METALS

True metals are pure elements, while alloys are blends of two or more metals that have been
melted together. Many metals will often have a patina, or protective finish. A patina is a coating
on the outside of a metal object that usually acts as a protective layer and also is intended to
make the item more beautiful. A patina can be intentionally applied using chemicals or coatings,
or it forms naturally when the metal slowly accumulates a thin film of stable corrosion on the
outside. Intentionally applied metal patinas are usually composed of various chemicals, oils,
resins, or waxes. Copper and its alloys are the most common metals to have patinas. On copper
alloys, this patina is usually a powdery or greasy green corrosion product that is typically bumpy
or uneven.

Ferrous & Non-Ferrous Metals and their Uses

Put in the simplest terms, ferrous metals are those which contain iron, whilst non ferrous metals
dont have any iron content. There are, however, other differences between the two types of
metal which have a strong bearing upon the tasks which they are usually called upon to perform.

Ferrous Metals
The following are ferrous metals and the kind of uses to which they are usually put:
Mild Steel Carbon content of 0.1 to 0.3% and Iron content of 99.7 99.9%. Used for
engineering purposes and in general, none specialised metal products.
Carbon steel Carbon content of 0.6 to 1.4% and Iron content of 98.6 to 99.4 %. Used to
make cutting tools such as drill bits.
Stainless Steel Made up of Iron, nickel and chromium. Resists staining and corrosion
and is therefore used for the likes of cutlery and surgical instrumentation. See our infographic
celebrating 100 years of stainless steel usage in buildings or the different types of stainless
steel.
Cast Iron carbon 2 6% and Iron at 94 to 98%. Very strong but brittle. Used to
manufacture items such as engine blocks and manhole covers.
Wrought Iron Composed of almost 100% iron. Used to make items such as ornamental
gates and fencing. Has fallen out of use somewhat.

Non Ferrous Metals

These are the non ferrous metals and their uses:
Aluminium An alloy of aluminium, copper and manganese. Very lightweight and easily
worked. Used in aircraft manufacture, window frames and some kitchen ware.
Copper Copper is a natural occurring substance. The fact that it conducts heat and
electricity means that it is used for wiring, tubing and pipe work.
Brass A combination of copper and zinc, usually in the proportions of 65% to 35%
respectively. Is used for ornamental purposes and within electrical fittings.
 Silver Mainly a natural substance, but mixing with copper creates sterling silver. Used
for decorative impact in jewellery and ornaments, and also to solder different metals together.
Lead Lead is a naturally occurring substance. It is heavy and very soft and is often used
in roofing, in batteries and to make pipes.

IRON

Iron's use by humans dates back about 5000 years. It is the second most abundant metal element
in the earth's crust and is primarily used to produce steel, one of the most important structural
materials in the world.

Properties:

Atomic Symbol: Fe

Atomic Number: 26

Element Category: Transition Metal

Density: 7.874g/cm3

Melting Point: 2800F (1538C)

Boiling Point: 5182F (2862C)

Moh's Hardness: 4

Characteristics:
Pure iron is a silver-colored metal that conducts heat and electricity well.Iron is too reactive to
exist alone so it only occurs naturally in the earth's crust as iron ores, such as hematite, magnetite
and siderite. One of iron's identifying characteristics is that it is strongly magnetic. Exposed to a
strong magnetic field, any piece of iron can be magnetized. Scientists believe that the earth's core
is made-up of about 90% iron. The magnetic force produced by this iron is what creates the
magnetic North and South poles.

History:
Iron was likely originally discovered and extracted as a result of wood burning on top of iron
containing ores. The carbon within the wood would have reacted with the oxygen in the ore,
leaving a soft, malleable iron metal. Iron smelting and the use of iron to make tools and weapons
began in Mesopotamia (present day Iraq) between 2700 and 3000 BC. Over the following 2000
years, iron smelting knowledge spread eastward into Europe and Africa during a period known
as the Iron Age.
From the 17th century on, until an efficient method to produce steel was discovered in the mid-
19th century, iron increasingly used as a structural material to make ships, bridges and buildings.
The Eiffel Tower, constructed in 1889, was made using over 7 million kilograms of wrought
iron.

