercial Properties Clinic,
l\ lay 19 51
NAT!O N AL REAL E STATE Al'D BU ILDI NG JOU RNA L
" C ett ing T enants for Your Shopping Center," Larry Smith .
January 19 56
"Shopping Centers Versus Downtown." September 19 57
N E\\' YO RK CE RTI F I ED PU B L IC ACC OUNTA N T
"S hopping Centers," Larry Smith . Octobcr 1954
"Shopping Centers an d N ew York State Retail Economy."
Published in N ew York State Comm erce Review, Septem-
ber 1958
NEW YO RK TI~IES ~ I A GAZ IN E
"Shopping Center C aes to the Shopper," C . B. Palm er. N o-
vember 29, 19 53
PA CI FI C ARCHITECT AND BUILD E R
"Cityscape and Landsca pe: C rossroads of the Arts," Vctor
C ruen. November 1955
PA C I FIC NORT H\\' ES T BUS I NE SS
"Reta il Decentralization - Why Ts lt Successful?" Harold
H . Olberding. January 1957
P RAC TI CA L B UI LD E R
"\Vhat \ Ve Learned in Developing Shopping Centers," J. C .
N ichols. Decemher 1945
P ROG RESS IV E ARCH ITEC TUR E
"Sh opping Centers: T he N ew Building T ype," Vctor C ru en
and Larry Smith . June 19 52
"Two Shopping Centers - Valley Fair and Bay Fair," V c-
tor Cruen Associates. October 1958
P U BLIC ~IANAGE~ I ENT
" Tm pact of Outlying Shoppin g Centers on Central Business
Districts," l\1. \Valker. August 1957
S.\LES 1\ I ANACEJ\ I ENT
"Nineteen Thin gs You Should Kn ow About Shoppin g Cen-
ters," D. Curtiss. December 6, 195 7
SOUT IIW EST B U IL DER AND CONT RAC T OR
"Bas ic Plannin g Concepts of Correlated Shoppin g Centers
Expounded to Bankers," Vctor G ruen . l\ larch 26, 19 53
SUPE R ~ ! A RK ET l\ I E RC H AND ISI NG
"Are Shoppin g Centers Failin g?" Arthur Rubloff. F ebruary
1954
TRAF ENGIN E ER I NG
/ ' 'T raffi c lmpact of Regional Shopping C enters," Vctor
C ruen. l\Iarch 19 53
" Pianning for Shopping," Vctor Cruen. January 19 56
TRA FF I C QUA RTERLY
"Traf!i c Plannin g pportuni ties in Shopping Center De-
J:sign," Howard T. Fisher. October 195 1
/ ' Parkin g Plans for Shopping Centers," Kenneth C . \Velch
and Bru no Fnnaro . October 195 2
"An Appraisal of Shopping Centers," Kenneth C . \Velch .
October 1954
v " Sh oppin g Center T raf!i c Problems," \ Velton Becket . April
19 55
v " Shopping Center Designing ," Lath rop Donglass. July 19 58
-)'The Regional Center and Downtown," Kenneth C . \ Velch .
July 19 58
TEXAS BUS I NESS R E VI E\1'
" Retail Trade C aes to T own." April 19 54
URBAN LA ND I N STI TUT E
"l\ Tistakes \Ve Have J\Iade in Developing Sh opping Cen-
ters," J. C . Nichols. T echnical Bulletin No . 4, August
1945
" Shopping Centers - An Analysis," edited by Seward H .
l\1 ott and l\t ax S. \ Vehrly. T echn ical Bnlletin No. 11 ,
July 1949
v " l\ Iarket Analysis of Shopping Centers," Homer Hoyt. Tech -
,. nical Bulletin No. 12, October 1949
\.i'Sh opp in g C ent ers: Pri ncip ies an d Po li cies," J. R os s
M cKeever. T echnical Bulletin N o. 20, Jul y 1953
"Shopping Habits and T ravel Patterns, " AJan H . Voorhees,
Cardan B. Sharpe and J. T. Stegm aier. Techn ical Bulletin
No . 24, March 1955
" A Re-exam ination of the Shopping Center l\ larket." Homer
( Hoyt. T echnical Bulletin N o. 33, September 195 8
U R BAN LAND I NS TIT UTE l\-l onth\y Bulletin , Urban Land
"Shoppin g Centers - Look Befare You Leap," J. C . N ich -
ols. J une 1948
"Shopping Centers that Offer N ew Ideas." December 19 51
"A Case of Contrast in Suburba n Stores." February 1952
"Department Store T rends in the Development of Sh oppi ng
Centers," Larry Smith. March 19 52
.,"The Current T rend in New Shopping Centers," Homer
Hoyt. April 1953
"Estimatin g Productivity fo r Planned Regional Shopping
Centers," Jam es Rouse. November 195 3
. ,"A N ew Look at Shopping Centers," Robert Arrnstrong.
