Aerospace Engineering

Brianna Royer
Comprehensive Student Portfolio
School Year 2016 - 2017
 Aerospace Engineering

Project List:

Aerospace History Presentation Inventions of Aviation

Wing Section Design Airfoil Design
Glider Design and Fabrication; AERY Application Airfoil Design
GPS Flight Path Design Navigation
Nuclear Engine Research Rockets
Rocket Engine Propulsion Simulation Rockets
Aircraft Engine Design Simulation Aircraft
Parachute Design Beyond Aircraft
Wind Turbine Design Beyond Aircraft
Space Junk Mitigation Beyond Aircraft
Orbital Design Project using STK Orbital Mechanics
Aircraft Efficiency Report Aircraft Efficiency
 Aerospace Engineering Course Resume
Course resumes showcase the technical skills students obtain in each PLTW course. Each resume outlines
the computational skills, analytical skills, and knowledge acquired in the course. Course Resumes also
detail student experience with tools, software, lab work, and engineering design. The detailed skills listed
within course resumes illustrate the immediate, applicable contributions that students can make within a
workplace.

Computational and Analytical Skills

Calculate the weight and balance of an aircraft
Apply lift and drag equations
Calculate pressure, density, and altitude interrelationship
Collect data related to mechanical properties of materials
Calculate mechanical properties of materials based on test data
Analyze an issue in which Space Law applies
Calculate energy needed for an orbital change
Model and analyze air- and space-based systems
Calculate rocket engine impulse
Plan a route from latitude and longitude waypoints
Simulate air traffic control scenarios
Calculate alternative vectors for safe operation of aircraft
Calculate orbital periods
Calculate gravitational potential, kinetic, and total energy

Aerospace Engineering and Design Experience

Collaborate effectively with peers to solve problems using a design process
Apply an engineering design process to solve a problem
Design, build, and test an autonomous system
Create and test a software program to control a system
Design an airfoil
Design and simulate loading on an aircraft structure
Design a simulated turbine engine
Design and build a mockup of a system to mitigate space junk
Design, build and test a parachute
Design a satellite orbit
Design, build, test, and optimize a glider
Choose aircraft material
Simulate satellite data acquisition using a physical model
Create a terrain map using model satellite data
Create a program to control a physical model of an automatic pilot controlled aircraft
Investigate aerospace engineering careers

PLTW | Preparing Students for the Global Economy

Tools and Software
Aircraft flight simulator software
Data collection and analysis software Logger Pro
Air- and space-based modeling Systems Tool Kit, STK
CAD modeling software Autodesk Inventor
Manufacturing and robot design kit VEX Robotics
Robot programming language ROBOTC
Glider design using AERY software
GPS hand-held unit
GPS mapping software

Professional Skills

Team collaboration
Project management
Problem-solving
Communication skills
Presentation skills
Technical writing

Course Knowledge

Aerospace Engineering
Evolution of aerospace engineering
Alternative applications for aerospace engineering
Aerospace careers

Physics of Flight

Aircraft components and control surfaces

Four forces of flight
Weight and balance in an aircraft
Lift and drag
Airfoil design
Interrelationship of atmospheric pressure, temperature, and density

Propulsion Systems

PLTW | Preparing Students for the Global Economy

 Atmospheric propulsion systems
Model rocket design and testing
Space propulsion systems

Navigation

Historical perspective related to current navigation systems

Aircraft radio navigation
Global Positioning System
Air traffic control system

Aerospace Materials

Common aerospace materials

Composite materials
Mechanical properties of material testing

Flight Physiology

Human physiology related to flight

Ergonomic design
Accident analysis

Space

Celestial composition
Space law
Space junk
Commercialization of space-related activities
Keplerian elements
Orbital patterns and application
Energy of an orbiting body

Remote Systems

Application of aerospace engineering concepts beyond aircraft and spacecraft

Software programming design
Autonomous vehicles
Satellite simulation

PLTW | Preparing Students for the Global Economy

 Autopilot Systems
Brianna Royer - 4B

(1)
What is Autopilot?
An autopilot is a system that
controls the trajectory of a
vehicle without the constant
attention of a pilot or driver.
Functions:
Determine control
movements
Move the controls
The panel, including autopilot, of a 1978 Piper Archer
(2).
Why Do We Need Autopilots?
Before autopilot, pilots needed to
constantly pay attention and control
aircrafts. As aviation technology improved,
flight distance and duration increased,
causing pilots to grow weary and more
prone to mistakes when flying for hours.
Technology Enabling Autopilot Creation

Gyroscopes: Discs on axes that are free to change direction.

Magnets: Polar materials that react with magnetic fields.

Early drawings of the autopilot (4).

The First Autopilot System

Created by the Sperry Corporation

(Lawrence Sperry) in 1912.
In 1914, Lawrence Sperry demonstrated
the system in an aviation safety contest
Paris.
Shortly thereafter, Sperry worked on an
autopilot that enabled a US Army Air
Corps craft to fly for 3 hours. Media
The first autopilot system used on a commercial aircraft
Coverage in 1931 (3).
The Autopilot in a Global Context

During the time of the autopilots

creation, Europe was on the brink of
WWI.

The autopilot gave British and

American aircrafts a considerable
advantage.

A WWI British aircraft (5).

Effects of the Autopilot on Aerospace

Piloting commercial aircraft became less difficult.

Paved the way for UAVs and reshaped warfare.
Greatly assisted spacecraft creation and flight.
Autopilots used in other vehicles, such as Tesla cars.

