Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Theory of Structures
Reinforced Concrete Design
Structural Steel Design
Timber Design
Surveying and Transportation
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulics
Geotechnical Engineering
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Theory of Structures
Theory of Structures
Deflection of Beams
Double Integration Method
Area-Moment Method
Strain Energy Method
Three-Moment Method
Conjugate Beam Method
Virtual Work Method
Indeterminate Beams
Stability and Determinacy of Structures
Types of Indeterminate Beams
Three-Moment Equation
Moment Distribution Method
Slope-Deflection Method
Simple and Cantilever Beam Method
Propped Beam Formulas
Fully Restrained Beams Formulas
Influence Lines
Approximate Analysis of Structures
Dynamic (Impact Loading)
Trusses
Determinacy of Trusses
Deflection of Trusses
Indeterminate Truss
Reinforced Concrete
Basic Requirements
Modulus of Elasticity
Concrete Protection for Reinforcement
Loads
Load Factors
Strength Reduction Factor
Analysis and Design of Beams
Assumptions in Strength Design
Singly Reinforced Beam
Steps in Designing Singly Reinforced Beam
Steps in Computing Mu
Minimum thickness of Flexural
Double Reinforced Beam
Steps in Design
Steps in Computing Mu
Beam Deflection
NSCP Coefficient for Continuous Beams and Slabs
One-Way Slab
Shrinkage and Temperature Bars
Shear and Diagonal Tension
Spacing Limits of Shear Reinforcement
Critical Sections for Beam Shear
Steps in Vertical Stirrup Design
Bond, Development Length, Hooks, Splice
Development Length for Flexural Reinforcement
Hooks
Splices
Timber Design
Basic Code Requirements
Size Adjustment Factor
Slenderness Factor
Flexural Stress
Design of Horizontal Members
Compression Perpendicular to Grain
Column Design
Combined Flexure and Axial Load
Timber Connectors and Fasteners
Working Stress of Timber
Open Channel
Chezy Formula
Mannings Formula
Uniform Flow
Velocity Distribution
Specific Energy
Most Efficient Sections
Moving Vane
Pressure Conduits
Drag and Lift
Water Hammer
Froude Number
Alternate Stage of Flow
Critical Depth
Non-Uniform Flow
Hydraulic Jump
Hydrodynamics
Geotechnical Engineering
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS
Elastic Curve
LOAD
Deflection
Elastic Curve
LOAD
X
y
x
M 1
y'' = = M
EI EI
If EI is constant, the equation may be written as:
E I y'' = M
The first integration y yields the slope of the elastic curve and the
second integration y gives the deflection of the beam at any
distance x.
tA/B A AB B tB/A
Area AB
cg
A B
A
X B
X
Moment Diagram
Theorem 1
1
AB = (AreaAB )
EI
Theorem 2
1
tB/A = B
(AreaAB ) X
EI
1
tA/B = A
(AreaAB ) X
EI
Rules of Sign:
A B A B
AB (+) tA/B (+)
1 n+1
X G= b; Y G= h
n+2 4n + 2
Strain Energy, U
When an external force acts upon an elastic body and deforms it,
the work done by the forces is stored within a body in the form of
strain energy. The strain energy is always a scalar quantity.
= PL / AE
1
U= P (PL / AE)
2
P2 L
U=
2AE
L
P2 dx
U=
0 2AE
T
1
U= T
2
T
1
U= T (TL / JG)
2
= TL / JG
T2 L
U=
2JG
If the torque T acts along the length of the bar, the total strain
energy is
L
T2 dx
U=
0 2JG
1 M
= = M
EI L
ML M
=
EI
U=
1
M =
1
M(ML / EI)
2 2 = ML / EI
M2 L
U=
2EI
If the bending moment varies along the length of the bar, the total
internal strain energy is
L
M2 dx
U=
0 2EI
U
n =
Pn
P (P / Pn )dx T (T / Tn )dx
n = +
AE JG
M (M / Pn )fx
+
EI
Any Loading
A B C
h1 h2
L1 L2
Load on Load on
Span 1 Span 2
Loads on
MA MB MB MC
A B simply B C
supported
L1 span L2
V V V V
a b a b
Moment
diagrams of
cg loads on simply cg
supported spans
Area = A1 Area = A2
Moment
MA diagrams of MA
MB loading by end MB
moment
L1 L2
A
Elastic Curve
Parallel to C
h1 tA/B
Unloaded beam
h2
B tC/B
h1 - tA/B
Tangent to elastic curve
tC/B - h2
L1 L2
h1 - tA/B tC/B - h2
=
L1 L2
tA/B tC/B h1 h2
+ = + (1)
L1 L2 L1 L2
tA/B =
1
(Area)AB X A
E1 I1
1 1 1 1 2
tA/B = A1 a 1 + MA L1 x L1 + MB L1 x L1
E1 I1 2 3 2 3
1
tA/B = 6A1 a 1 + MA L1 2 + 2MB L1 2
6E1 I1
tA/B =
1
C
(Area)BC X
E2 I2
A2 b 2 + MB L2 x L2 + MC L2 x L2
1 1 2 1 1
tA/B =
E1 I1 2 3 2 3
6A2 b 2 + 2MB L2 2 + MC L2 2
1
tA/B =
6E2 I2
Substitute tA/B & tC/B to Eq. (1):
1 1
6A1 a
+ MA L1 + 2MB L1
6E1 I1 L1
1 2
6A2 b h1 h2
+ + 2MB L2 + MC L2 = +
6E2 I2 L2 L1 L2
Simplify
M A L1 L1 L2 M C L2
+ 2MB + +
E 1 I1 E 1 I1 E 2 I2 E 2 I2
6A1 a 1 6A2 b 2 h1 h2
+ + = 6 +
E 1 I1 L 1 E 2 I2 L 2 L1 L2
M A L1 L1 L2 M C L2
+ 2MB + +
I1 I1 I2 I2
6A1 a 1 6A2 b 2 h1 h2
+ + = 6E +
I1 L 1 I2 L 2 L1 L2
MA L1 + 2MB (L1 + L2 ) + MC L2
6A1 a 1 6A2 b 2 h1 h2
+ + = 6EI +
L1 L2 L1 L2
6Aa
6Ab
Values of and of Common Loadings:
L L
6Aa 6Ab
L L
P
a b
L
Pa 2 2 Pb 2 2
L - a L - b
L L
P
L/2 L/2
L
3 3
PL2 PL2
8 8
w (N/m)
L
3
wL wL3
4 4
w (N/m)
L
8 7
wL3 wL3
60 60
w (N/m)
L
7 8
wL3 wL3
60 60
w (N/m)
wL3 wL3
5 5
32 32
M
a b
L
M M
- (3a2 - L2 ) + (3b2 - L2 )
L L
Example
Deflection of cantilever beam
P
With concentrated load at the
Free end. A B
L
L
Mmn dx
n =
0 EI
L
Mmn dx
=
0 EI
= u (T)L
Where u is the stress in the member due to unit load, is the
coefficient of thermal expansion of the member, and T is the
temperature change.