V May 1954
"Branch Stare Policies," Robert Arm strong. September 19 54
" Europe's Fifth Avenue," Robert Kiek. October 1954
J 'T he Status of New Subnrban Shopping Centers," Homer
Hoyt. Jun e 1955
" Recent Developm ents in Branch Bankin g," Robert Arm-
strong. January 19 56
j " Commercial Real Estate Relation ships - Downtown and
Sub urban, " Larry Smith. March 19 56
j 'lm pa ct of Sub u rban Sh op pin g C en te rs in Sep t em be r
1956," Homer Hoyt. September 19 56
" Rack and Roll in Retail ing," Robert Armstrong. October
1956
"Analyzing th e Shopping Center Market," Larry Smith . Jan-
uary 1957
"Valuation of Shopping Centers fo r Mortgage Purposes,"
J. Solis-Cohen, Jr. February 1958
W I SCONSJN CO~!M E R CE PAPE RS
"Retail T rade Area Analysis," Tsadore Fin e. University of
\ Visconsin. January 1954
28 1
 lndex

Abbott, Merkt & Co., Jnc., 119, 238 total !loor, 202 construction , 177
Abrams, Charles, 21 total rentable, 203 laminated wood arches, 174
Accountant, 198 total sales, 20 3 single-pull merchandising, 1 3 5
Acoustic ceiling, 173 Art exhibits, 25 7, 261 Boa rdwalk (Tiburon, Cal.)
Actions in law, 200 Assignment , 200 case study, 234-235
Agora of Assos, 17 Attachments, 201 pedestrian areas, 146
Air-conditioning, 183-185 Attomey, and draft of lease, 196 screen for sen ice facilities, 83
balanced system, 184 Auditing, 198, 211 Boat shows ( See al so Cultural Activities),
central, 183- 185, 20 5 Auditorium, 15 8, 234, 263 262
control, 184-185 Automobile shows, 262 Bon Air 1\farket ( Grcenbrae, Cal. )
costs, 205 Automobiles, as factor in architectural per- landscaping, 163
operating costs, 185, 205 spective, 160-162 Bouleuterion , 17
owner's work, 185 increased own ership, 267 Broadway-C renshaw Center
package units, 185 ( Los Angeles, C al. )
stand-by charge, 199 " Back charge," 197 pirating stores nea rby, 105
temporary heating. 205 Bakema, J. B., 12 truck road and traflic , 84, 128
tenant's work, 185 Balconies, 24 2 Brochures, 70, 254
units as architectural assets, 162 Bamberger's, 238, 239 economic and planning data, 70
Alarm system, 189 Bartholomew, ll arland, & Associates, 242 Broker. real estate. 58. 13 8- 139
"Allowance system ," 197 Basements, 142 Brose, 1\forris, 230
Alista te lnsurance Company, 107 Basins, 148 Brown , Willard A. , 257, 261, 302 , 304
Alterations, 20 0 Bay Fair Shopping C enter Brugnoni, R. C., 166, 244
American Skyline, 21 (San Leandro, Cal.) Brust & Brust, 2 36
Announcem ent boards, 167 construction, 176 Budget, basic, 70
Application, for mortgage, 59 free-standing structure, 161 ca pital, 211, 21 3-2 14
Appraisal, for mortgage, 59, 61 open areas. 149 exploratory, 202
Arcad es, 2 31 parking stalls, 12 5 for merchants' association , 256
Arcadian G arden s, 23 8 presentation, 71 opening costs, 214
Architect, ramped service road , 84 operating. 214
cooperation with economist and waffi e- type construction, 172 preliminary. 202
developer, 32 Becket, \Velton , & Associates, 99, 162, 16 3, project, 21 2
and design of sign s, 146 228 shopping center, 202-21 5
in final planning stage, 71-72. 73 " Bedroom" town s. 48 workin g,202
planning team , 66-67 Beersheba Shopping Center (Israel), 13 Bufano, Beniamino , 22 8
coordination of specialists on, 67 Belluschi, Pi etro , 141 , 226 Buffer areas, 102
and selection of works of art. 1 5 31 57 Belt conveyors, 186 Building codes, and structural system, 182
Architectural Forum, 2 30 Benches, 1 51 Buildings, area and size, 50
Architectural R ecord, 244 Berge, Dorothy, 15 7 arrangement, 94
Areas ( See also Buffer areas; Ground area; Bergen 1\lall ( Paramns, New Jersey) depth , 142
Parking area; Pedestrian area; truck road, 84 construction, 72-7 3
Public area ; Surrounding area; Trade Beyster, H . E., Corp., 78 height, 50, 141
area) Bialosky, Jack AJan, 173 local rules and regulations, 205
definition, 202-2 03 Bidding, 72-73, 206 singJe.purpose, 5 34
specific, of shoppin g center, 74 Black Horse Pike (A ndubon, New Jersey) tenant , 140-146
total construction, 20 2 case study, 232-233 Bullock's Pasadena , 163
(See Addenda on page 288 .)