Rust:
Iron's most troublesome characteristic is its tendency to form rust.

Rust (or ferric oxide) is a brown, crumbly compound that is produced when iron is exposed to
oxygen. The oxygen gas that is contained in water speeds up the process of corrosion. The rate of
rust - how quickly iron turns into ferric oxide - is determined by the oxygen content of the water
and the surface area of the iron. Salt water contains more oxygen than fresh water, which is why
salt water rusts iron faster than fresh water.

Rust can be prevented by coating iron with other metals that are chemically more attractive to
oxygen, such as zinc (the process of coating iron with zinc is referred to as 'galvanizing').
However, the most effective method of protecting against rust is the use of steel.

Steel:
Steel is an alloy of iron and various other metals, which are used to enhance the properties
(strength, resistance to corrosion, tolerance of heat etc.) of iron. Changing the type and amount
of the elements alloyed with iron can produce different types of steel.

The most common steels are:

1. Carbon steels, which contain between 0.5-1.5% carbon. These are the most common
steels and are used for auto bodies, ship hulls, knives, machinery and all types of
structural supports.

2. Low alloy steels, which contain between 1-5% other metals (often nickel or tungsten).
Nickel steel is able to withstand high levels of tension and is, thus, often used in the
construction of bridges and for making bicycle chains. Tungsten steels keep their shape
and strength in high temperature environments and are used in impact, rotary
applications, such as drill bits.

3. High alloy steels, which contain 12-18% of other metals are only used in specialty
applications due to their high cost. One example of a high alloy steel is stainless steel,
which often contains chromium and nickel, but can be alloyed with various other metals
as well. Stainless steel is very strong and highly resistant to corrosion.

Production:
Most iron is produced from ores found near the earth's surface. Modern extraction techniques use
blast furnaces, which are characterized by their tall stacks (chimney-like structures). The iron is
poured into the stacks along with coke (carbon rich coal) and limestone (calcium carbonate).
Nowadays, the iron ore normally goes through a process of sintering before entering the stack.
This process forms pieces of ore that are between 10-25mm, which are then mixed with coke and
limestone.

The sintered ore, coke and limestone are then poured into the stack where is burnt at
temperatures of 1800C. Coke burns as a source of heat and, along with oxygen that is shot into
the furnace, helps to form the reducing gas carbon monoxide. The limestone mixes with
impurities in the iron to form slag. Slag is lighter than molten iron ore, so it rises to the surface
and can easily be removed. The hot iron is then poured into molds to produce pig iron or directly
prepared for steel production.

Pig iron still contains between 3.5-4.5% carbon, along with other impurities, and is brittle and
difficult to work with. Various processes are used in order to lower the phosphorus and sulphur
impurities in pig iron in order to produce cast iron. Wrought iron, which contains less than 0.25%
carbon, is tough, malleable and easily welded, but is much more laborious and costly to produce
than low carbon steel.

In 2010, global iron ore production was around 2.4 billion tonnes. China, the largest producer,
accounted for about 37.5% of all production, while other major producing countries include
Australia, Brazil, India and Russia.

Applications:
Iron was once the primary structural material, but it has long been replaced by steel in most
applications. Nevertheless, cast iron is still used in pipes and to make automotive parts, such as
cylinder heads, cylinder blocks and gearbox cases. Wrought iron is still used to produce home
dcor items, such as wine racks, candleholders and curtain rods.

Nickel

Nickel is a strong, lustrous, silvery-white metal that is a staple of our daily lives and can be
found in everything from the batteries that power our television remotes to the stainless steel that
is used to make our kitchen sinks.

Properties:

Atomic Symbol: Ni

Atomic Number: 28

Element Category: Transition metal

Density: 8.908 g/cm3

Melting Point: 2651 F (1455 C)

 Boiling Point: 5275 F (2913 C)

Mohs Hardness: 4.0

Characteristics:

Pure nickel reacts with oxygen and, therefore, is seldom found on the earth's surface, despite
being the fifth most abundant element on (and in) our planet. In combination with iron, nickel is
extremely stable, which explains both its occurrence in iron-containing ores and its effective use
in combination with iron to make stainless steel.