SUL
=
AE
INDETERMINATE BEAMS
Stability of Structures
Determinacy of Structure
R2
R1 R1
M1 M2
R1 R2 R3
R1 R2
Figure (c) Figure (d)
Figure (b) is fixed at one end and has a flexible spring like support
at the other end. In the case of a simple linear spring, the flexible
support exerts a force proportional to the beam deflection at that
point.
Figure (d) has six unknown reaction. This type of beam that rests
on more than two supports is called a continuous beam. This
beam can be solved using the three moment equation or
moment distribution method.
6A1 a 1 6A2 b 2
MA L1 + 2MB (L1 + L2 ) + MC L2 + + =0
L1 L2
For the beam shown in Figure (d), the moments MA and MC are
zero thus there is only one unknown, MB. Using three moment
equation with A, B, and C as the three points, the moment MB can
found easily.
For the beam shown below, there are three unknown moments
(MA, MB, & MC) since MD is zero. Three equations will therefore
be needed to solve the beam. One equation can be obtained by
taking points A-B-C, a second equation is by taking points B-C-
D. The third equation can be obtained by extending an imaginary
beam beyond the restrained end A, and taking points O-A-B, with
all terms that refer to the imaginary span have zero values. Thus
for beams with restrained ends, extend an imaginary beam to
complete the necessary equations.
Imaginary Beam
Lo L1 L2 L3
B C D
A
Note: the need to use this imaginary span will only arise if there
are fixed end.
MB
MA
EI tB/A =(Area)AB xB
1 1
0= M L (2L/3)+ MB L (L/3)
2 A 2
1
MA = - M
2 B
Beam Stiffness
E I = (Area)AB
1 1
EI= MA L+ MB L
2 2
1
but MA = - M
2 B
1 1 1
EI= - MB L+ MB L
2 2 2
MB = 4E I /L
4EI
Absolute K=
L
I
Relative K=
L
The following are the fixed end moments for common types of
loading to be used with moment distribution.
P
Pab2
FEMAB =
L a b
Pba 2 L
FEMBA = + A B
L2
P
PL
FEMAB = - L/2
8 L/2
PL L
FEMBA = + A B
8
wL2
FEMAB = - w (N/m)
12
wL2 L
FEMBA = + A B
12
5wL2
FEMAB = - w (N/m)
192
2
11wL
FEMBA = - L/2 L/2 B
192 A
w (N/m)
wL2
FEMAB = -
30
L
wL2 A B
FEMBA = +
20
w (N/m)
5wL2
FEMAB = -
96
5wL2 L
FEMBA = + A B
96
Mb 3a
FEMAB = +
L
L
- 1 M
a b
A B
L
Ma 3b
FEMBA = +
L
L
- 1
6EI
FEMAB = -
L2 B
A
6EI L
FEMBA = -
L2
Distribution Factor, DF
K
DF=
K
At fixed end, DF = 0
At hinged or roller end, DF = 1
Hint: For faster distribution, first distribute the joints with large
unbalanced moment (especially those hinge or roller end), and
carry over the moment to the interior support, then begin
distributing the rest of the moments.
Modified K
For continuous beams with hinge or roller ends, the final moment
at that end is zero. The distribution of moment will become easier
if we multiply the beam stiffness K of the span containing that
support by , which would eliminate any further distribution of
moment on that support. Do not apply this for fixed support.
FEMAB
MAB
A
A
B
= /L B
L
MBA
FEMBA
MBA = FEMBA + K (A + 2B - 3)
= / L
2EI
Absolute K= ; Relative K= I / L
L
MBA = FEMBA + K (A + 2B )
The sign of the fixed end moments is the same as that used in
the moment distribution method.
MN = FEMN + K (2N + F - 3)
Where:
MN= internal moment in the near end of the span
FEMN = fixed end moment at the near end support
N, F = near and far end slopes of the span at
support
A L1 L2 L3
B C D
MBA + MBC = 0
MCB + MCD = 0
wL2
Mmax = Mmid =
8
w (N/m)
4
5wL
max = mid =
384EI
A C B
wL3
A = B =
24EI
PL
Mmax = Mmid =
4 P
3
PL
max = mid = L/2 L/2
48EI
L B
A
PL2
A = B =
16EI
Pab
Mmax = MP =
L
P
L2 - b2
x= A a b B
3
3/2
C L
Pb (L2 - b2 )
max = C = x
93 EIL
Pb
mid = 3L2 - 4b2 when a>b
48 EI
2.5wL4
mid =
384EI y
w (N/m)
Location of max.
x
x = 0.481 L A
C L B
8wL3 7wL3 x
B = ; A =
360EI 360EI
wx
EIy = 7L - 10L2 x2 + 3x4
4
360L
wL2
Mmax =
12
y
w (N/m)
5wL3
A = B =
192EI x
4 L B
wL A
max = mid =
120EI
wx
EIy = 25L4 - 40L2 x2 + 16x4 for 0 < x < L/2
960L
Mmax = M
y
ML ML
A = ; B = 0.577L M
6EI 3EI
Mx x
EIy = (L - x)(2L - x) A L B
6L
ML3
max = at x = 0.577L
93 EI
Mmax = MA = - PL
PL2 y
B = P
2EI
PL3 x
max = B = L B
3EI A
Px2
EIy = (3L - x)
6
Mmax = MA = - PL
y
P
Pa2
B =
2EI a b
x
L B
A
Pa2
max = B = (3L - a)
6EI
Px2
EIy = (3a - x) for 0 < x < a
6
Pa2
EIy = (3x - a) for a < x < L
6
wL2
Mmax = MA = -
2
y
w (N/m)
wL3
B =
6EI
x
wL 4 L B
A
max = B =
8EI
wx2 2
EIy = 6L - 4Lx + x2
24
wL2
Mmax = MA = - y
6
w (N/m)
wL3
B = x
24EI
L B
4 A
wL
max = B =
30EI
wx2
EIy = 10L3 - 10L2 x + 5Lx2 - x3
120L
Mmax = MA = - M
y
ML
B = M
EI
2 x
ML
max = B = L B
2EI A
Mx2
EIy =
2
P
Pa2 (3L - a)
R= a b
2L3
B
A L
P 2 a2 b
MA = - b a +
L2 2 R
5P
R= P
16
L/2 L/2
3PL
MA = - Aa L
B
16
R
w (N/m)
3wL
R=
8
B
A L
wL2
MA = -
8 R
7wL w (N/m)
R=
128
L/2
B
9wL2 A L
MA = -
128
R
w (N/m)
wb3
R= (4L - b) a b
8L3 B
A L
wa2
MA = RL - R
2
wL w (N/m)
R=
10
B
A L
wL2
MA = -
15 R
11wL w (N/m)
R=
40
B
7wL2
A L
MA = -
120 R
11wL w (N/m)
R=
64
B
5wL2 A L
MA = -
64
R
3EI
MA = B
L2 A
L
Pab2
MA =
L2 P
Pba2 a b
MB = -
L2 L
A B
Pb2
mid = (3L - 4b)
48EI
PL P
MA = M B = -
8
L/2 L/2
PL3 L
max = A B
192EI
wL2
MA = M B = - w (N/m)
12
wL4 L B
max = A
384EI
5wL2
MA = -
192 w (N/m)
11wL2
MB = -
192 L/2 L/2 B
A
wL4
mid =
768EI
wL2
MA = -
30 w (N/m)
2
wL
MB = -
20
L
A B
wL4
mid =
768EI
5wL3 w (N/m)
MA = M B = -
96
7wL4 L
max = A B
3840EI
Mb 3a M
MA = - 1 a b
L L
Ma 3b
MB = - - 1 A
L
B
L L
6EI
MA = -
L2
6EI B
MB = 2
A
L L
x Pab2
MA = - x 2 P = ydx
1 L2
Any loading
x Pba2
MB = - x 2 y
1 L2
a b
a = x; b = L x A x L-x B
P = y dx
For varying load, y = f(x)
For uniform load, y = w (N/m) = constant
INFLUENCE LINES
h
Function = P x h
P1 P2 P3
h1 h2 h3
Function = P1 h1 + P2 h2 + P3 h3 +
w (N/m)
Area
Function = w x Area
Cantilever Method
Assumptions:
1. A point of inflection occurs at the midspan of each
girder.