282
Bullone, Joseph, 230 Coronado, Texas, 100 Department stores, 110-114
Buses Costs, construction , 172-175
roads, 130-1 31 basic, capital, 21 O as developers, 37
shelters, 130, 179 construction , 205-206 development, 27
terminal , 131 , 231 bidding climate, 206 over-all architectural plans, 53
construction , and development, 203-205 renta] terms, 192
Cafe, 87, 51, 170, 234 chart, 209 similari ty to shopping center, 80
Callery, Mary, 230 double-deck parking, 40 suburban branches, 37
Cancellation, 198, 200 land , 203 as traffic attractor, 1H
Capitalization rates, 59 low, 42 Design, and automobile scale, 160-162
Capital Court Shopping Center heating and air-tonditioning, 185-205 control, 144-146
( Milwaukee, \Vis.) interrelation with income, 206-214 shopping center, 140-170
art exhibit, 261 neighborhood versus regional center, 203 store fron t, 144-146
case study, 236-237 planning, 211 utilitarian elements, 162
Car storage facilitie s (See Parking ) secondary capital, 21 O for expansion, 111
Caracas, V enezuela, Shopping Center, 13 shopping center, 202-206 Developer, 27-29
Carpenter, Horace, 252, 257. 260, 262, 264 site, 40 basic aim, 190
Carson Pirie Scott and Company, 37 variations in labor, construction, and contractual relationship with contractor,
Case studies, 215-24 7 material, 206 206
foot traflic, 75, 78 Country Club Plaza Shopping Center cooperation with architect and
of ground area sch ematics, 93-97 ( Kansas City, l\'lo. ), 12, 13 economist, 32
of land usage and snrrounding area, Court square, colonial, 19 course of action in default , 20 1
107- 109 Coventry Shopping Center ( England ) , 272 investment, 57, 205
Center, The ( Omaha, N eb.) Covered l\lall ( See l\lalls ) land, 28
multi-level parking, 92 Crear, William , Jr. , 257, 258 leasing, 73, 196
Chapman specialty store. 2 36 Credit. 59-60 organization of. 28-29
Charles Center ( Baltimore, l\ld.), 271 -272 Cross County Center ( Yonkers, New York ) planning for costs, 21 1
Charles River Park Urban Redevelopment high-rise building. 161 and planning team, 66
Proj ect ( Boston , l\lass.), 269 medica! building and hospital, 92 professional, 27-28
Chart, basic capital costs, 21O single tenant sign. 168 responsibili ty for repairs, 199
Chart, construction and development cost, Crosswalks, cmered, 149 and zoning, 49
209 Cultural Entertainment, and Civic Development
Children 's acthities Activi ties costs, 20 3-20 5
entertainment, 257 church senices, 158 methods and motiva ti ons, 28
ice skating. 2 57, 260 concerts, 158, 257, 258, 259, 260 in stages, planning for, 11 O, 11 2-114
"kiddieland," 78, 261 dancing. 24, 257, 26 1 Di rectori es, 254
mi scellaneous, 26 1 exhibits and shows, 158, 257. 260, 261 , Display cases, free -standing, 12, 151
playgronnd, 78, 260 262 , 263 Distribution systems, 111
zoo. 158, 261 fashion show, H9, 258, 261 -263 Dock Facilities, 129, 1 30-131
Choral singin g, 26 3 holiday celebration , 149, 158, 261, 262, Double-pull plan, 134-136
Christmas, 262 263 Douglas, James B., 257
City planning, 21 ice skating, 258, 260 Douglass, Lathrop, 92, 161, 168, 246
Climate, 205 lectures and edncational courses, 1 58, 263 Downtown deterioration, 271
Cluster type, 12, 78, 270, 272 meetings, luncheon, dinn er, civic, 158, Driving time chart, 33
Cohn, L., 13 260, 26 3, 264 Drugstore , self-service, 240
Colleges, as developers, 28 movies, 158. 26 1 Drop panel construction , 173
Colonnades, 172, 178, 236 singing, 263 Duffus. R. L . 271
Color scheme, for store front s, 146 Symphony Ball ( l\1inn eapolis), 258 Duhl, Leonard, J., 21
Colnmn spacing, HZ, 171-172, 174 television and radio station , 1 58
Common area, renta] terms, 198-199 th eater, 92, 158, 257, 260, 261 Earth movement operations. 42
Common sheltercd spaces, 178 Curtiss, Don, 257, 261 Eastland Center ( D etroit . l\lich.)
Communica tion s, 189 Customer loyalty, 33 bus road and terminal, 1 31, 1 59
Commnni ty activities, renta! agrecment for, case study, 230-23 1
263-264 Dadeland Shopping Center ( Florida) Christmas, 262
Commnnity buildings, 1 58, 260 senice facilities, 8 5 Com muni ty center renta] agreement, 264
Community facilities, 257 Damage or destruction of premises ( See covered crosswalk , 149
Concerts, 149, 257 Lease) dancing, 261
Concessions, 197-198 Dancing, fonntain, 149