The Tesla autopilot system (6)

Bibliography
(1)Earth Atmosphere Wallpapers [JPG]. (2016).
(2) Condor Aero Club. (n.d.). Retrieved August 29, 2016, from http://www.condoraero.com/CondorFleet.html
(3) B. (2007, August 29). Curtiss Condor - First commercial use of an autopilot. Retrieved August 29, 2016, from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lBBp8hfPlOs
(4) Now-The Automatic Pilot. (1930, February). Popular Science, 22-22.
(5) BRITISH AIRCRAFT OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR 1914-1918. (n.d.). In Imperial War Museum. Retrieved August 29, 2016, from
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwiErrDZwufOAhVC6SYKHVGNDskQjRwIB
w&url=http://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/205129152&psig=AFQjCNFFmbjyh_dOWMfATwGbKdiqV6HHBA&ust=1472590880942206
(6) Lipman, J., & Simari, M. (2016, January 11). Car and Driver. Retrieved August 29, 2016, from
http://blog.caranddriver.com/tesla-autopilot-adds-summon-remote-parking-ability-restricts-autosteer-function/ (Originally photographed 2016, January
11)
Brian, M. (2000, April 1). How Gyroscopes Work. Retrieved August 29, 2016, from http://science.howstuffworks.com/gyroscope.htm
F. (n.d.). Chapter 04: Automated Flight Control [PDF].
 GLIDER PROJECT Design Objective
Photographs BRIANNA ROYER AND NEHA BASKAR To design and build a glider
OCTOBER 21 2016 capable of sustaining long
distance, stable flight.

Constraints (Raw
Material Description)
Must be made from:
One piece of Basswood
3/16x 3/8 x 12
Upper left view of glider. Upper right view of glider. One piece of Balsa Wood
Glider Design Attributes Used 3/32 x 3 x 12
Glider is lightweight (under 10g). Glider was created with effort to make precision construction
Glider was built with tapered wings to reduce drag. (butcher saw for straight edges, rulers for accurate Aery Design Software
Glider was lightly sanded to smooth wings and measurements.

reduce drag. Center of gravity was created in front of neutral point for stable
Results
Glider was given an aspect ratio over 8. flight.
Aery evaluation #: 159
Conclusion Low angle of attack to avoid climbing.
Throwing Velocity: 20 km/hr
This glider, in its original construction, was not successful. Each test, it rolled right and hit nearby obstructions.
Multiple groups gliders exhibited similar flaws, although possessing different planform designs, which has led to the conclusion that Throwing Angle: 5.07 degrees
poor construction is a factor in this issue. If the wings are not glued on so that they are level, the angle of incidence for each wind is
different, and the glider will inevitably roll. Such an issue may happen if the horizontal stabilizer is not level as well. A structural flaw
Center of Gravity: 4.29 cm
must have existed with the gliders original horizontal stabilizer, most likely created during construction, as one side of it broke in half Mass at Nose: 2.00 g
during a test descent. Furthermore, utilizing the box cutter rather than the butcher saw to cut the wings and stabilizers was a mistake, Coefficient of Drag: .018
as an accurate cut could not be made with the box cutter. The butcher saw, being far longer and straighter, could have made more
accurate cuts. Yet another issue is that, in straightening and sanding the aircraft, the shape of the planforms could have been
Wing Coefficient of Lift:
changed. What do all of these errors point to? Three-dimensional printing software.
The successful groups had all-around larger planforms and fuselages, while our wing planform area was only 73
centimeters cubed. They made use of the full balsa wood pieces that they were given, which provided lift for their gliders.
Furthermore, they were, for the most part, created with Aery Evaluation Numbers above 160 and aspect ratios around 8.5 or above.
The lift generated by these large, simulation-approved gliders enabled them to maintain a straight flight path. These groups were able
to achieve long distance flight because they reduced the possibility for a change in roll and pitch. In addition, the planforms of these
gliders appeared relatively straighter and more symmetrical than those of other groups, another effect of proper construction. With
our glider being unsuccessful, we did go back to improve our glider. Like mentioned above, the right wing of our glider seemed to be
heavier. To counteract this, we added a piece of clay to the bottom of the left wing. When we tested it on our finger, it did balance
quiet well. Additionally, we found that our stabilizers were crooked so we cut them of and repositioned them. This did help the
construction of the plane significantly.
In order for long distance flight to occur, a glider must either be launched at a slow velocity with a high angle of
incidence or a high velocity with a low angle of incidence in order for the glider to not stall or climb. In addition, as balsa wood has
very little mass per unit area, more mass is needed to keep the glider at a stable altitude. Finally, precision craftsmanship, such as
with a laser or professional-grade cutting tools, will ensure that a glide meets simulation expectations for long distance flight.
GPS PROJECT BRIANNA ROYER - 11/29/2016 OBJECTIVE

AERIAL M A P OF WAYPOINT ROUT E The objective of this project is to

create an Air Traffic Control pattern
COMPASS BEARINGS that circles the CTE center. RC planes
Waypoint # Waypoint # Compass should be able to use the coordinates
(FROM) (TO) Heading and compass bearings to enter a
holding patter before being cleared to
1 2 66.36 land in the parking lot behind the
2 3 318.9 building.

3 4 208.2
4 1 136.78
REFLECTION
The purpose of Air Traffic Control is to
prevent collisions between aircraft and control aircraft
flow. Air traffic controllers monitor planes in controlled
airspace, guiding them during landing and takeoff. Near Sample Command:
airports, aircrafts may be given permission to taxi, re- Controller: [Aircraft
TA B L E O F C O O R D I N AT E S enter landing patterns, and enter a specific holding ID], turn right five
Waypoint Latitude Longitude pattern. They can also provide instructions and advice for zero degrees when
# pilots in times of poor weather and low visibility, such as safely able
recommending a VOR heading. Pilot: [Aircraft ID}*
1 N W
33732.44 964745.35 The WAAS augmentation for GPS is vital
for aircrafts, as it is accurate within ten feet. It is *Pilots often
2 N W
important for commercial aircraft because VOR can only acknowledge
33733.29 964743.04 commands with
be used at low altitudes, while GPS utilizes satellites.
3 N W Visual landmarks are not always available to pilots, as their aircraft ID.
33739.32 964748.99 the general cruising altitude for commercial aircraft is
4 N W around 30,000 feet. The aircraft may be enveloped in
33736.90 964750.33 clouds or be above a cloud layer, obstructing the view of
the pilots. GPS and the WAAS augmentation are massive
improvements in the safety, freedom, and accuracy of
flight.
 Nuclear Rockets
Brianna Royer and Mauricio Cantu Garza
How the System Creates Propulsion
Nuclear Thermal Rockets: Running fusion fluids through a nuclear
reactor

The fluid propellant is stored in a tank, fed to the reactor through thin
channels, and nuclear reactions generate immense amounts of
energy, heating and expanding the hydrogen gas.