Nickel is very strong and resistant to corrosion, making it excellent for strengthening metal
alloys. It is also very ductile and malleable, properties that allow its many alloys to be shaped
into wire, rods, tubes and sheets.

History:

Pure nickel was first extracted by Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt in 1751, but it was known to
exist much earlier. Chinese documents from around 1500BC make reference to 'white copper'
(baitong), which was very likely an alloy of nickel and silver. Fifteenth century German miners,
who believed they could extract copper from nickel ores in Saxony, referred to the metal as
kupfernickel - 'the devil's copper' - partly due to their futile attempts to extract copper from the
ore, but also likely in part due to the health effects caused by the high arsenic content in the ore.

In 1889, James Riley made a presentation to the Iron and Steel Institute of Great Britain on how
the introduction of nickel could strengthen traditional steels. Riley's presentation resulted in a
growing awareness of nickel's beneficial alloying properties and coincided with the discovery of
large nickel deposits in New Caledonia and Canada.

By the early 20th century, the discovery of ore deposits in Russia and South Africa made large-
scale production of nickel possible. Not long after, World War I and World War II resulted in a
significant increase in steel and, consequently, nickel demand.

Production:

Nickel is primarily extracted from the nickel sulphides pentlandite, pyrrhotite, and millerite,
which contain about 1% nickel content, and the iron-containing lateritic ores limonite and
garnierite, which contain about 4% nickel content. Nickel ores are mined in 23 countries, while
nickel is smelted in 25 different countries.

The separation process for nickel is highly dependent upon the type of ore. Nickel sulphides,
such as those found in the Canadian Shield and Siberia, are generally found deep underground,
making them labor intensive and expensive to extract. However, the separation process for these
ores is much cheaper than for the lateritic variety, such as those found in New Caledonia.
Moreover, nickel sulphides often have the benefit of containing impurities of other valuable
elements that can be economically separated.
Sulphide ores can be separated using froth flotation and hydrometallurgical or magnetic
processes to create nickel matte and nickel oxide. These intermediate products, which usually
contain 40-70% nickel, are then further processed, often using the Sherritt-Gordon Process.

The Mond (or Carbonyl) Process is the most common and efficient method to treat nickel
sulphide. In this process, the sulphide is treated with hydrogen and fed into a volatilization kiln.
Here it meets carbon monoxide at about 140F (60C) to form nickel carbonyl gas. The nickel
carbonyl gas decomposes on the surface of pre-heated nickel pellets that flow through a heat
chamber until they reach the desired size. At higher temperatures, this process can be used to
form nickel powder.

Lateritic ores, by contrast, are usually smelted by pyro-metallic methods because of their high
iron content. Lateritic ores also have a high moisture content (35-40%) that requires drying in a
rotary kiln furnace. This produces nickel oxide, which is then reduced using electric furnaces at
temperatures between 2480-2930 F (1360-1610 C) and volatilized to produce Class I nickel
metal and nickel sulfate.

Due to the naturally occurring iron content in lateritic ores, the end product of most smelters
working with such ores is ferro-nickel, which can be used by steel producers after silicon, carbon
and phosphorus impurities are removed.

By country, the largest producers of nickel in 2010 were Russia, Canada, Australia and
Indonesia. The largest producers of refined nickel are Norilsk Nickel, Vale S.A., and Jinchuan
Group Ltd. At present, only a small percentage of nickel is produced from recycled materials.

Applications:

Nickel is one of the most widely used metals on the planet. According to the Nickel Institute, the
metal is used in over 300,000 different products. Most often it is found in steels and metal alloys,
but it is also used in the production of batteries and permanent magnets.

Stainless Steel:
About 65% of all nickel produced goes into stainless steel.

Austenitic steels are non-magnetic stainless steels that contain high levels of chromium and
nickel, and low levels of carbon. This group of steels - classified as 300 series stainless - are
valued for their formability and resistance to corrosion. Austenitics are the most widely used
grade of stainless steel.