2. A point of inflection occurs at midheight of each
column.
3. The axial force in each column is directly
proportional to its distance from the center of
gravity of all columns on the level.
Portal Method
Assumptions:
1. The building frame is divided into independent
portals.
2. A point of inflection occurs at the midspan of each
girder.
3. A point of inflection occurs at the midheight of
each column.
4. The horizontal shear at a given story is distributed
among the columns such that each interior
column resists twice as much as each exterior
column.
Note: Portal and Cantilever methods yield the same results for
frames such as shown below.
DYNAMIC (IMPACT) LOADING
P
k= (N/mm or kN/mm)
st
L
PL3 3EI
Static deformation, st = ; k=
3EI L3
2h
= 1 + 1 +
st st
2h
max = st 1 + 1 +
st
2AE L
= mgh
AL
h
2E mv2 stop
=
AL 2
where v is the velocity of the
mass before impact.
TRUSSES
Roof Trusses
Roof trusses are often used as part of a building frame. The roof
load is transmitted to the truss at the joints by means of a series
of purlins. The roof truss along with its supporting columns is
termed as a bent. The space between adjacent bents is called a
bay.
DETERMINACY OF TRUSSES
Therefore;
Where:
SUL
Deflection, =
AE
BASIC REQUIREMENTS
DEFINITIONS
The following terms are defined for general use in this chapter.
Specialized definitions appear in individual Chapters of
Sections.
Ec = w1.5 '
c 0.043 fc (in MPa) Eq. 2 1
Aggregates
Water
Metal Reinforcement
Deformed Reinforcement
Plain Reinforcement
Bundled Bars
3 25 mm equivalent diameter, D
(25)2 3 = (D)2 ; D = 43.3 mm
4 4
Figure 2 2: Equivalent single bar
Bundled Bars
Minimum cover,
mm
(a) Concrete east against and 75
permanently exposed to earth
(b) Concrete exposed to earth or
weather: 50
20 mm through 36 mm bars 40
16 mm bar, W31 or D31 wire, and
smaller
(c) Concrete not exposed to weather
or in contact with ground:
Slabs, walls, joists
32 mm bar and smaller 20
Beams, columns
Primary reinforcement, ties, 40
stirrups, spirals
Shells, folded place members: 20
20 mm bar and larger 15
16 mm bar, W31 or D31 wire,
and smaller
Minimum cover,
mm
(a) Concrete exposed to earth or
weather:
Wall panels: 20
32 mm bar or smaller
Other members: 40
20 mm through 32 mm bars 30
16 mm bar, W31 or D31
wire, and smaller
(b) Concrete not exposed to
weather or in contact with
ground
Slabs, walls, joists: 15
32 bar and smaller
Beams, columns: db but not less than
15 & need not
Primary reinforcement exceed 40
The inside diameter of bend of stirrups and ties shall not be less
than 4db for 16 mm bar and smaller. For bars larger than 16 mm,
the diameter of bend shall be in accordance with the previous
paragraph.
Storage Materials
Loads
Dead Load
Live loads are loads that may change in magnitude and position.
Live loads that move under their own power are called moving
loads. Other live loads are those caused by wind, rain,
earthquakes, soils, and temperature changes. Wind and
earthquake loads are called lateral loads.
Uniform
Concentrated
Use of occupancy Load,
Load, N
Pa
Category Description
1 Armories 7200 0
Assembly Fixed seating
2400 0
2 areas and areas
auditorium Movable 4800 0
and seating and
balconies other areas
therewith Stage areas
and enclosed 6000 0
platforms
Cornices,
marquees &
3 3000 0
residential
balconies
4 Exit facilities 4800 0
General
storage 4800
and/or repair
5 Garages
Private
pleasure car 2400
storage
Uniform
Concentrated
Use of occupancy load
load, N
Pa
Category Description
Wards and
6 Hospitals 2000 4500
rooms
Reading
3000 4500
7 Libraries rooms
Stock rooms 6000 6700
Light 3600 8900
8 Manufacturing
Heavy 6000 13400
9 Offices 2400 8900
Press
7200 11200
rooms
10 Printing plants Composing
and linotype 4800 8900
rooms
11 Residential 2000 0
Not less
than the
load for the
occupancy
with which
12 Rest rooms
they are
associated
but need not
exceed
2400 Pa
Reviewing
13 stands,
4800 0
grandstands
and bleachers
Same as
area served
14 Roof deck for the type
of
occupancy
15 Schools Classrooms 2000 4500
16 Sidewalks and Public 12000
driveways access
Light 6000
17 Storage
Heavy 12000
Retail 3600 8900
18 Stores
Wholesale 4800 13400
Low cost
19 1500 0
housing unit
Load Factors
U = 0.90 DL Eq. 2 10
but not less than 1.4DL + 1.7LL
U = 1.4(DL + T) Eq. 2 12
Balanced Design
Underreinforced Design
Overreinforced Design
b 0.85 0.003
C = 0.85 fc
c a c
d
N.A. d a/2
M
T = A s fv Fy/Es
[FH = 0] C = T
0.85 fc a b = As fv
As fy
a= Eq. 2 14
0.85 f'c b
As fy d As fy d
a= =
0.85 f'c b d bd 0.85 f'c
As
The term is called the ratio of steel reinforcement and is
bd
denoted as
As
= Eq. 2 15
bd
fy d
And a = Eq. 2 16
0.85 f'c
fy
= Eq. 2 17
f'c
d
a= Eq. 2 18
0.85
Nominal Moment Capacity:
d 1 d
Mn = 0.85 f'c = b (d - )
0.85 2 0.85
Coefficient of Resistance
fy
Solving for and replacing it with , yields the following
f'c
formula for the steel ratio :
0.85 f'c 2 Ru
= 1- 1- Eq. 2 23
fy 0.85 f'c
Balanced Steel Ratio,
b 0.003
c c
d d
As 0.003
c 0.003
= ; Es = 200, 000
d 0.003 + fy /Es
0.003 600
c= fy d= d
0.00 3 + 200, 000 600 + fy
But a = 1 c;
fy d
a 0.85 fc f yd
c= = =
1 1 0.85 fc 1
fy d 600
= d
0.85 fc 1 600 + fy
0.85 fc 1 600
b = Eq. 2 24
fy (600 + fy )
Maximum and Minimum Steel Ratio
1.4
min = Eq. 2 26
fy
Note: The assumptions made in steps II, V, VIII are the author's
recommendation based on his experience.