Construction, basic costs, 205-206 in Southdale Shopping Center, 24 garden court, 147
costs, 203-205 in streets of Pars, 24 information booklet, 254
sch ed nling, and different costs, 206 square, 2 57 lighting, 159
techniques, 182 D averman , J. & G ., Co., 92 " last," 25 3
Consultant, real es tate, 66-67 da Vinci. Leonardo. 18 merchandising planning. 153
Consumer surveys, 3 3 Day nursery schools ( See also Children's opening. 2 53
Contini, Edga rdo, 271 Activities), 158 parking and pedes trian areas, 82
Contractual Relation ship ( See also Dayton's D epartment Store, 172 police, 264
Developer), 206 Dccentrali za tion , master plan. 36 prospectns. 264
Cooling systems (See also Air Condition- Decker, Lindsey, 149, 230 pnbli c events building, 1 58
ing) , 184 D efa ults, 20 1 restaurant, 79

283
 structure, 179
traffic, 120, 12 1, 122
transportation area, 124
truck road, 84, 122
Eastland Shopping Cen ter
( \ \' est C ovina , Cal. )
case study, 240-24 1
pedestrian area, 159
planting, 163
Ecclesiasterion, 18
Economic analysis, 69
of shopping center loca tions, 30- 37
specific store types, 55
Economist, coopera tion with archi tect and_
developer. 32
leasing. 7 3
plann ing team, 66, 67
shopping center study, 30
Ed Sch uster and C o., 2 36
Electri c senice, 187, 205
Elec trical engin eering, 187- 189
Emin ent domain , 200
"Empl oyee's Day," 25 1
Engi neerin g, electrical. 187-189
mechanical, 182-186
of sh opping centcrs, 171-189
provisions for expansion , 11 1
E ntertainm ent, for children ( See also
Children' s A c ti\~ ties), 2 57
Entrance court, 23 8
E ntrepreneur (See also D evel oper ), 65
Equipment locati ons, 184
Escalators, SO, 186, 240
Escape options , 198
Estoppel certifica te, 20 1
Evergreen Plaza, 260, 26 1, 262
Expansion , 23 8
planning for, 110-11 1
Expenses, accoun ts, 213
Farmer's 1\l arket ( Los Angeles, C al. )
12, 13
Fashion shows ( See also C ultural
Activities) , 149,258, 26 1-262
Feasibili ty study, 69
Federal H ighway Program , 267
Federal H ousin g Authority , 28
Federal Urban Renewal and
Redevelopm ent, 61, 267
F ees, 205
Felt, James, 46
Fifth Avenue South ( W ashington , D. C. )
malls, 179
parking area, 92, 127
pedestrian mall, 179
Financing, 57-61
collateral issues, 61
developer's abili ty and, 29
equity, 58
mortgage, 57-61
shopping center, 57-61
sources, 58
syndi cat es, 58
temporary, 59
types, 57-58, 206
Finish work , 197
Fire, damage, 200
ratings, 182
28-t
Fisher, Nes, Campbell & Associates, Heating (See Air C on ditionin g )
141 , 226 H echt Parkington Shopping C enter
Floodlighting, 228 (Arlington , Va. ), 95
Florists, 2 33 H ighways, 22 , 267
Flower shows, 26 1 H illsdale Sh opping C enter
Foot traffic , 134 ( San M ateo, C al. )
departm ent store, 80 case study, 228-229
maximum , exposure of retail facilities to , H olabird, Root & Burgee, 7
75-80 H otel Corporation of America, 109
Forms, of mortgage, 59 Hudson C o., J. L., 37, 111 , 124,1 30,230
Formulae, for ground areas, 88-92
Fort \ Vorth , Tex., revi talization plans, Ice skating, 257, 260
272, 273 lmprovements, 214
Foundation , problems, 2 34 lncome, accoun ts. 213
Fountains, 148, 149, 244 and existing business potential, 206
Framing system, 171 interrelation with cost, 206-2 14
Framingham Sh oppers' \ Vorld national, 267
( See Shoppers' W orld ) from renta! of miscellaneous facili ties,
roof framing, 17 5 208, 210
th eater, 158 and stand-by charges, 208
Fredcricks, 1\ larshall, 155, 2 30 Indemni tv, 20 0
F reeways, 22 , 267 ln dian Lnds de\elopment
( Palm Springs, Cal. )
Garages ( See also Parking area), 113 Industrial Re\olution, 19
Carden State Plaza Shopping C enter ln formation booklet , 254
( Paramns, N . J.) ln stall ation. 200
case study, 2 38- 2 39 lnstituti ons, as de\elopers, 28
roads around , 119 educa tional, and mortgages, 58
traffi c analr sis report, 11 6 lnsurance, conditions. 20 5
truck road, 84 renta! terms, 200
Gardner, Albert B., 105 lnsmancc companies, 58
Gas station, 2 35 as de\elopcrs, 28
G eneral Am erica n Life Insurance Co., 107 and fi nancing committees, 208
G eodesic D ome, 260 lnterest rates, 59
G ertz Store, 246 lntrmerted C enter, 78, 79
Gibb erd , Fred, 13 lnvestm ent , chain reaction of, with
Gimb el's, 2 38, 244 in come and fin an cing, 207
Gin, Francis X., 13 for construction and nonconstruction