The nickel-containing austenitic range of stainless steels is defined by their face-centered cubic
(FCC) crystal structure, which has one atom at each corner of the cube and one in the middle of
each face. This grain structure forms when a sufficient quantity of nickel is added to the alloy
(eight to ten percent in a standard 304 stainless steel alloy).
STEEL

Steel, the world's foremost construction material, is an iron alloy that contains between 0.2 and 2
percent carbon by weight.

History

Production

Grades

Properties

Applications

History:

The advent of commercial steel production in the late 19th century was a result of Sir Henry
Bessemer's creation of an efficient way to lower the carbon content in cast iron. By lowering the
amount of carbon in iron to about 2%, the harder and more malleable steel is produced.

More

Production:

Today, most steel is produced by basic oxygen methods (also known as basic oxygen
steelmaking or BOS). BOS is so-named because it requires oxygen to be blown into large vessels
containing molten iron and scrap steel.

Although BOS accounts for the largest share of global steel production, the use of electric arc
furnaces (EAF) has been growing since the early 20th century and now accounts for about one-
third of all steel production. More...

Grades:

Over 3,500 different grades of steel exist. Commercial steel is generally classified into four
groups depending on their metal alloy content and end-use applications:

1. Carbon Steels (including low carbon, medium carbon and high carbon steels)

2. Alloy Steels (common alloy metals; manganese, silicon, nickel and chromium)

3. Stainless Steels (contain about 10% chromium and classified as austenitic, ferritic and
martensitic)
 4. Tool Steels (alloyed with high temperature and hard metals, such as molybdenum and
tungsten)

Steel has a wide range of alloy compositions, which allow it to have diverse mechanical
properties. More...

Properties:

Different types of steel are produced according to the properties required for their application,
and various grading systems are used to distinguish steels based on these properties.

The following table lists the properties of steels at room temperature (25C). More...

Applications:

From stainless and high temperature steels to flat carbon products, steel's various forms and
alloys offer different properties to meet a wide range of applications. For these reasons, as well
as the metal's combination of high strength and a relatively low production cost, steel is now
used in countless products.

Steel applications can be divided into five sectors.

Zinc

Zinc is a lustrous bluish-grey metal that is primarily used to galvanize iron and steel in order to
protect against corrosion. Also referred to as spelter, zinc is one of the most highly demanded
non-ferrous metals with total global consumption falling behind only aluminum and copper.

Properties:

Atomic Symbol: Zn

Atomic Number: 30

Density: 7.133 g/cm3 at 20C

Element Category: Transition metal

Melting Point: 787F (419C)

Boiling Point: 1665F (907C)

 Moh's Hardness: 2.5

Characteristics:
Pure zinc is a hard and brittle, bluish grey metal that readily reacts with oxygen.

Ironically, it is zinc's 'weakness' - its low nobility - that is actually its most valued property and
critical to most applications for the metal.

Being one of the least noble of all common metals, zinc corrodes easily and, in an electrolytic
environment, will become electropositive (anodic), thereby, protecting other, more noble metals
from corrosive attack.

By applying zinc to steel, in a process called galvanization, it works to protect the ferrous metal
against rusting.

Zinc has the lowest melting point of all transition metals aside from mercury and cadmium,
allowing it - and many alloys containing the metal - to be die cast. Pure zinc, meanwhile, is soft
enough to be formed, rolled or extruded.

Zinc also readily alloys with other metals. Perhaps the most well-known zinc alloy, brass,
combines the workability, corrosion resistance and aesthetic appeal of copper with the hardness
and strength of zinc.

The base metal is also diamagnetic and fair conductor of electricity.

One unique distinguishing characteristic of zinc is that it creates a chime sound when bent,
similar to tin cry.

Production:
Nearly all zinc refined today (over 95 percent) is extracted from sphalerite (ZnS), otherwise
known as zinc blende.