I. Identify the values of the dead load and live load to be carried
by the beam. (DL & LL)
II. Approximate the weight of beam (DL) between 20% to 25% of
(DL + LL). This weight is added to the dead load.
III. Compute the factored load and factored moment:
ex., Factored Load = 1.4DL + 1.7 LL
IV. Compute the factored moment to be resisted by the beam,
Mu
V. Try a value of steel ratio from 0.5b to 0.6b , but must not
be less than min. This value of due to rounding-off of the
number of bars to be used, for it not to exceed the maximum
of 0.75b.
0.85 fc 1 600
b =
fy (600 + fy )
1 = 0.85 fc < 30 Mpa
1 = 0.85 0.008 (fc 30) fc > 30 Mpa
min = 1.4/fy
fy
VI. Compute the value of , =
f'c
VII. Solve for bd2:
Mu = f'c b d2 (1 - 0.59)
bd2 =
VIII. Try a ratio d/b (from d = 1.5 b to d = 2b), and solve for d.
(round-off this value to reasonable dimension)
After solving for d, substitute its value to Step VII, and solve for
b.
IX. Solve for the required steel area and number of bars.
As = b d
0.85 f'c 2 Ru
= 1- 1- =
fy 0.85 f'c
As = b d =
As
I. Solve for ; =
bd
Note: If < min the given As is not adequate for the beam
dimension.
III. < b
fy
=
f'c
Mu = f'c b d2 (1 - 0.59) =
IV. > b
b 0.85 fc 0.003
C = 0.85 fc ab
a
c c
d d a/2
N M
dc
T= Fy
d-c
As 600 = 0.85 f'c (1 c) b
c
d-c
fs = 600 ; a = 1 c
c
Mu = T (d - a/2) = As fs (d - a/2)
or
Mu = C (d - a/2) = 0.85 fc a b (d - a/2)
Minimum thickness, h
Simply One end Both ends Cantilever
supported continuous continuous
Members not supporting or attached to partitions or
Member other construction likely to be damaged by large
deflections
Solid
one-way L/20 L/24 L/28 L/10
slabs
Beams
or
ribbed L/16 L/18.5 L/21 L/8
one-way
slabs
Span length L is in millimeters
b 0.003
d
As As
a c fs/Es
= +
As As 1 As2
fv/Es
Mu Mu1 Mu2
If the compression steel yields, then A's = As2, otherwise A's = As2
fy/f's where f's is the stress of compression steel and is given by
the following equation
c - d'
fs = 600 Eq. 2 - 27
c
According to Section 5.10.3.3 of NSCP, for members with
compression reinforcement, the portion of b equalized by
compression reinforcement need not be reduced by the 0.75
factor. Thus, the maximum permissible As is:
f's
As max = 0.75 b b d + A's Eq. 2 - 28
fy
f's
The expression 0.75 b b d = As1, and A's = As2.
fy
max = 0.75 b
0.85 fc 1 600
max = =
fy (600 + fy )
fy
= =
fc
As
T1 = As1 fv T2 = As2 fv
Mu = Mu1 + Mu2
0.85 fc
b C2 = As fs
d
a As
C1
d
d d
d a/2
As
T1 = As1 fv T2 = As2 fv
Mu = Mu1 + Mu2
0.85 fc
c
C2 = As fs
d d
d a/2
T1 = As1 fv T2 = As2 fv
c - d'
f's = 600
c
[C1 + C2 = T]
0.85 fc a b = As fs = As fy
c - d'
0.85 fc 1 c b = As + f's = 600 = As f y
c
DEEP BEAMS
T-Beams
a
t a
N.A
N.
As As
bw bw
(a) (b)
fs 0.003 (d - c)
= d-c
200, 000 c
fs/Es
d-c
fs = 600 Eq. 2 29
c
One can actually predict when steel will yield once the value of c
is known. Note that the strain in concrete is taken as 0.003 and
the strain in steel is fs/Es. For fy = 415 MPa, the maximum strain
s = 415/200, 000 = 0.0021, and for fy = 276 MPa, s = 0.0014.
0.003
0.003 0.003
c = 0.7d
c
c = 0.59d
d d
d
As shown in Figure (a), the grade 415 steel will not yield if c/d is
greater than 0.59 and will yield if c/d is less than 0.59. The
grade 276 steel as shown in Figure (b) will yield if c/d is less
than 0.7. Since the maximum steel strength commonly used in
construction is the grade 415 (fy = 415 MPa), we can therefore
conclude that if c/d is less than 0.59, the tension steel will yield.
c d-c
= ; Es = 200000 MPa
0.003 fy /Es
600 d 600 d
c= ; a = 1 c = 1 =
600 + fy 600 + fy
bw
Strain diagram in
balanced condition
[T = C]
Asb fy = 0.85 fc [b1 t + bw z]
NA
As
In checking for maximum (max), use =
bf d
(only if a < t)
As
In checking for minimum (min), use =
bw d
b t b
b b
b b
S S S
b b
bw
5. Where primary flexural reinforcement in a
slab that is considered as a T-beam flange
is parallel to the beam, reinforcement
perpendicular to the beam shall be provided
in the top of the slab in accordance with the
following:
(a) Transverse reinforcement shall be designed to carry the
factored load on the overhanging slab width assumed to act as
a cantilever. For isolated beam, the full width of the overhanging
flange shall be considered. For other T-beams, only the effective
overhanging slab needs to be considered.
(b) Transverse reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart
than five times the slab thickness, or 450 mm.