Girders, pre-stressed, 176 purposes, 210
wooden box, 17 5 justification, 208
Gl endale C enter ( ln dianapolis, lnd. ), 76 sh ort or long term, 28, 20 5
Graham , John , & Compa ny, 77, 90, 242 true operati\e value, 206, 208
Grani ere, G iovanni 1\ li ch ele, 14 7 Irrigation and sprinkling systems, 163
Graphics (See also Sign s), 164-168,
Jenn ings, Richard Hall, 148, 156
232, 244
John \Vanamaker and Co., 168
G rassold-John son & Associa tes, 216
Johnson. Philip. 151
G reenbrae Shopping C enter
Jordan 1\larsh C o., 175
( San Rafael , Cal. )
Junior departm en t store, renta] term s,
box gi rders, 17 5
192-19 3
Ground area, 88-92
formube for, Ketch um, Gin & Sharp, 77
buffer, 9 1 Kil ey, Dan , 141 , 226
oth er uses, 9 1-92 King, John Lord, 83, 146, 2 34
sh opping core, 88-89 Kiosks, 150. 179
resen e, 9 1 Ki tch en failities, 158
transportation, 89-9 1 Kraft . Arthur, 15 5. 156
Ground lease, 205 Kruger, Loui se. 157, 2 30
Growth , planning for, 11 0- 114
provisions for \'ertical add iti ons, 111 Lakewood C enter ( Los Angeles, C al. )
G nlfga te Shopping C enter tru ck tra ffi c, 128
( H ouston , T ex.) truck tunn cl, 84
transportati on and car storage area, 90 La !\ lirada C enter ( Los Angeles, Cal. ), 176
Land, allocation ,_to specific usages, 74
Harland Bartholom ew & Associates costs, 20 3
( See Barth olomew, Harland ) h igh , 39
Harlow Shopping C enter low, 37, 42
( London , England), 13 resen e, for enlarged parking area, 111
Hattis, Robert E ., 76 Land usage, plans, 2 38
H ealth center, regional, 108, 109 in surrounding area, 102-103, 106
Landlord's work , 197 I ndian Lands development, 1O3 stipulations, 59-61
Landscaping, 160, 162-163, 224, 228, 230 land usage, over-all, 50 subordination , 20 1
Lattices, 246 l\'laryvale Shopping City, 104 Motels, 109
Lavie, Y., 1 3 Northland center, 107- 108 l\ 1otor Hotels, Prototype, 109
Lease Palos V erdes pennsula, 100, 101 , l\ !ott, Seward, H 1, 226
annualizing, 197 102- 103 l\ !ount Prospect Cen ter
clause on merchants' associations, 2 55 South Bay Shopping Center, 11 3, 114 ( See Randhurst Shopping Center)
consent not to be unrea sonably Southdale Center, 108-109 l\!ovie th eater, 1 58, 26 1
withh eld, 201 Staten Island Downtown, 112-113 l\loving sidewalks, 8 5, 186
damage or destruction of premises, 200 urban renewal, 272 1\ lulti-level proj ects, 42
eminent domain , 200 \Vaialae Shopping C enter, 114 l\ lultiple tenant structure, 140-146,
handling of, 138-139 May Co., 11 4, 173, 241 171-172,244
mi scellaneous provisions, 20 1 Mayfair Shopping Center l\ 1useum of Modero Art, outdoor ca fe, 151
month to month , 20 1 ( l'dilwaukee, Wis.) , 216 l\1usic system, 189
and mortgage requirements, 60 l\ lechanical engi neeri ng (See aJso
remedies and defaults, 201 Engi neeri ng ), 182- 186 National chains, 191
.shopping center, 190-201 i\ !echanical transportation, 185- 186 National Retaill\1erchants Association, 271
subl etting or assignm ent, '200-20 1 l\!eier and Frank Co., 242 , 24 3 " Neighborh ood Day," 251
terms, 196- 197 Mellon Square Center New York Ci ty
Lectores, 26 3 ( Pittsburgh , Pa.), 272 Crea ter l\ Ietropolitan area, 21
Letter of commitment, 59, 60 l\ !erchandisers. as developers, 2 7 pop ulation, 21
Liberty House D epartm ent Store, 114 Ierchandising, activities, 2 57 19 16 zoning, 46
Liens, 200, 20 1 two-level, 226, 227 Northgate Center ( Seattle, \ Vash .)
Lighting, 15 8- 159, 187-188 l\ !erchandisi ng planning, 132-139, magnet, 77
Lighting standards, 188, 232 230, 234, 244 movie theater, 26 1
Lijnbaan Shopping Center expansion, 1 37 photographic exhib ts, 26 1
( Rotterdam, Holland ), 272 fin ancia] ramifications, 137 truck traffic, 12 8
free-standing display cases, 12 ideal, 137-139 Northland Center ( Detroit, Mich .), 44, 45
pedestrian mal!, 12, 13 multi-level, 242, 24 3 building silh ouette, 160
Lloyd Center ( Portland, Ore. ) physical aspects, 132- 1 37 bus road, 130
Bonneville Power Admi nistration primary objectives, 132, 1 34 Christmas, 262
Building, 242 "pul!" principie, 1 34-1 36 cluster type, 78
case study, 242-24 3 traffic attractors, 134 community activities, schedul e, 264
ramped servi ce road, 84 Merchants' association, 255-256 ccnstruction , 178
Loading, 130-131 Mercury vapor lamps, 188 crosswalks, 1 50