Sphalerite ores generally contain between 5 and 15 percent zinc. To get this to a pure state that
can be used by consumers, the metal must be separated, concentrated and refined into a pure
metallic form. Either hydro-metallurgical or pyro-metallurgical processes can do this, however,
over 90 percent of current production now originates from hydrometallurgical plants.

Once mined, zinc ore is crushed into powder and separated from lead via froth flotation. Lead
and other metals, such as silver, that may be present in the ore in recoverable quantities will be
extracted and treated separately.

The remaining concentrate will consist of between 1 to 15 percent zinc, but retain a high sulphur
content (around 30 percent) that must be removed. This can be done by roasting the crushed ore
at temperatures over 1652F (900C), producing zinc oxide (ZnO) and sulphur dioxide. More...
Applications:
While primarily used to galvanize steel and iron in structural applications, zinc can also be found
in a wide range of alloys that are used to produce everything from automobile parts to golf clubs.

Zinc applications can be broken down into five general groups based upon the method and form
of use:

1. Zinc Galvanizing

2. Brass

3. Zinc Die Casting Alloys

4. Chemicals

Zinc Galvanizing:
Approximately half of all zinc produced is used to galvanize carbon steel products. Due to its
electro-positivity, zinc acts as a sacrificial anode when placed in electrolytic environments with
ferrous metals. More...

CHROMIUM

Chromium metal is most widely recognized for its use in chromium plating (which is often
referred to simply as 'chrome'), but its largest use is as an ingredient in stainless steels. Both
applications benefit from chromium's hardness, resistance to corrosion, and ability to be polished
for a lustrous appearance.

Properties

Atomic Symbol: Cr

Atomic Number: 24

Atomic Mass: 51.996g/mol1

Element Category: Transition Metal

Density: 7.19g/cm3 at 20C

Melting Point: 3465F (1907C)

 Boiling Point: 4840F (2671C)

Mohs Hardness: 5.5

Characteristics

Chromium is a hard, gray metal that is valued for its incredible resistance to corrosion. Pure
chromium is magnetic and brittle, but when alloyed can be made malleable and polished to a
bright, silvery finish.

Chromium derives its name from khrma, a Greek word meaning color, due to its ability to
produce vivid, colorful compounds, such as chrome oxide.

History

In 1797, French chemist Nicolas-Louis Vauguelin produced the first pure chromium metal by
treating crocoite (a chromium containing mineral) with potassium carbonate and then reducing
the resulting chromic acid with carbon in a graphite crucible.

While chromium compounds have been used in dyes and paints for thousands of years, it was not
until well after Vauguelin's discovery that chromium use in metal applications began to develop.

In the late 19th and early 20th century, metallurgists in Europe were actively experimenting with
metal alloys, trying to produce stronger and more durable steels.

In 1912, while working at Firth Brown Laboratories in the UK, metallurgist Harry Brearley was
tasked with finding a more resilient metal for gun barrels.

He added chromium, which was known to have a high melting point, to traditional carbon steel,
producing the first stainless steel. However, at about the same time, others, including Elwood
Haynes in the US and engineers at Krupp in Germany, were also developing chromium
containing steel alloys. With the development of the electric arc furnace, large-scale production
of stainless steel followed shortly thereafter.

During the same period, research was also being done on electro-plating metals, which allowed
cheaper metals, such as iron and nickel, to adopt onto their exterior chromium's resistance to
abrasion and corrosion, as well as its aesthetic qualities. The first chrome features appeared on
cars and high-end clocks in the late 1920s.

Production

Industrial chromium products include chromium metal, ferrochrome, chromium chemicals and
foundry sands. In recent years, there has been a trend toward greater vertical integration in the
production of chromium materials. That is, more companies are involved in the mining of
chromite ore are also processing it into chromium metal, ferrochrome and, ultimately, stainless
steel.
In 2010 global production of chromite ore (FeCr 2O4), the primary mineral extracted for
chromium production was 25 million tons. Ferrochrome production was around 7 million tons,
while chromium metal production was approximately 40,000 tons. Ferrochromium is produced
solely using electric arc furnaces, whereas chromium metal can be produced via electrolytic,
silico-thermic and aluminothermic methods.