The Venturi effect for the nozzle increases the velocity of the gas
particles to increase the impulse of the rocket.

The lesser known, theoretical nuclear pulse rocket

relies on small nuclear explosions to propel the rocket.
Main Components of the System
Propellant tank (usually hydrogen)
Pumps and piping system
Nuclear reactor core
Nozzle
Best Situations for Nuclear Thermal Rockets
Due to the high thrust-to-weight ratio and specific impulse of nuclear rockets, they
are best for missions with shorter trip times and higher payloads, such as
deliveries to nearby planets and satellites.

Furthermore, as the rockets decrease trip duration and therefore time exposed to
radiation in space, they are beneficial in situations where radiation is a concern to
the crew.
How the energy is converted from fuel to propulsion.

The pump forces the propellant (usually hydrogen) through a

piping system. Here, the propellant is heated due to the
energy coming from the nuclear reactor core. The propellant
expands to a gas and is accelerated out of the nozzle to
provide thrust, causing the rocket to accelerate.
Fuel Used to Make Attitude Adjustments
The nuclear thermal rockets main propulsion system can have its fuel flow
adjusted to change the impulse for attitude changes.

For more accurate attitude changes, thrusters, powered by electric propulsion, the
nuclear reactor, solid propellants, or liquid propellants, are used to change the
angle of the rocket along any of the three degrees of freedom.
Newtons Laws of Motion and Space Travel
As explained by Newtons first law, an object will stay in motion unless an outside
force acts upon it. In space theres no force acting on a rocket, so the rocket will
continue to move in the same direction and with the same velocity, (unless the
rocket is too close to a massive object like a planet, in which case the rocket will
be affected by gravity).

Newtons second law explains that the more mass an object has, the more force is
required to move it. Meaning a larger rocket needs more force (more fuel) to make
it accelerate.

Newtons third law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction. In space propulsion, when fuel expands and is pushed out of the exhaust
of a rocket, the fuel pushes the rocket forward, causing it to accelerate.
Lifespan of Space Vehicles.
For a rocket to travel far from the the earth, it needs a lot fuel. However,
this also means that the rocket will be heavier, which will require even
more fuel. This positive feedback loop is the reason why fuel efficient and
lighter rockets are needed.

A Rocket which uses fuel at a slow pace means the vehicle will have a
longer lifespan and will be able to travel longer distances.
Works Cited
Adams, R. (2011, April 01). An Inside View: How Do Nuclear Rockets Work? Retrieved February 09, 2017, from
http://atomicinsights.com/inside-view-how-do-nuclear-rockets-work/
erman, C. (n.d.). Retrieved February 09, 2017, from https://trajectory.grc.nasa.gov/projects/ntp/
Basics of Moving Around in Space. (n.d.). Retrieved February 09, 2017, from
http://www.polaris.iastate.edu/EveningStar/Unit5/unit5_sub1.htm
A. (n.d.). How does a rocket relate to Newton's three laws of motion? | How Things Fly. Retrieved February 09, 2017,
from http://howthingsfly.si.edu/ask-an-explainer/how-does-rocket-relate-newtons-three-laws-motion
A. (n.d.). Newton's Laws of Motion | How Things Fly. Retrieved February 09, 2017, from
https://howthingsfly.si.edu/flight-dynamics/newton%E2%80%99s-laws-motion
Kellermen, C. (n.d.). Nuclear Thermal Rocket Propulsion. Retrieved February 10, 2017, from
https://trajectory.grc.nasa.gov/projects/ntp/
The Nuclear Thermal Rocket. (n.d.). Retrieved February 10, 2017, from
http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2011/ph241/hamerly1/
Nuclear Pulse Propulsion. (n.d.). Retrieved February 10, 2017, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_pulse_propulsion#/media/File:Orion_pulse_unit.png
1' PARACHUTE DATA WIND (f/s) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
LEGEND Angle (Degrees) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft)
Optimal Angle -5 -5 209 367 525 682 840 998 1156 1318 1472 1630 1786 1943 2101 2261 2418 2576 2734 2892 3049
Exceeding Angle -10 -57 97
-15 -162 -11 140
-20 -122 23 168
-25 -90 49 188
-30 -76 54 184
-35 -89 29 147
-40 -102 7 116
-45 -143 -46 51
-50 -137 -54 29 137 223
-55 -228 -156 -85 -13 57 128 200 272 343 415
-60 -225 -198 -142 -85 -28 27 84 117

STREAMER DATA WIND (f/s) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

LEGEND Angle (Degrees) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft) Dist. (ft)
Optimal Angle -5 -70 -35 0 33 68 103 137 172 207 242 276 311 46 381 415 450
Exceeding Angle -10 -175 -145 -114 -82 -50 -19 12 44 76 107 139 171 202 234 266 297
Limited Accuracy -15 -279 -215 -183 -152 -120 -80 -57 -25 6 37 69 101 132 164 196
-20 -187 -155 -123 -92 -60 -28 2 34 66 97
-25 -158 -129 -101 -72 -45
-30 -132
-35
-40
-45
-50
-55
-60