Loca tion, 30-37 Metering, 187 directional signs, 167
barriers to accessibili ty, 32 Mid-Island Plaza expansion, 11 1-112
driving time to, 33 ( Hicksvill e, Long !sland, N. Y.) fl oodligh ting, 159
and financing, 57 case study, 246-247 heating and cooling plants, 183
population characteristics, 3 3 M idtown Plaza Project landscaping, 148
potential sales volum es in trade area , 35 ( Rochester, N. Y. ), 27 1, 272 mail drops, 146
Loebl, Schlossman & Bennett, 16 3 l\ Iile High Center ( Denver, Colo. ) , 272 master plan, 107-108
Lustig, Alvin, 167, 168 l\ liller, Robert L., 214 merchandising plan, 133
Lux, Gwen, 155 l\ lilwaukee Art Institute, 26 1 pa rking and pedestrian areas, 82, 90, 91
l\ !itchell and Ritchey, 27 1 pickup station, 12 5
MacDo nald, Thom as H., 130 Model hom e shows, 262 police, 264
McClure, Thomas, 230 l\ !odels, 70, 71 rest areas, 1 51
McKeldin, Gov. Theodore, 25 1 Modular system, 244 sculpture, 154, 157
McVey, William, 230 Mondawmin Center ( Baltimore, M d.) signs, 168
Macy's, 174, 228. 244 ai rplane view, 14 1 sports show, 26 1
Malls, 179, 228-229, 230-231, 236, 239, Board of D esign, Hl stores, 141
240-246 case study, 226-227 th eater, 92, 158
covcre~ 148, 170, 179, 271, 272 concerts, 2 58 traffic count, 12 3, 128
as magnets, 77 ice skating, 260 transportation area, 124
Manchester Center (Fresno, Cal.), 263 opening day, 250 truck road, 84, 128, 129
Market place promotiona1 events, 263 zoo, 158
lower East Side, New York Ci ty, 19 Moran, Malcolm, 1 56 Notices, 20 1
medieval, 18 Mortgages, 29
Triangular Forum, Rome, 18 application, 59 Oak Park Shopping Center, 37
Markets ( See al so Supermarkets), 2 34 appraisal, 59, 61 Old Orchard Shopping Center
Marshall Field and Co., 37, 224 broker, 58 (Skokie, Ill. ), 37, 163, 224-225
Martn, Albert C. , & Associates, 159, 240 docum ents, 59 Opening, 251-254
Maryvale Shopping City first, 57 Owners, as developers, 28
(Phoenix, Ariz.), 51 interest rates, 59
master plan 1ender, 190 Package Pickup Stations, 186
presentation, 70 mnimum requirements, 60-6 1 Paging system, 189
shading devices, 87 n ego tia tions, 61 Pala Shopping Ccnter ( San Jose, Cal. )
Master plans single blanket, 58 building area formula , 88
Coronado, Tex., lOO split, 58 construction, 176

285
 pedestrian area, 81 Poster columns, 151 , 167 existing pattem, around site, 43,
wood beams, 175 Premises, access to, 201 116,118
wood framing, 181 care and use, 199 improvement, 115, 117
Palos Verdes Town Center (Cal.) damage or destruction of, 200 main, 237
master plan, 100, 101, 102-10:> lease, 196-197 service, 129
research par k, 102 surrender, 201 side, 121
Parades, 2 5:> "Press Da y," 2 51 truck, 84
Parking ( See al so Case Studies) Press Kit, 252 underground, 84
area, 90-91, 224, 236 Printemps Departrnent Store, Robinson's Departrnent Store, 174
construction cost, 40 Paris, France, 80 Rogers, Taliaferro & Lamb, 271
double-deck, 40, 43, 91, 95, 228 Professional fees, 205 Roof framing, 172, 17 5
ground area formulae , 90-97 Promotion, 251 -254 Roosevelt Field Shopping Center
inadequate, 46 Property, fringe, value of, 39 ( Nassau County, Long lsland, N. Y.)
lighting, 188 owners, as developers, 28 advertising kiosk, 150
multi-level, 92, 95, 96-97 Protection office, 189 case'study, 244-245
multi -story, 181, 242 Public areas, 257=264 symbol design for, 166
off-street, 48 Public events, 149, 257-264 Rouse, James, 141, 226, 251, 257,
ordinance, 50 building, !58, 260 258, 260, 263
provision for expansion, 111 Public tran sportation vehicles, 130-131 Rubloff, Arthur, & Company, 257
ratio , 226
schematics, 9 3-96 Radio station, 15 8
stalls,91, 125-127 Ramp, 228, 229 Saarinen, Lily, 148, 154
Partitions, 142, 146 Randhurst Shopping Center ( formerly Sales, central business district , 270
Pedestrian area (See also 1\falls), 12, 24, known as 1\Iount Prospect Center), 135 volume of, and renta] terms, 194, 195
146-157, 159, 224, 235, 236, 238, Real esta te broker ( See Broker, real es tate) Sanabria, Toms Jos, 13
269, 270 Real esta te consultant ( See Consultant, Schematics, assumptions for, in site
covered, 169-170 rea 1 esta te) planning. 93-96
in future shopping centers, 269, 270 Reed, Henry Hope, 21 Schuster, Ed, and Co. ( See Ed Schuster
ligh ting, 18 8 Regional Health Center, and Co.)