During the production of ferrochrome, the heat created by electric arc furnaces, which reaches
5070F (2800C), causes coal and coke to reduce chromium ore through a carbothermic reaction.
Once sufficient material has been smelted in the furnace hearth, the molten metal is drained out
and solidified in large castings before being crushed.

Aluminothermic production of high purity chromium metal accounts for over 95% of chromium
metal produced today. The first step in this process requires that the chromite ore is roasted with
soda and lime in air at 2000F (1000C), which creates a sodium chromate containing calcine.
This can be leached away from the waste material and then reduced and precipitated as chromic
oxide (Cr2O3).

The chromic oxide is then mixed with powdered aluminum and put into a large clay crucible.
Barium peroxide and magnesium powder are then spread onto the mixture and the crucible is
surrounded by sand (which acts as insulation).

The mixture is ignited, resulting in the oxygen from the chromic oxide reacting with the
aluminum to produce aluminum oxide and, thereby, liberating molten chromium metal that is 97-
99% pure.

According to US Geological Survey statistics, the largest producers of chromite ore in 2009 were
South Africa (33%), India (20%), and Kazakhstan (17%). The largest ferrochrome producing
companies include Xstrata, Eurasian Natural Resources Corp. (Kazakhstan), Samancor (South
Africa), and Hernic Ferrochrome (South Africa).

Applications

According to the International Development Association for Chromium, of the total chromite ore
extracted in 2009, 95.2% was consumed by the metallurgical industry, 3.2% by the refractory
and foundry industry, and 1.6% by chemical producers. The major uses for chromium are in
stainless steels, alloyed steels, and nonferrous alloys.

Stainless steels refer to a range of steels that contain between 10% to 30% chromium (by weight)
and that do not corrode or rust as easily as regular steels. Between 150 and 200 different stainless
steel compositions exist, although only about 10% of these are in regular use.

ALLOYS

Alloys are metallic compounds composed of one metal and one or more metal, or non-metal,
elements.
Examples of common alloys include:

Steel, a combination of iron (metal) and carbon (non-metal)

Bronze, a combination of copper (metal) and tin (metal) and

Brass, a mixture of copper (metal) and zinc (metal)

Properties:

Individual pure metals may possess useful properties, such as good electrical conductivity, high
strength, and hardness, or heat and corrosion resistance.

Commercial metal alloys attempt to combine these beneficial properties in order to create a metal
that is more useful for a particular application than any of its component elements.

The development of steel, for example, required finding the right combination of carbon and iron
(about 99% iron and 1% carbon, as it turns out) in order to produce a metal that is stronger,
lighter and more workable metal than pure iron.

The precise properties of new alloys are difficult to calculate because elements do not just
combine to become a sum of parts, but form through chemical interactions that depend on their
component parts as well as the production method. As a result, much testing is required in the
development of new metal alloys.

One thing that is for certain is that when metals are alloyed, the melting temperature is always
affected. Galinstan, a low-melt alloy containing gallium, tin, and indium, is liquid at
temperatures above 2.2F (-19C), meaning that its melting point is 122F (50C) lower than
pure gallium and more than 212F (100C) below indium and tin.

Galinstan and Wood's Metal are examples of eutectic alloys. Eutectic alloys have the lowest
melting point of any alloy combination containing the same elements.

Composition:

Thousands of alloy compositions are in regular production, while new compositions are
developed regularly.

Accepted standard compositions include the purity levels of constituent elements (based on
weight content).

The make-up, as well as mechanical and physical properties for common alloys, are monitored
by international organizations such ISO, SAE International and ASTM International.

PRODUCTION:
Some metal alloys are naturally occurring and require little processing to be converted into
industrial grade materials. Ferro-alloys such as ferro-chromium and ferro-silicon, for instance,
are produced by smelting mixed ores and are used in the production of various steels.

Commercial and trade alloys, however, generally require greater processing and are most often
formed by mixing molten metals in a controlled environment. Yet, one would be mistaken in
thinking that alloying metals is a simple process.