BEST ANGLE OVERALL WIND (f/s) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

ANGLE (Degrees) -2 -8 -13.5 17 19.5 22 26 27.5 29.5 32.25 34.5 36 37.25 39 39.75 42.25 41.5 42.5 44 45.5
Project 2.2.3 Turbine Engine Design Template

Neha Baskar and Brianna Royer

4B
Mr. Horwedel
1/26/17
Abstract:
In the world we live in today, aircrafts play an integral role in how we travel to various
locations. Whether it is transporting cargo or passengers, aircrafts must have optimal fuel
efficiency. Airplanes, unlike ground transportation have to carry its own fuel. This adds on a
large amount of weight, which isnt necessarily a good thing. Additionally, if the plane needs a
large amount of fuel then we will have a large amount needed to spend on fuel alone. As a result,
it is essential for us to reduce the amount of fuel consumption. In this project, we decided to
modify a turbo engine for the Boeing 787 Dreamliner so it can be more fuel efficient. The turbo
engine had to fly at a speed of 550 mph at an altitude of 30,000 ft. The maximum thrust for this
airline was 63,800 lb/ft while the weight of the aircraft is 242,000 lbs. For two class periods, we
used our knowledge on engine design to figure out a way to design the most efficient turbofan
engine design for this airplane. We experimented with different numbers for the bypass ratios,
pressure ratios, etc. and recorded the outputs of those selected numbers. After our
experimentation, we found that the higher the bypass ratio, the better efficiency we get from our
aircraft engine.

Concepts:

Intake: As air is brought in through the inlet, a series of rotary and stationary
compressors increase temperature and pressure. The inlet is designed to make use of the venturi
effect by decreasing the diameter of the space, thus increasing velocity as well.

In these diagrams, a turbofan is depicted. This is to better explain the engine type that we
designed. In the case of a turbofan, a large fan is situated in front of the inlet, which also includes
an area for bypass air. This extra air is not combusted, but adds to the thrust and fuel efficiency
of the engine. A higher bypass ratio in the engine indicates higher efficiency.

The inlet, shown above, takes in outside air for use in the engine. Its design decreases pressure and
increases speed. This inlet is shown without the compressors, fan, and shaft.
 In turbofan engines, a large, rotating fan is situated outside or right in the inlet to aid in the intake of air.
This fan utilizes the same principles that propellers do in order to increase air velocity. Air is taken into the main
section and the bypass section of the engine.

The inlet is shown with the fan, shaft, and compressors included. The bypass air, as it is not compressed to
the same degree as the compressed air, moves with a lower pressure and velocity through the engine. The air that
moves through the compressors increases in pressure and temperature (hence airflow arrows changing to a red
color).
 Compression: The compressors, which are axial in most turbofan and turbojet engines,
force the air to flow parallel to the axis of rotation, resulting in less drag than centrifugal
compressors. The ultimate purpose of the compressors in the intake stage is to compress air for
the combustion stage.

In this diagram, air is shown passing through a series of compressors. Each compressor increases the
pressure of the air to a certain factor, hence more compressors lead to more compression. Within a turbofan,
compressors are largely the same as those of a turbojet.

Combustion: After being compressed, air is forced into a combustion chamber. Fuel is
sprayed into the air, usually in a 14.7:1 air-to-fuel ratio, and then ignited, which causes the fuel
to combust and the gases to rapidly expand, exiting the combustion chamber at incredibly high
temperatures, pressures, and velocities.

In this diagram, the combustion chamber is shown. Air is taken in, mixed with fuel, ignited, and then mixed
with more air to complete the combustion. Though this diagram shows air entering through the front, air often enters
through openings on the sides of the chamber. Combustion chambers influence fuel efficiency and thrust levels. As
you can see from the arrows, the air is heated and pressurized greatly.
 Exhaust: At the exhaust stage, combusted gases are placed through high and
low-pressure turbines and then exit out through the nozzle. For Turbofans, the bypass air also
leaves through here.

In this diagram, air is shown leaving through turbines and the nozzle. The air leaves at an incredibly high
exit velocity, providing the needed thrust to move large aircraft.

Factors included in our turbojet engine design include:

a. Engine net thrust The difference between the outgoing gas momentum flow and the
incoming air momentum flow.
b. Fuel flow rate- The rate that fuel is consumed by the engine (often expressed in pounds per
hour).
c. Engine air flow rate- The volume of air flowing through the engine (often expressed in cubic
meters per minute)
d. Engine weight How much the engine weighs. The dry engine weight is the weight of the
engine with no fuel.
e. Thrust to weight ratio- The ratio of the thrust of an engine to the weight of the engine.
f. Specific fuel consumption- The fuel consumption per unit of thrust. A lower TSFC indicates
more efficiency.
g. Fuel to air ratio- The ratio of air to fuel needed to produce a chemically complete combustion
event. For gasoline, this ratio is 14.7:1.
h. Engine pressure ratio (EPR)- The ratio of total pressure at the exit of the propelling nozzle
divided by the total pressure at the entry to the compressor.
i. Engine temperature ratio (ETR) - The total temperature ratio across the engine, calculated
by multiplying the compressor temperature ratio by the burner temperature ratio by the turbine
temperature ratio by the nozzle temperature ratio.
j. Gross thrust- The outgoing gas momentum flow.
k. Ram drag- The incoming gas momentum flow (also known as momentum drag).
l. Nozzle pressure ratio (NPR) The ratio of nozzle total pressure to nozzle static pressure.
m. Engine thermal efficiency- An efficiency analysis based on calculations of how much heat
enters an engine versus how much heat leaves an engine. Retention of heat indicates more
efficiency.
n. Nozzle exit velocity (V exit)- The velocity of gas leaving the nozzle
o. Free stream dynamic pressure (q0) The pressure of moving air far ahead of an
aerodynamic body.
p. Specific impulse (ISP) The total impulse delivered per unit of fuel consumed.
q. Nozzle exit pressure (P exit) - The pressure of gases exiting the nozzle.
r. Fan nozzle exit pressure (P fan exit)- the pressure of gases exiting the fan nozzle (a type of
nozzle that creates a concentrated spray).
s. Compressor face Mach number (M2) - The Mach number compressor face.