Mu1 = C (d t/2)
Mu1 = 0.85 fc bf t (d t/2) =
If Mu1 > Mu then a < t, proceed to Step II
If Mu1 < Mu then a > t, proceed to Step III
II. a<t
bf 0.85 fc
a C = 0.85 fc a b
t
d d a/2
As
T = A s fv
Solve for a:
Mu = C (d a/2)
Mu = 0.85 fc ab (d a/2); a =
[T = C] = As fy = 0.85 fc ab; As =
Use As = min bw d
bf 0.85 fc
C1
t 0.85 fc
a
d z C2
d t/2
d d z/2
As
T1 = As1 fy T2 = As2 fy
bw
Mu1 Mu2
Mu = Mu1 + Mu2
Where Mu1 = the same value in Step 1
Mu2 = Mu - Mu1 =
Mu2 = C (d z/2)
Mu2 = 0.85 fc bw z (d z/2)
z=
[T = C]
A s f y = C1 + C 2
As fy = 0.85 fc b t + 0.85 fc bw z
As =
Use As = min bw d
a = 1 (600d/ fy + 600)
[C = T] 0.85 fc Ac = As fy ; Ac =
II. a < t
bf 0.85 fc
a C = 0.85 fc a b
t
d d a/2
As
T = A s fv
Solve for a:
Ac = bf x a; a =
Mu = T (d a/2)
Mu = As fy (d a/2)
600(d - c)
fs = =
c
III. a > t
bf 0.85 fc
C1
t 0.85 fc
a
d z C2
d t/2
d d z/2
As
T1 = As1 fy T2 = As2 fy
bw
Mu1 Mu2
Mu = Mu1 + Mu2
Solve for z:
Ac = Af + bw z (See Step I for the values of Ac and Af
z=
a=t+z=
600(d - c)
c = a/1 = fs = =
c
Mcr 3 Mcr 3
Ie = Ig + 1- Icr Eq. 2 - 32
Ma Ma
Where
fr Ig
Mcr =
yt
fr = modulus of rapture of concrete, MPa, for normal
weight concrete, fr = 0.7 f'c
Ma = maximum moment in member at stage deflection
is computed.
Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about
centroidal axis, neglecting reinforcement.
Icr = moment of inertia of cracked section transformed
to concrete
Yt = distance from centroidal axis to gross section,
neglecting reinforcement, to extreme fiber in tension.
= Eq. 2 - 33
1+50'
Positive moment
End spans
Discontinuous end unrestrained ... Wu
Ln2/11
Discontinuous end integral with support ..... Wu
Ln2/14
Interior spans ......... Wu
Ln2/16
L1 L2
Shear
w L12/14 w L22/16
Moment
w L12/9 -w - w L22/9
Ln = (L1 + L2) / 2
Figure 2 6: Shear and moment for continuous beam or slab
with spans ad discontinuous end integral with support
Column Column Column Column
L1 L2 L3
Shear
Moment
-w -w -w
w L12/16
Ln2/10 Ln2/10 L32/24
Ln = (L1 + L2) / 2 Ln = (L2 + L3) / 2
Figure 2 7: Shear and moment for continuous beam or slab
with more than two discontinuous end integral with support
Column Column
L1 L2 L3
Shear
Moment
- w Ln2/10 -w Ln2/10
ONE-WAY SLAB
Reinforced concrete slab are large flat plates that are supported
at its sides by reinforced concrete beams, walls, columns, steel
beams, or by the ground. If a slab is supported on two opposite
sides only, they are referred to one-way slabs since the bending
occurs in one direction only. If the slab is supported on all four
sides, it is called two-way slab since the bending occurs in both
direction.
If a rectangular slab is supported in all four sides but the long
side is two or more times the short side, the slab will, for all
practical purposes, act as one way slab, with bending occurring
in the short direction.
b = 1m
0.85 f'c 2 Ru
= 1- 1-
fy 0.85 f'c
Abar
S1 = 1000
As
Use the smallest of the following for the main bar spacing:
(a) S1, (b) 3 x h, and (c) 450 mm
Abar
S2 = 1000
As
Vu < V n Eq. 2 34
Vn = Vc + Vs Eq. 2 35
Vs = Vn Vc Eq. 2 36
1
Vc =
6
f'c bw d Eq. 2 37
Or in more detailed calculation (Section 5.11.3.2.1)
Vu d
Vc = f'c + 120 w 7 bw d 0.3 f'c bw d Eq. 2 38
Mu
Where f'c is in MPa and shall not exceed 0.7 MPa except as
provided by Section 5.11.1.2.1, bw is the width of web in mm, d
is the effective depth in mm, and w = As/bw d. The quantity Vu
d/Mu in Eq. 2 38 shall not be taken greater than 1.
(d) Av = 2Ab
bw s
Av = Eq. 2 - 39
3 fy
Av fy d
Vs = Eq. 2 - 40
s
Av fy (sin + cos ) d
Vs = Eq. 2 - 41
s
Where is the angle between inclined stirrups and longitudinal
axis of member.
1
Vs = Av fy sin f'c bw d Eq. 2 - 42
4
h/2
h/2
1
Vc =
6
f'c bw d (or using Eq. 2 38)
1. Vn = Vu/
2. Vs = Vn Vc = Vu/ - Vc
2
If Vs < f'c bw d, proceed to Step IV
3
(Sect. 5.11.5.6.8)
2
If Vs > f'c bw d, adjust the size of the beam
3
(Sect. 5.11.5.6.8)
Av fy d
Spacing, s = ; See Figure 2 11 in Page 134 for the value
Vs
of Av.
Maximum spacing, s:
1
(a) When Vs < f'c bw d, Smax = d/2 or 600 mm
3
1
(b) When Vs >
3
f'c bw d, Smax = d/4 or 300 mm
bw s
Minimum area of stirrup. Av = (Sect. 5.11.5.5.3)
3 fy
Where s = d/2 or 600 mm (whichever is smaller)
BOND, DEVELOPMENT LENGTH, HOOKS, AND SPLICING
FOR REINFORCEMENT
Bond
> Ld
concrete
Fbond F = Abfy
Ld
F = Fbond
Av fy = u db Ld
2
d b fy = u d b L d
4
fy
Ld = db Eq. 2 43
4u
According to Section 5.12.1, calculated tension or compression
in reinforcement at each section of reinforced concrete
members shall be developed on each side of that section by
embedment length, hook or mechanical device, or a
combination thereof. Hooks may be used in developing bars in
tension only.
The Code provides the basic development length Idb for various
situations. The values provided by the code have to be modified
for different condition. Thus, the minimum development length
Ld required by the code can be expressed as
but shall not be less than 300 mm, except for the lengths
required for tension lap splices and for the development of shear
reinforcing.
0.02 Ab fy
Idb = 0.06 db fy Eq. 2 45
f'c
For 36 mm bar:
Condition
(a) For bars in beams or columns with 1.0
a minimum cover not less than
specified the Code:
(b) Bars in beams or columns with 1.0
transverse reinforcement satisfying tie
requirements of Code:
(c) Bars n beams of columns with 1.0
clear spacing of not less than 3db:
(d) Bars in the inner layer of slabs or 1.0
wall reinforcement and with clear
spacing of not less than 3db:
(e) Any bars with cover of not less 1.0
than 2db and with clear spacing of not
less than 3db:
(f) For bars with cover db or less or 2.0
with clear spacing of 2db or less:
(g) For bars not included in items a to 1.4
f:
(h) For 32 mm bars and smaller with clear spacing not less than
5db and with cover from face of member to edge bar, measured
in the plane of the bars, not less than 2.5db, the factors in items
a to g may be multiplied by 0.8
(i) Top reinforcement: 1.3
(j) Lightweight aggregate concrete: 1.3
(k) Lightweight aggregate when fct is
specified: f' c
(1.8 fct )
(l) For reinforcement enclosed within special reinforcement not
less than 6 mm diameter and not more than 100 mm pitch,
within 12 mm or larger circular ties spaced at not more than 100
mm on center or within 12 mm larger ties or stirrups spaced not
more than 100 mm on center and arranged such that alternate
bars such have support provided by the corner of a tie hoop with
an included angle of not more than 135 the factors in items a
through g may be multiplied by 1.8.