For example, if one were to simply mix molten aluminum with molten lead, we would find that
they would separate into layers, much like oil and water. The procedure for combining molten
metals, or mixing metals with non-metals, varies greatly depending on the properties of the
elements required.

Metal elements have a great variance in their tolerance of heat and gasses.

While elements like the refractory metals are stable at high temperatures, others begin to interact
with their environment, which can affect purity levels and, ultimately, the alloy quality.

Important considerations when alloying metals include the melting temperatures of component
metals, impurity levels, the mixing environment and the alloying procedure.

In some cases, intermediate alloys must be prepared in order to persuade elements to combine.

An alloy of 95.5% aluminum and 4.5% copper is made by first preparing a 50% mixture of the
two elements. This mixture has a lower melting point than either pure aluminum or pure copper
and acts as a 'hardener alloy'. This is then introduced to molten aluminum at a rate that creates
the right alloy mix.

ALUMINIUM

Discovery date 1825

Discovered by Hans Oersted
Origin of the The name is derived from the Latin name for alum, 'alumen' meaning bitter
name salt.

Image explanation
Aircraft fuselages and aluminium foil are just two of the many and varied uses of this element
Appearance
Aluminium is a silvery-white, lightweight metal. It is soft and malleable.
Uses
Aluminium is used in a huge variety of products including cans, foils, kitchen utensils, window
frames, beer kegs and aeroplane parts. This is because of its particular properties. It has low
density, is non-toxic, has a high thermal conductivity, has excellent corrosion resistance and can
be easily cast, machined and formed. It is also non-magnetic and non-sparking. It is the second
most malleable metal and the sixth most ductile.

It is often used as an alloy because aluminium itself is not particularly strong. Alloys with
copper, manganese, magnesium and silicon are lightweight but strong. They are very important
in the construction of aeroplanes and other forms of transport.

Aluminium is a good electrical conductor and is often used in electrical transmission lines. It is
cheaper than copper and weight for weight is almost twice as good a conductor.

When evaporated in a vacuum, aluminium forms a highly reflective coating for both light and
heat. It does not deteriorate, like a silver coating would. These aluminium coatings have many
uses, including telescope mirrors, decorative paper, packages and toys.
Biological role
Aluminium has no known biological role. In its soluble +3 form it is toxic to plants. Acidic soils
make up almost half of arable land on Earth, and the acidity speeds up the release of Al3+ from
its minerals. Crops can then absorb the Al3+ leading to lower yields.

Our bodies absorb only a small amount of the aluminium we take in with our food. Foods with
above average amounts of aluminium are tea, processed cheese, lentils and sponge cakes (where
it comes from the raising agent). Cooking in aluminium pans does not greatly increase the
amount in our diet, except when cooking acidic foods such as rhubarb. Some indigestion tablets
are pure aluminium hydroxide.

Aluminium can accumulate in the body, and a link with Alzheimers disease (senile dementia)
has been suggested but not proven.
Natural abundance
Aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earths crust (8.1%) but is rarely found
uncombined in nature. It is usually found in minerals such as bauxite and cryolite. These
minerals are aluminium silicates.

Most commercially produced aluminium is extracted by the HallHroult process. In this process
aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten cryolite and then electrolytically reduced to pure
aluminium. Making aluminium is very energy intensive. 5% of the electricity generated in the
USA is used in aluminium production. However, once it has been made it does not readily
corrode and can be easily recycled.

History
Elements and Periodic Table History
The analysis of a curious metal ornament found in the tomb of Chou-Chu, a military leader in 3 rd
century China, turned out to be 85% aluminium. How it was produced remains a mystery. By the
end of the 1700s, aluminium oxide was known to contain a metal, but it defeated all attempts to
extract it. Humphry Davy had used electric current to extract sodium and potassium from their
so-called earths (oxides), but his method did not release aluminium in the same way. The first
person to produce it was Hans Christian Oersted at Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1825, and he did it
by heating aluminium chloride with potassium. Even so, his sample was impure. It fell to the
German chemist Friedrich Whler to perfect the method in 1827, and obtain pure aluminium for
the first time by using sodium instead of potassium.