This is a formula for calculating the compressor face Mach number.

t. Variation of total pressure and temperature through the engine- Measurements and
observations of how pressure and temperature changer and contrast throughout the engine.
u. Overall engine efficiency- An observation of the total energy input to the total energy output
of an engine. A higher efficiency is better.

Technical Documentation:

ENGINE TYPE TURBOFAN

MACH .81

AIRSPEED (MPH) 550

ALTITUDE (FT) 30000

PRESSURE (LBS/IN^2) 4.373

TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FARENHEIT) -47.819

THROTTLE (%) 100

AFTERBURNER OFF

INLET: PRESSURE RECOVERY 1

FAN: PRESSURE RATIO 1.756

FAN: EFFICIENCY .995

FAN: BYPASS RATIO 10

COMPRESSOR: STAGES 10

COMPRESSOR: OFR 35.6

COMPRESSOR: EFFICIENCY 1

BURNER: FUEL TYPE JET-A

 BURNER: MAX TEMPERATURE 2000

BURNER: PRESSURE RATIO 1

BURNER: EFFICIENCY .982

TURBINE: STAGES 2

TURBINE: EFFICIENCY .995

NOZZLE: MAX TEMPERATURE 2000

NOZZLE: EFFICIENCY .9835

NOZZLE: AR/A2 .441

ENGINE SIZE (FT^2) 12

INLET MATERIAL NICKEL ALLOY

COMPRESSOR MATERIAL CERAMIC

BURNER NICKEL ALLOY? (SEE DATA SHEET)

TURBINE CERAMIC

NOZZLE TITANIUM

AVERAGE WEIGHT 5692

THRUST TO WEIGHT RATIO 1.84

TSFC .345

Thrust Chart

Engine Type

Constants: Speed Altitude Size Weight

Throttle % Net Thrust (lbs.) Gross Thrust (lbs.) Fuel Flow TSFC
70 0 0 0 0
75 0 0 0 0
80 0 0 0 0
85 0 0 0 0
90 0 0 0 0
95 0 0 0 0
100 10,466 29,361 3,620 .345
Turbine Engine Design Data Sheet
Component Performance

Inlet:

Turbine:

Burner:
Compressor:

Fan:
Discussion:
This design is the most fuel efficient because the TSFC is reduced drastically from the
initial design. Although the thrust-to-weight ratio is reduced from 2.032 to 1.84, it is worth
cutting the TSFC in half. Furthermore, the bypass ratio increase from 8 to 10 contributes to the
fuel efficiency.

From these simulations, we concluded that the change in the pressure ratio does not seem
to clearly change any other aspects of the engines efficiency. Perhaps it's because the simulation
automatically changes some of the other engines aspects in order to meet the requirements of
the modified engine.

Conclusion:

The engine type impacts performance because the different engine types are designed to
be optimal for different aircraft and fuel conditions.

For example, the turbofan is fuel efficient due to the benefits of a bypass ratio, but the
engines are large and incapable of going at high speeds. Additionally, turbofans are not made for
high temperatures and cannot handle

Ramjets are not meant to be the main source of thrust and are inefficient at low speeds.
Furthermore, their compression ratios can be as low as 2:1. indicating that they are not fuel
efficient. However, ramjets and scramjets are used for military and high-speed aircraft, for which
supersonic speeds are prioritized over fuel efficiency.

Turboprops are most suitable for small, low-speed aircraft, as the actual engine portion is
smaller than that of a turbojet and turboprops consume less fuel. However, turboprop speeds cap
at far lower levels than turbofan and turbojet speeds, and turboprops cannot operate at high
altitudes because the low pressure reduces the propellers efficiency.

Afterburners increase thrust, but because oxygen is reduced from the first combustion,
the chemical reaction burns less fuel, so fuel efficiency is reduced.

Identify and explain the factors you would consider while designing an aircraft to fly efficiently
at an altitude between 30,000 and 40,000 ft.

Factors considered would include:

1) Lift: At 30,000 to 40,000 feet, air pressure is roughly 25 kPa, which means that there are
fewer air molecules following the principles and effects of lift (deflection, Bernoullis
principle, Coanda effect). The engine must generate enough thrust to upkeep the engines
lift, which can be done through more compression and a higher bypass ratio (if using a
turbofan)
2) Fuel and fuel storage are important factors. Jet fuel that can resist freezing temperatures
and are stable are necessary for flight at this altitude. Jet-A is the most common fuel, but
it has a higher freezing point. Jet-B is more dangerous to handle, but can be used at very
cold temperatures. Furthermore, as altitudes of 30,000 to 40,000 feet are designated for
large aircraft and often long-distance flight, the fuel must be stored in a large, safe
container to ensure that the flight lasts.
3) Thrust is additionally an important factor. High in the air, a large bypass ratio is best so
that extra air can contribute to thrust in addition to the main air. This is why large
commercial airliners utilize turbofan engines that are wider in diameter than the average
man.
PARACHUTE DESIGN
NEHA BASKAR AND BRIANNA ROYER
4B
DESIGN STATEMENT/ OBJECTIVE
WE DID THIS PROJECT TO IDENTIFY EFFECTIVE PARACHUTE DESIGN
FUNDAMENTALS. AFTER WE GOT THE INFORMATION TO DESIGN,
BUILD, AND TEST A PARACHUTE, WE BUILT AND TESTED OUR
PARACHUTE TO STIMULATE A SAFE LANDING FOR A HUMAN.
CONSTRAINTS
PARACHUTE CARGO WEIGHT = 0.036 kg
DROP HEIGHT = 6.1 m
PARACHUTE DIAMETER = 0.51m
AIR DENSITY = 1.225 kg/m^3C
RESEARCH SUMMARY
EVERYONE AND EVERYTHING EXPERIENCES GRAVITY. IF YOU DROP SOMETHING, IT WILL FALL
TO THE FLOOR
THINK ABOUT THIS.IF YOU DROP A STONE AND A FEATHER WHERE THERE IS NO AIR, THEN
BOTH OBJECTS WILL LAND AT THE SAME TIME. HOWEVER, THE EARTH HAS AIR. BECAUSE OF
AIR RESISTANCE, THE FEATHER WILL DROP REACH THE GROUND AFTER THE STONE.
PARACHUTES DRAMATICALLY LOWERS THE TERMINAL VELOCITY BY INCREASING THE AIR
RESISTANCE.
HOW DOES A PARACHUTE WORK? If the wind blows you too fast horizontally, the appropriate
electrical mechanism releases one of the extra side ropes, causing the parachute to tilt to the opposite
side, so reducing your speed.
 PICTURES