planting, 159, 163 Southdale area, 109 Sculpture, 1 5:>-1 55
separation from tran sportation areas, Regional Shopping District, Seats, 151
81-84 establishment of, 50 Serv ces
signs, 168 Reid, Lloyd B., 78, 120, 230 area, 82-84
Pei, T. 1\f., 166, 244, 271 Reilly Law of Retail Gravitation, 32 core, 143
Penn Fruit Supennarket, 174, 177, 232 Renta! term s, 192-196 tower, 174
Pension funds ( See al so Financing), 58 common areas, 198 Setbacks, 50
Pereira & Luckman, 76 utility services, 199 Sheltered spaces, 178-179
Perkins and Will, 216 Rents, for community activities, 264 Shoppers, basic needs, 2 3
"Pirating" stores, 45 fair, 54 Shoppers' \Vorld (Framingham, l\1ass.),
prevention of, 105-107 guaranteed, 1 37, 191 77, 175
Planning ( See also l\1aster plans) mnimum, 208 roof framing. 17 5
aspects of, 11-14 percentage, 191, 192, 193 , 194, th eater, 158
for development in stages , 11 O, 112-114 195, 198 Shopping center
environmental, 23, 271 for national chains, 191 accessibility, ll6
expansion, 110-112, 238 percentage structure, 132 bidding, 72
growth, 110-114 schematic schedule, 138-139 budget, 202-215
merchandising, 132-139, 234 Repairs, 199 cluster type, 12, 78, 270
resistance to, by business community, 23 Research park, industrial, 102 competition with central business
Schedule, 68-73 Residential area, 48, 108 district, 3 5
Site, 74-97 Rest benches, !51 design, 140-170
surrounding area, 98-109 Restraints, 53, 228, 240 developer, 27-29
traffic, 115-1 :> 1 Restaurants, 149 dollar, 204
for urban redevelopment, 269 outdoor, 87, 151,234 economic value, 57
Planning team, 65-67 quality, 195 engineering. 171 -189
diagram, 66 as traffic attraction, 134 fin ancing, 57-61, 190
pennanent members, 66-67 Retail expenditures, downtown and future , 267-273
Planting beds, 153 , 159, 162- 16:> suburban shares, 3 5 hypothetical map, 273
Playlands ( See also Children's typical per capita pattem, 34, 35 intermediate, 181, 193
Activities), !58 Retail potential, 192 intro,erted, 78, 79
Plumbing, 185 Retail store ( See Stores ) "Janus," 76
Police, 264 Revitalization, 271-273 leasi ng, 190-201
Ponds, 148, 225 Fort \Vorth , 272-273 location, 30-37
Population, characteristics, 33, 3 5 Fresno, 272 mnimum, 210
distribution, Los Angeles, Cal., 21 Kalamazoo, 272 opening and promotion , 25 1-25 4
existing, and future growth, 31 St. Paul, 272 optimum , 210
forecast of trend , 3.6 Rezoning, 40, 45 ordinance, 50
of metropolitan areas, 21 Richter, Charles H., Jr. , 226 in other countries, 13, 121
United States, 30-31 Righ ts-of -way, 4 2 planning schedule, 68-73
adult, 268 Roads, circulatory, 125 planning for surface area, 98-109

~86
 planning team , 65-67 master con trol panel, 187 Tanner, E. \V., and Associates, 12
plans, 220-223 new ordinance for, 50 Taxes, real esta te, 61, 214
renta! terms, 192-196 opening, 2 52, 2 53 Taxicabs, 131
schedule of planning, 68-73 parking and pedestrian arcas, 82, 83, Telephone switchboard, 189
site, 38-4 5 127, 169 Television
site planning, 74-97 planting bed, 1 53 master antenn a, 189
standard, 21 O protection offi ce, 189 station , 158
strip, 7 5, 76, 21 O, 2ll rest arcas, 14 7 Tenants, 52-56
sub-standard, 21 O service cores and corridors, l4 3 availability, 139
tabulation of information, 216-218 sidewalk cafe, 151 economic data for, 70
taxes, 214 sign, 167 groupings, 230
terminal, 116 Symphony Ball, 258 joint promotion by, 255
time schedule, 73 truck road, 84 ]casing negotiation s, 70-77, 190-20 1
trade area, 31 -35 zoning, 49 national chains, 191
two-level , 226 Specialists' fees, 20 5 rents, 57, 190-191
Shopping towns, 11 Specialty stores, 53, 194-195, 230, 237 selection , 190
Signs (See also Graphics), 127, 166-168 front, 237 single-purpose buildings for, 53-54
directional, 168 Sprinkler system , 185 spaces, 204-205
landmark sign, 225 Square dancing, 257 store signs, 167
panels, 166 Standards, architectural and of strong credit, 190-191
for single tenancy building, 167 construction, 197 as traffic users, 134
store, 144, 14 5, 146, 200 Stand-by charges, 208 types, 54-56, 192
Silhouette, 160-162 Staten lsland D owntown use of premises by, 199
Single-pul! plan , 134-136 ( NewYork,N. Y.), 131 , 137-138 Tenant's work, 197, 199
Single-tenancy buildings, 172 Stipulations, mortgage, 59-61 Terms, lease ( See also Lease), 197
Si te, 38-4 5, 246 Ston estown Shopping Center T hcater, 92 , 158, 257, 260-261
accessibility, 4 3, 11 5 (San Francisco, Cal.) Ti me Schedule, 73
"accidental," 39 children 's playland, 260 Toilet facilities, 185
acquisition, 39, 40 Hawaiian m u sic, 2 59 Topography, si te, 42-4 3
cost of normal improvements, 203 landscaping, 162 Town square, 19
eleven standard requirements, 38 parking area, 91 "Trade arca," 31-3 5
expansion , prerequisites for, ll O surrounding arca, 98, 99 arca of origi n of shoppers, 117
irregular, 41 Stoa, 17 composition of population of, 31
location , 39 Stores ( See also Department stores; Traffic ( See also Foot traffic)
master plan, 112, 113 Multiple tenant structure; Speciality anticipated total, 11 9