(m) Excess Reinforcement. As required
Development length may be reduced As provided
where reinforcement in a flexural
member is more than required by
analysis by a factor.
0.24 db fy
Idb = 0.04 db fy Eq. 2 48
f'c
Mn
Ld + Ia Eq. 2 49
Vu
Where:
Mn is nominal moment strength assuming all reinforcement
at the section to be stressed to the specified yield strength
fy
Vu is factored shear force at the section (at point of support
for simple support and at point of inflection for continuous
beam)
Ia at a support shall be embedment length beyond center of
support
Ia at a point of inflection shall be limited to the effective
depth of member or 12db, whichever is greater.
Mn
Ld 1.3 + Ia Eq. 2 50
Vu
Hooks
Lap Splices
Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than 32 mm except
as provider by the Code. Bars larger than 32 mm lap splices in
flexural members shall not be spaced transversely farther apart
than 1/5 the required lap splice neither length nor 150 mm.
Splices in Tension
Classification of Columns
In general, columns are classified as short columns and long
columns if the height of the column is less than three times
P-Delta Moment
(a) Plain concrete pedestal this may be used only if the height
does not exceed three times the least lateral dimension.
Tied and spiral columns are the most common forms. Either
type may be circular, octagonal, square, or rectangular section.
Tied columns may also be L. T or other irregular shape.
Where = 0.70
Ag = gross concrete area = b x t
Ast = area of steel reinforcement
(Section 5.10.9)
l. Ast shall not be less than 0.01 Ag and Ast shall not be more than
0.60Ag.
ll. The minimum number of longitudinal bars is 4 for bars within
rectangular or circular ties, 3 for bars within triangular ties.
ll. Use 10-mm diameter ties for 32-mm bars or smaller and at
least 12 mm in size for 36 mm and bundled longitudinal bars.
(Section 5.7.10.5.2)
SPIRAL COLUMN
A f'c
s = 0.45 g - 1 Eq. 2 56
Ac fy
Where fy is the specified yield strength of spiral reinforcement
but not more than 415 MPa.
fy
tmin = D Eq. 2 59
8 Es
fy
tmin = b1 Eq. 2 60
3 Es
fy
tmin = b2 Eq. 2 61
3 Es
Radius of Gyration
r = 0.3 h Eq. 2 62
r = 0.25 D Eq. 2 62
EI/L of columns
= EI/L of beams
Eq. 2 64
For columns for which the slenderness ratio lies between 22 and
100, and therefore the slenderness effect on load - carrying
capacity must be taken into account, either an elastic analysis
can be performed to evaluate the effects of lateral deflections
and other effects producing secondary stresses, or an
approximate method based on moment magnification may be
used.
FOOTINGS
TYPES OF FOOTINGS
Column
Wall Footing
Footing
Wall Footing
Combined Footing
Column
Pile Cap
Footing
Footing
According the Code Section 5.15, the base area of footing and
the number of piles may be determined from unfactored forces
and moments transmitted by footing to soil or piles and
permissible soil pressure or permissible pile capacity.
q e = q a - c h c - s h s Eq. 2-76
Natural Grade
hs Soil, ys
Critical Section
Critical Section
a a/2
Short Side,S
Long Side,L
SHEAR IN FOOTINGS
qu
L
CL
d
1
Vc = f'c bw d Eq. 2-79
6
2 f'c
Vc = 1+ bo d Eq. 2-80
c 6
f'c
Vc = bo d Eq. 2 - 82
3
c
d/2 d/2
d
c
d c c+d
qu c+d
L
One-way shear will very often control the depths for rectangular
footings, whereas two-way shear normally controls the depth of
square footings.
Dowels
COMBINED FOOTINGS
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
Analogy of Prestressing
Row of books
lifted from the
table with the
application of
compressive force
at the end
Methods of Prestressing
Casting Bed
Stress Calculation
P e
P
b
d
e
P
General Equation:
P Pec Mc
f=- Eq. 2-83
A I I
P 6Pe 6M
f=- Eq. 2-84
bd bd2 bd2
For the second term of the equation use negative (-) to get the
stress at the bottom and positive (+) to get the stress at the top.
For the third term, use the positive (+) sigh if the bending
causes tension in the fiber and negative (-) if the bending
causes compression in the fiber.
Loss of Prestress
n PO
fS = n fC = Eq. 2-85
Ag
Where fs is the loss of prestress, fc is the stress in
concrete after transfer of stresses from the cables, n
is the modular ratio which is equal to Es/Ec, Po is the
initial cable stress, and Ag is the gross concrete area.
3. Creep of concrete - The gradual deformation of
concrete under stress causing a reduction of the
length of tendon.
The loss in cable stress due to creep can be
determined by multiplying the creep coefficient Ct by
nfc.
fS = C1 n fC Eq. 2-86
Factor 1
0.05
For fC > 30 MPa, 1 = 0.85 - (fC - 30) 0. Eq. 2-89
7
Minimum Reinforcement of flexural Members
f' C
AS min = bW d Eq. 2-90
4fy
1.4 bW d
and not less than Eq. 2-91
fy
f' C
AS min = bW d Eq. 2-92
2fy
f' C Acp 2
Eq. 2-93
12 Pcp
f' C Acp 2
Eq. 2-95
3 Pcp
Vu 2 Tu ph V 2f' C
+ c + Eq. 2-97
bw d 1.7 Aoh 2 bw d 3
2. For hollow sections:
Vu 2 Tu ph V 2f' C
+ c + Eq. 2-98
bw d 1.7 Aoh 2 bw d 3
Tu
Eq. 2 - 99
1.7 Aoh t
Tu Tn Eq. 2-100
At fyv
At = ph cot2 Eq. 2-102
s fyl
1 bw s
Av + 2At = Eq. 2-103
3 fv
411.7.5.3 Where torsional reinforcement is required
by section 411.7.5.1 the minimum total area of
longitudinal torsional reinforcement shall be computed
by:
Notations
ld=development length, mm
20 mm diameter and
25 mm diameter
smaller bars and
and larger bars
deformed wires
Clear spacing of
bars being
developed or
spliced not less
than db clear
cover not less Id 12 fy Id 3 f y
than db and = =
stirrups or ties
db 25 f'c db 5 f'c
throughout ld not
less than the
code minimum
or
Clear spacing of
bars being
developed or
spliced not less
than db
Id 18 fy Id 9 f y
Other cases = =
db 25 f'c db 10 f'c
Id 9 fy
= Eq. 2-105
db c + ktr
10 f'c
db
In which the term (c + ktr)/db shall not be taken greater than 2.5
412.3.4 The factors for use in the expressions for development
of deformed bars and deformed wires in tension in Sections
412.1 through 412.20 are as follows:
Reinforcement factor,
For horizontal reinforcement so
placed that more than 300 mm of
fresh concrete is cast in the = 1.3
member below the development
length or splice
For other reinforcement = 1.0
Coating factor,
For epoxy-coated bars or wires
with cover less than 3db or clear = 1.5
spacing less than 6db
All other epoxy-coated bars or
wires
For uncoated reinforcement = 1.0
However, the product need not be taken greater than 1.7
Reinforcement size factor,
For 20 mm diameter and smaller
= 0.8
bars and deformed wires
For 25 mm diameter and larger
= 1.0
bars
Lightweight aggregate concrete factor,
When lightweight aggregate
concrete is used, however, when
fct is specified, shall be = 1.3
permitted to be fc/1.8fct but not
less than 1.0
When normal weight concrete is
= 1.0
used
Where:
Atr = total cross-sectional area of all transverse reinforcement
which is within the spacing s and which crosses the potential
plane of splitting through the reinforcement being developed,
square millimeters.