The photograph on the left is a picture of our parachute. It has a cutout in the center in an attempt to make a straighter drop path.
The photograph in the middle is a photo of the parachute attached to the cargo. As you can see, each side of the cargo is labeled with
a number 1-4. This was done to test if the cargo would drop on the platform depending on which way it faced. The results of the test
were inconclusive. The photograph on the right is a photo of the opened parachute.
INITIAL CALCULATIONS
Since, on our Parachute Design paper, the instructions stated that the terminal had to be
under 2.0 m/s, we developed the formula for calculating the velocity and then
determined the maximum mass that could be placed on the parachute without exceeding
this terminal velocity.

The largest amount of blocks that would not exceed this number is 11, with
a mass of 36 grams. According to the formula, the terminal velocity should
be 1.951 m/s.
 FINAL CALCULATIONS

The reported drop force of our was 5.0 newtons. According to this, and
by using the formula in the previous slide, our terminal velocity was 7.32
m/s, or 24.06 ft/s. However, this is impossible, as the drop height is only 20
feet and our recorded time to drop was 3.01 seconds, with the parachute
appearing to reach terminal velocity around 1 second.
If the parachute had been falling at the predicted 1.95 m/s for the
entirety of its fall, it would have fallen... 1.95 m/s*3.28 ft/m*3 s = 19.188 feet
in 3.01 seconds. Therefore, our parachute and cargo did indeed have a
terminal velocity around 1.95 m/s, albeit a higher one because we cut a hole
in it and
Causes of error include forces of wind blowing on the drop site or the
drop site not being zeroed before calculations,
REFLECTION
A group with a mass of .066 kg and a parachute of similar size (but larger hole cutout) recorded a
force of about 5 newtons, which tells us that our recording must have been wrong somehow. Their
parachute dropped straighter because their mass was heavier, and therefore moved less when
pushed by the same forces as our mass.
Another group was unable to get their parachute to land on the drop target, which may have been
due to asymmetrical design.

Given the same diameter and surface area, a parachute may drop slower than another if its strings
are longer, thereby allowing the parachute to open up more. Furthermore, if the holes for the
strings are made asymmetrical, then the parachute will not be level when open and fall at a faster
rate. A final condition that could affect the drop time is the air condition. Convection currents from
the air conditioning or heat could either lengthen or shorten the time, depending on the current.

If the target terminal velocity at landing is 2.0 m/s, then the surface area of the parachute must be
.32 m^2, or have a diameter of 25.118 inches.
WIND TURBINE DESIGN PROJECT
NEHA BASKAR AND BRIANNA ROYER

4B
 DESIGN STATEMENT

Our general objective is to use aerospace engineering design principles to

create wind turbine blades and measure the voltage generated from our
wind turbine.

Our specific objective is to determine whether or not a more tapered design

(pitch, length, thickness, and material held equal) produces more power
and voltage.
 DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND RESEARCH
PAGE ONE
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) - Automatically faces the wind, lightweight, blades are too close to ground, hard to
spill wind
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) - Most popular, higher above ground, heavier
Downwind HAWT - Wind controls the yaw, blades flex, power output reduced
Upwind HAWT - Requires yaw control system but delivers more power (most common)
Rotor blades extract energy from wind based on Bernoullis principle.
Blade must be twisted because outer end moves faster than inner end.
Too steep of an angle of attack will cause the blade to stall.
Optimal number of blades - Three
More than three blades leads to inefficiency due to turbulence from other blades
Power and torque pulsations appear with less than 3 blades
A rough surface of the planet creates high variations in wind across elevations, so a higher tower is better.
Turbine is most efficient when it slows the wind to one-third of its original velocity.
Blade efficiency depends on tip-speed-ratio, so the turbine blades should change their speed as wind speed changes.
 DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND RESEARCH
PAGE TWO
Efficiency increases with more blades, but in a diminishing manner.
Cost increases dramatically with more blades.
Longer blade favors power production.
By increasing the blade swept area, you can capture more energy.
If wind speed is not higher than the rated speed, the blade incidence stays near the angle 0. This is similar to one that
has a constant pitch.
Pitch angle of 15 degrees seems to have optimal power output.