multiple ownership, 39 Sto res) chann eling, 1 37
original plan, and space for additional design of fronts, 144-146, 244 circulatory, 124
stores, 111 "discoun t ," 192 condition s at critica] intersections, 11 8
physical characteristics, 4 2-4 3, 182 location. 22 congestion , 20, 22, 23
in predomioantly rural area, 39 "personali ty," 191 easy flow , 121 -122
shape, 41,42 retail, taxes on , 214 effective tran sfer of, 12 3-124
single parcel, 41 -42 service, 1 37 even distribution, 124
size, 40-41 size, and renta] terms, 192, 194, 19 5 fluctuations, 11 7
surrounding area, 4 5 tenant, provisions for growth , 111 patterns of transfer, 11 7
unusual conditions, 204 types, 55-56 pedestrian , 53
visibility, 4 3-4 5 as traffic attractors, l 34 planning, 11 5-131
weight list, 4 5 Street fumiture, 153 primary and secondary generators,
zoning, 40, 46-51 Strip Center, 21O 134, 136-137, 193
Site planning, 74-97, 230, 244 Structural system , 171-182 separation of various types, 80-84,
principi es, 7 5-86 of multi -tenant building, 171 -172 l 29- 13l
procedure, 87-93 of neighhorhood shopping center, 181 service, 232
schematics, 93-96 of regional center, 171-181 surveys, 120
South Bay Shopping Center Sublets, 200-20 1 Traffic Analysis Report
(_Redondo Beach , Cal.), 42, 113-114 Subordination of lea se, 201 Eastland Center, 120-122
construction, 177 Suburbia, growth of, 19-2 3 Carden State Pla za, 11 6-1 19
store fron ts, l 4 5 effect on urban life, 22 Northland Cen ter, 12 3
Southdale Shopping Center mental h calth hazards of, 21 Traffic loads, 11 5, 11 8
( Edina, Minn .) Su mmer theater ( See also Thcater ), 260 T ran sportation, and growth of
activities, 2 58, 2 59 Supermarkets, 53, 24 3 suburbs, 19-20
bus stop and taxi stand, 79 construction, 17 5 mechanical devices, 185-186
children's zoo, 158 development, 27 public, 21, 36, 131
double-pull merchandi sing plan, 135 pickup station , 125 Transportation arca, schema ti cs, 9 3-96
escalators, 186 renta! term s, 19 3-194 Travel time, 33
flat slab construction, 173 role, 54 Triple pul! plan, 134-136
garden court, 80, 149 special services, 37 Truck Traffic Survey, 129
hca ting and coolin g system, 184-185 as traffi c attractor, 134-135 Trucks ( See also Service vehicles)
introverted type, 79 two , pros and con s of, 54 loca tion of delivery arcas, 131
mal!, 148, 170, 258 Surrounding arca, 98- 109 road, 247
master plan , 108-109 safeguards, 7 5 requirements for, 129

287
 traffic, 128, 129 parking and pedestrian areas, 82 \Vestchester Terminal Plaza
tunnel, 84 roof framing, 172 (New Rochelle, N. Y.)
underground service facilities, 186 symbol designed for, 164 column spacing, I SO
Tunnard, Christopher, 21 weather protection and shading ground area, 89
"Turn-key" specifica tion s, 197 devices, 86, 87 parking and pedestrian areas, 82, 96
Van den Broeck, J. H .. 12 railroad station , 131
Underground Sen-ice Roads, 84 Vending machin es, 196 ramped senice road, 84, 85
United States, tabulation of spending V ehicl es, commercial, size of, 130-13 1 \V estwood Village ( Los Angeles, Cal.), 13
power, 268 V entilation ( See also Air Conditioning) , Whitehouse, Jack , 228
population, 267 184 \Vildwood Shopping Center
United States C ensus Bureau, 20, 33 Voltage, 187- 189 cross section, 179
Universities, as developers, 28 landscaping, 160
Urban Ren ewal and Redevelopment parking and pedestrian areas, 82
projects, 61,267, 269 \Vaffle -type construction , 172, 173 tenant sign, 169
Utilities, revenue-producing, 205 \\'aialae Shopping Center \Vinrock Center
voltage load, 187 ( Honolulu, Hawaii ) ( Albuquerque, N. M ex. ), 270
Utility buildings, 178 master plan, 114 \Visconsin Painters and Sculptors, 261
Utility plants, 111 pedestrian area, 82 \Vood arches, laminated, 232
U tili ty sen ices, 199, 2 O5 sign, 165 \Vood beams, laminated, 175
steel framing, 181 \\ 'ood framin g, 175- 177
Vaellingby Shopping Center \Valkways, 12 5- 127 \\'oodmar Center ( Hammond, In d.) , 83
( Stockholm, Sweden ), 13 covered, 237, 242 \ \' or ks of a rt, 15 3, 1 54
Valley Fair Shopping Center \Vanamaker, John, 168
( San J ose, Cal.) \ Vater Service, 205
bicycle rack, 153 \Vater Tower, 160, 162 Zoning ( See also Rezoning ), 46-51
colonnade, 178 \Vatenvays, on site, 42 "bedroom" towns, 48
concrete block screens, S3 \Vea ther, protection against. 86-87, 151, ERO classification, 50
drinking fountain, 15 3 170,2 42 regional shopping di strict,
incomplete tenant spaces, 25 3 \Velch, Kenn eth, 141 , 226 establishm ent of, 50
landmark sign , 164 \ Velton Becket & Associates site, 40
lighting standards, 188 ( See Becket, \V el ton) strip, 40
open areas, 150 \Vestchester County Association, 21 Zoo, 158, 261

Addenda

Block Department Store, 76

Emmons, Frederick, 7, 11 3, 145, 166, 177
lndian Lands development
(Palm Springs, Cal. ), 104
Jones, A. Quincy, 7, 113, 145, 166, 177
l\lartin , Albert C ., & Associates, 113, 145,
166, 177
i\ lar)'Vale Shopping City
master plan, 103
Shopping center
plans, 219

M 2. 9. - 1 9 2. 9 6. o.
288
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