fy d b
Idb = Eq. 2-106
4 f'c
Notations
Ag = gross of section, mm
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, mm
A1 = loaded area
A2 =maximum area of the portion of the supporting surface that
is geometrically similar to and concentric with the loaded area
bo = perimeter of critical section for slabs and footings, mm
bw = web width, or diameter of circular section, mm
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of
tension reinforcement, mm
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, MPa.
Es = modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, MPa
Fc = specified compressive strength of concrete, MPa
fc = square root of specified compressive strength concrete,
MPa
fct = average splitting tensile strength of lightweight aggregate
concrete, MPa
fs = permissible tensile stress in reinforcement, MPa
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, MPa
M = design moment
n = modular ratio of elasticity EEc
N = design axial load normal to cross section occurring
simultaneously with V; to be taken as positive for compression,
negative for tension, and to include effects of tension due to
creep and shrinkage
s = spacing of shear reinforcement in direction parallel to
longitudinal reinforcement. mm
v = design shear stress
vc = permissible shear stress carried by concrete, MPa
Vh = permissible horizontal shear stress, MPa
V = design shear force at section
= angle between inclined stirrups and longitudinal axis of
member
c = ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or
reaction area
w = ratio of tension reinforcement = As/bw d
= strength reduction factor
424.2 Scope
Joists:
Shear carried by concrete, Vc .. 0.09f c
424.6 Flexure
V
v= Eq. 2-107
bw d
bw s
Ay = Eq. 2-111
3 fy
(v - vc ) bw s
Av = Eq. 2 - 112
fy
(v - vc ) bw s
Av = Eq. 2 - 113
fy (sin + cos )
(v - vc ) bw d
Av = Eq. 2 - 114
fs sin
1
Where (v vc) shall not exceed fc.
8
1 2
Vc = 1+ f'c Eq. 2 -116
12 c
Dead Load
Live Load
The live load shall be that stipulated by the applicable code under
which the structure is being, designed or that dictated by the
conditions involved.
Impact
50 50 345 65 448
60 60 414 75 517
65 65 448 80 551
Corrosion 42 290 63 434
Restraint A242 46 317 67 462
High-Strength 50 345 70 483
Low-Alloy 42 290 63 434
A588 46 317 67 462
50 345 70 483
Quench & 100-
90 620 689-896
Tempered Alloy A514 130
110-
100 689 758-896
130
Table 3 2 Allowable Stresses for Structural Steel (Section 4.5)
NSCP
Types of Stresses & Condition Eq.
Specification
Tension:
Except for pin-connected members
1. On Gross Area Ft = 0.60 Fy A
2. On Effective Net Area Ft = 0.50 Fu B
For pin-connected members
1. On Net Area Ft = 0.45 Fy C
Shear:
1. On effective cross-sectional area
(except at reduced section, the
effective area of rolled and fabricated
Fv = 0.40 Fy D
shape may be taken as the overall
depth times the web thickness)
Compression members/Columns:
1. When kL/r < Cc
22 E 2
Cc = kL F
Fy r y
= 1- 2 F
kL kL 3 2Cc FS
5 3( r ) ( r )
FS = + - 3
8 8CC 8Cc
200bf Fb = 0.60 Fy M
Lb
Fy
When:
1,172,100 Cb
Fb = 0.6Fy
3,516,330 I 2 P
> r
T
For any value of L/rT
82,740 Cb
Fb = 0.6Fy
Note: Eq. Q is applicable only to Id
sections with compression flange A
f
Q
that is solid and approximately For channels bent about their
rectangular in cross section and major axis, Fb in compression
that has an area not less than the is determine from Eq. Q
tension flange
Bending on Weak Axis of I-shaped
Members, Solid Bars, and
Rectangular Plates
Doubly symmetrical I- and H-
shape members with compact
flanges continuously connected to
the web and bent about their
Fb = 0.75Fy R
weaker axis; solid round and
square bars; and solid rectangular
sections bent about their weaker
axes
Members with non-compact
Fb = 0.60Fy S
section
NSCP
Types of Stresses & Condition Eq.
Specification
Bending on Weak Axis of Box
Members, Rectangular Tubes and
Circular Tubes
Compact Section Fb = 0.66 Fy T
Non-compact Section Fb = 0.66 Fy U
Bearing
On contact area of milled surfaces
and ends of fitted bearing
stiffeners; on projected area of Fp = 0.90Fy V
pins reamed, drilled, or bored
holes
On projected area of bolts and
Fp = 1.50Fu W
rivets in shear connections.
Gross area
For angles, the gross width shall be the sum of the widths of the
legs less the thickness.
Net Area
s2 / 4g Eq. 3 1
g1
B
g2 p
S2
2
S
An = B - Holes + t Eq. 3-2
4g
t = 10
90
80
t = 10
S = 100
g = 90 + 80 10 = 160
4. The critical net area An of the part is obtained from the
chain which gives the least net width.
5. In determining the net area across plug or slot welds,
the weld metal shall not be considered as a adding to
the net area.
Ae = U A n Eq. 3 4
Ae = U Ag Eq. 3 4
Riveted and bolted splice and gusset plates and other connection
fitting subject to tensile force shall be designed in accordance
with the provisions of Sect. 4.5.1.1, where the effective net area
shall be taken as the actual net area, except that, for the purpose
of design calculations, it shall not be taken a greater than 85
percent of the gross area.
DESIGN OR ANALYSIS OF RIVETED OR BOLTED AXIALLY
LOADED TENSION MEMBERS
(CONNECTIONS)
Hole + 1.6mm
`
(Typ.)