Sources:

http://www.egr.unlv.edu/~eebag/7.pdf
http://www.learnengineering.org/2013/08/Wind-Turbine-Design.html
https://www.gerenewableenergy.com/wind-energy/turbines/1-7-100-103.html
http://www.academia.edu/9734828/Effect_of_blade_pitch_angle_on_the_performance_of_a_wind_turbine
 PHOTOGRAPHS
Original Blade Tapered Blade
 DATA AND RESULTS
ORIGINAL BLADE:

FAN SPEED VOLTAGE CURRENT POWER RESISTANCE

LOW 0.64 V 3.7 mA 2.2 mW 165

MEDIUM 0.80 V 5.0 mA 4.2 mW 160

HIGH 0.92 V 6.3 mA 6.0 mW 154

 DATA AND RESULTS
TAPERED BLADE:

FAN SPEED VOLTAGE CURRENT POWER RESISTANCE

LOW 0.90 V 5.7 mA 5.1 mW 154

MEDIUM 1.10 V 6.8 mA 7.6 mW 162

HIGH 1.23 V 7.7 mA 9.8 mW 164

 DATA AND RESULTS

VOLTAGE (V)

FAN SPEED
 DATA AND RESULTS

CURRENT (mA)

FAN SPEED
 DATA AND RESULTS

POWER (mW)

FAN SPEED
 REFLECTION
Explaining Our Results:

The tapered blade consistently had a higher voltage, current, and power value. As a result, the modified blade proved
to have a higher efficiency. The blade design required a smaller amount of materials (production cost decreases) and it
creates vortices.

Comparing to Other Groups:

One group had a lower voltage output, but the same resistance (roughly 155 Ohms). This is due to their turbine blades
shorter length and smaller blade swept area.

Another group had a higher voltage output because they used six blades rather than three, which has a slight
aerodynamic advantage, and increased the resistance to roughly 325 Ohms.

How Turbines Create Electricity:

As the wind blows the blades are turned, of course. The shaft of the turbine is connected to a generator, which uses
the motion to rotate a rotor with oppositely charged magnets and copper wire solenoid. This creates electromagnetic
induction and produces a voltage across the conductor. The voltage generates a current that travels through wires to
passive components (such as lights and household appliances).
 Space Junk
Solution
Neha Baskar and Brianna Royer
Aerospace Engineering
4B
3/2/2017
 Space Trash Compactor
Problem
Thousands of unused space space satellites are currently orbiting the Earth. They vary in sizes and orbit with
an incredible speed. This make space junk extremely dangerous. A small nail is like a bullet and has the
capability of creating mass destruction to other functional spacecrafts (ex.International Space Station)
From 2012, around 21,000 pieces of space junk are orbiting the planet
In 2007, the Chinese decided to shoot a missile into a nonfunctional satellite but it instead created a problem
Most plausible solution is to use a net to obtain space junk
 Space Trash Compactor

Brainstorming
Most artificial satellites use a material called kevlar Possible Solutions:
1. Kevlar is an organic fiber in the aromatic polyamide family
2. Magnetic Liquid Armor: MR fluids are oils that are filled with iron
Magnetic repulsion on all satellites
particles Magnetic Net
(http://science.howstuffworks.com/liquid-body-armor2.htm)
Space Trash Compactor
3. Magnetic primer?
Electromagnetic Lasers
Electromagnetic Lasers? Destructive Lasers
Results none
Static electricity in space (to attract nonmetal objects) Magnetic Force Field
Results Thats actually just normal electric forces
Metals can be attracted to an object through electric forces
Kevlar properties - http://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=3935
Kevlar is a conductor of electricity Chosen Solution: Space Trash Compactor
Properties of magnetic fields:
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magcur.html
Strongest fibers? The compactor is best because, by using a radar and
Department of Defense satellite data, it will be able to
Compactor-type spacecraft
track space junk regardless of material. Furthermore, it
After objects are collected
https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/news/orbital_debris.html - size
will be able to detect and save reusable materials while
of space junk ejecting useless materials into the Earths atmosphere
Radar for disintegration.
Needs to not be damaged by space junk
Over-the-horizon radar - Too big
 Radar

Description

opening
Engines
Solar Valuable
Compactor Panels Materials
to be
sent back
to Earth
 Orbital Design Project:
Monitoring the North Pole

Brianna Royer
4B, 3/21/2017
MISSION STATEMENT
The University of New Brunswick in Canada is going to study the thinning of the
polar ice caps and the effects of global warming. The imaging system that they
will use to determine ice thickness will be carried on the Polar Sheet satellite.

The mission is to create a satellite orbit that fits the following criteria:
Satellite hangs over the northern ice caps for as long of a time as possible
Satellite does not hang over irrelevant locations
THE DESIGN
KEPLERIAN ELEMENT VALUES
Semimajor Axis: 26609 km

Eccentricity: .75

Inclination: 66 degrees

Argument of Perigee: 281.6 degrees

RAAN: 25 degrees

True Anomaly: 230 degrees

Orbit Period: 719.9 minutes

ORBIT JUSTIFICATION
As I read that the Molniya Orbit is designed to hang over high latitudes, I modeled an orbit that was
similar to it. All of the following elements were designed to give the orbit a period of half of a day, which
allows the satellite to hang over the same areas of the poles each day and record the effects of global
warming over time. Furthermore, the ice caps can always be viewed during the day with this orbit and
the perigee (the closest point) is over the north pole. maximizing photo opportunities.

Semi-Major Axis: Since the orbit needs to be highly eccentric, the semi-major axis needs to be large.
Eccentricity: A highly-eccentric orbit allows for the satellite to move at a slow velocity at perigee,
hanging over the poles.
Inclination: An extreme inclination allows the poles to be viewed well.
RAAN: The RAAN value allows the satellite to hang over ice caps rather than ocean.
Argument of Perigee: The value for this creates a ground trace that hangs over a larger area of polar ice.
True Anomaly: The current anomaly value shows the satellite hanging over the ice caps. The anomal in
no way affects the orbit, however.
Aircraft Efficiency Report Student Name(s) (teams of 2)
Introduction:
The introduction of aircraft to the transportation industry was revolutionary. A trip
between Europe and North America was reduced from weeks via ship to hours via
aircraft. This rapid mode of transportation does require the use of expensive and
nonrenewable fuel. Aircraft designers continually seek more fuel efficient designs.

In this project, the __Boeing 767- 300____________ airliner is analyzed, with

respect to fuel consumption rates and calculated savings, by improving airliner
efficiency. My input will be used to create a fleet of aircraft for a commercial carrier,
based cost effectiveness of standard airplanes and proposed improvements to
existing designs.

Table of Parameters for the _____Boeing 767- 300__________ Airliner:

Category Value Resources used / Comments / cite reasoning behind
(including estimates made, based on available data
Units)
# of Aircraft 629 Wikipedia used. There are 441 767-300 ER in service; 54 are
currently in service in service for 767-300; 134 are in use as of 2016 for 767-300F
Fuel Consumption 1,027.4 Estimated with data from
Rate (like gallons per gallons per http://www.what2fly.com/manufacturer/operating_cost/Boe
second or hour) hour ing/767/1696
Current Fuel Cost ($ $5.21 http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/
/ gallon) 2008/04/six_thousand_gallons_of_regular_please.html
http://www.boeing.com/assets/pdf/commercial/aircraft_ec
Average Aircraft 109,437.63 onomic_life_whitepaper.pdf 27.5 years multiplied by hours
Lifespan (hours) hours flown per year.
Average flight 3, 616 ttp://planes.axlegeeks.com/l/285/Boeing-767-300ER]
h
distance (d) miles miles Took the average of 1,242 miles (min) and 5, 990 miles (max)
http://web.mit.edu/airlinedata/www/2015%2012%20Month
%20Documents/Aircraft%20and%20Related/Widebody/Aver
age%20Daily%20Airborne%20Hours%20of%20Total%20Wide
Average flight hours 11.21 body%20Fleet.htm Calculated by taking most recent average
per day (hours) hours flight hours per day average for American, Delta, and United
Average flights per Calculated from boeing statement that average flight is
day 1.93 roughly under six hours and average flight hours per day.
Calculated from average flights per year multiplied by 355
days (calculated from days in a year minus the rough
Average flights per estimate of service days determined by reading Wikipedia
year (f) 685.15 Aircraft Maintenance checks page.
 Total hours flown
per year (f*avg. 3979.55 Calculated this value by multiplying average flight hours per
hours per flight) hours day 355 days.
http://web.mit.edu/airlinedata/www/2015%2012%20Month
%20Documents/Aircraft%20and%20Related/Widebody/Aver
age%20Seat%20Capacity%20of%20Total%20Widebody%20Fl
Average passengers eet.htm Calculated by taking average of widebody passenger
per flight (p) 256.33 average for Delta, United, and American Airlines.
Total passenger 635,058,19
miles / yr = d*f*p 0 Calculated by multiplying data in tables

Estimate of Fuel Consumption / year, based on (gallons burned per hour * total hours flown
per year). What is the fuel consumption per passenger mile? (Total gallons consumed for the
year / total passenger miles for the year).

Gallons / year =_4,088,589.67_, Gallons / passenger mile = _____.0064___

Show your work, include formula and units.

Gallons per year = 1027.4 gph*3979.55 h/y = 4088589.67 gpy

Gallons per passenger mile = 4088589.67 gpy / 635058190 pm/y = .0064

gallons/passenger mile (g/pm)
Calculate fuel cost, for the lifespan of the airliner (assume 100,000 hour lifespan, if specific
data is not available) Gallons per hour * lifespan hours. Research how many of this aircraft
have been put in service. What would the cumulative fuel savings be, with efficiency
improvements, through Aerospace Engineering efforts.

Lifespan hours = __109,437.63__, Lifespan gallons = _112,436,221.062_, Lifespan cost =

__$585,792,711.733_

Lifespan Gallons = 109437.63 * 1027.4 = 112436221.062

Lifespan Cost = 112436221.062 * $5.21 = $585792711.733

Create tables of data in Microsoft Excel and then insert line charts, edit axis labels, etc. Draw
graphs if you are not able to use Excel or another graphing tool.

For example (delete this and replace with your data):

Conclusion Questions:
1.) With a 20% improvement in aircraft fuel efficiency, how much can be saved over the
lifespan of the assigned aircraft?

Lifespan Cost (20% fuel efficiency improvement) = $585,792,711.733 * (.8) = $468,634,169.386

Amount Saved Over Lifespan (20% fuel efficiency improvement) = $585,792,711.733 -

$468,634,169.386 = $117,158,542.347 Saved

Amount Saved Across Entire Fleet (20% fuel efficiency improvement) = $73,692,723,136

Amount Saved Across Entire Fleet = 1,451,901.70888 years worth of the average salary in the
USA ($50,756)

Amount Saved Across Entire Fleet = .39% of U.S.s Gross National Debt ($18.96 trillion)

2.) Describe some ideas for how aircraft fuel efficiency can be improved.

We can use a geared turbofan engine to make the aircraft more fuel efficient. A Connecticut-
based engine maker tried this approach and found promising results. By adding just one gear,
the fuel use was cut by sixteen percent. In addition to this , aerospace researchers have been
trying to find ways to allow for hotter combustion. This led them to use ceramic materials for
the blades because they can withstand high temperatures. Despite this, ceramics pose a big
problem because they are brittle and will reduce the efficiency of the blade. Another concept,
Double Bubble, seems to bring more promise when it comes to fuel efficiency. A MIT Team
funded by NASA figure out a way to merge two fuselages with two rear mounted engines. The
engine will provide some lift for the fuselage and not just wings. As a result, the aircraft will
have lighter and thinner wings. This will all lead to the use of less fuel.