W P
t t
Gross Area Net Area
Ag An 0.85 Ag
Gross Area, Ag = W x t
Net Area, An = [W - (holes+1.6)] x t 85% Ag
Tearing
e Py
c b Px
Px
Yp
d a
Px PDx
Py
R
Py Px
Direct Load PDy = & PDx = Eq. 3 6
n n
Moment T = Pe = Py Xp + Px Yp Eq. 3 7
Ty
Px = Eq. 3 8
(x2 + y2 )
Tx Eq. 3 9
Py =
(x2 + y2 )
2
Total Load, R = (Px + PDx )2 + Py + PDy Eq. 3 10
Where n = number of rivets
x = x-coordinate of the rivet
y = y-coordinate of the rivet
Px & Py = load due to moment alone
PDx & PDy = load due to axial force alone (direct load)
If the rivets are equidistant from the centroid of the rivet group
such as those shown below:
P
P
P
P P
P d P
P
dP
c d
c
P
T
T
P
P
P P
(P X d) n =T
T
Load due to moment alone, P = Eq. 3 - 11
nxd
WELDED CONNECTION
GROOVE WELDS
FILLET WELDS
Effective Area
The effective area of groove welds shall be based on the
following:
1. The effective area of fillet welds shall be taken as the
effective length times the effective throat thickness.
2. The effective length of fillet welds, except fillet welds in holes
and slots, shall be the overall length of full-size fillets,
including returns.
3. The effective throat thickness of a fillet weld shall be the
shortest distance from the root of the joint to the face of the
diagrammatic weld, except that for fillet welds made by the
submerged arc process, the effective throat thickness shall
be taken equal to the leg size for 10mm and smaller fillet
welds, and equal to the theoretical throat plus 3 mm for fillet
welds larger than 10 mm.
4. For fillet welds in holes and slots, the effective length shall
be the length of the centerline of the weld along the center
of the lane through the throat. In the case of overlapping
fillets, the effective area shall not exceed the nominal cross-
sectional area of the hole slot in the plane of the faying
surface.
Limitation of Fillet Welds
1. The minimum size of fillet welds shall be as shown in
Table 3 6. Minimum weld size is dependent upon the
thicker of the two parts joined, except that the weld size
need not exceed the thickness of the thinner part. For this
exception particular case shall be taken to provide
sufficient preheat for soundness of the weld. Weld sizes
larger than the thinner art joined are permitted if required
by calculated strength. In the as-welded condition, the
distance between the edge of the base metal and the toe
of the weld may be less than 1.6 mm provided the weld
size is clearly verifiable.
Effective Area
The effective shearing area of plug and slots welds shall be
considered as the nominal cross-sectional area of the hole or
slot in the plane of the faying surface.
COMBINATION OF WELDS
BALANCING WELD
L1
a
P
L2
P = 0.707 t L Fv Eq. 3 14
L = L 1 + L2 Eq. 3 15
L 1 x a = L2 x b Eq. 3 16
L1
a
L3 c P
L2
P = 0.707 t L Fv Eq. 3 17
L = L 1 + L2 + L 3 Eq. 3 18
L 1 x a = L2 x b = L 3 x c Eq. 3 19
F
Direct Load, PD = L
Eq. 3 20
Moment, T = F x e Eq. 3 21
Ty
Px = Eq. 3 22
J
Tx
Py = Eq. 3 23
J
L2
J = L + XG +YG 2 2
Eq. 3 24
12
N
Where PD = direct load in
mm
N
Px & Py = load due to moment in
mm
L=length of each weld, mm
e = eccentricity, mm
Eulers Stress
For Hinged-Ended Columns:
2 EI
Euler critical load, P = Eq. 3 26
L2
2 E
Euler critical stress, Fa = (Lr)2
Eq. 3 27
42 EI
Euler critical load, P = Eq. 3 28
L2
42 E
Euler critical stress, Fa = (Lr)2
Eq. 3 29
NSCP/AISC Specifications
22 E
Cc = Eq. 3 30
Fy
Buckled shape of
column is shown
by dashed line
(KLr)2 Fy
Fa = 1 - 2
Eq. 3 31
2Cc FS
5 3 (K L r) (K L r)3 Eq. 3 32
FS = + - 3
3 8 Cc 8 Cc
When KL/r > Cc (long column)
12 2 E
Fs = Eq. 3 33
23 (KLr)2
1
Fa = L Fa [by Eq. 3-31 or Eq. 3-33] Eq. 3 34
1.6- 200 r
bf 170
Width-thickness ratio, Eq. 3 35
2tf Fy
d 1680
Depth-thickness ratio, Eq. 3 36
tw Fy
Fb =0.66 Fy Eq. 3 37
200 bf
Eq. 3 38
Fy
137,900
(dAf ) Fy
Eq. 3 39
bf
Fb = Fy 0.79-0.000762 Fy Eq. 3 40
2tf
Fb =0.60 Fy Eq. 3 41
Fb =0.60 Fy Eq. 3 42
703,270 Cb L 3,516,330 Cb
When
Fy rT Fy
2 Fy (IrT )2
Fb = - Fy 0.60 Fy Eq. 3 43
3 10.55 x 106 Cb
Use the larger value of Eq. 3-45 and Eq. 3-43, but shall be
less than 0.60 Fy.
L 3,516,330 Cb
When >
rT Fy
1,172,100
= ( )2
0.60 Eq. 3 44
Use the larger value of Eq. 3-45 and Eq. 3-43, but shall be
less than 0.60 Fy.
82,740
= 0.60 Eq. 3 45
Where:
bf = flange width, mm
tf = flange thickness, mm
d = depth, mm
tw = web thickness, mm
Af = area of compression flange = bf tf (mm2)
I = distance between cross-sections braced against twist and
lateral displacements of the compression flange mm
rT = radius of gyration of the section comprising the
compression flange plus 1/3 of the compression web area
taken about an axis in the plane of the web mm
Cb = 1.75 +1.05 (M1 M2 ) + 0.3 (M1 M2 )2 2.3
M1 = smaller end moment; M2 = larger end moment
M1 M2 = (+) for reversed curvature
M1 M2 = (-) for single curvature
Cb = unity (1) if the moment within the unbraced length is
larger than M1 or M2. For example the simply supported
beam.
Allowable Stress on Weak Axis Bending of I Shaped Members,
Solid Bars and Rectangular Plates
See Equations R & S in Table 3 2
h 998
When , the allowable shear stress on the overall depth
tw Fy
time the web thickness (d tw) is:
Fv =0.40 Fy Eq. 3 46
V
or 0.40 Fy Eq. 3 47
dtw
h 998
When , the allowable shear stress on the clear distance
tw Fy
between flanges times the web thickness, h tw is:
Fy
Fv = Cv 0.40 Fy Eq. 3 48
2.89
V Fy
or 0.40 Fy Cv Eq. 3 49
h tw 2.89
Where:
310,264 kv
Cv = when Cv is less than 0.80
Fy (htw )2
500 k
F when Cv is more than 0.80
v
Cv =
htw y
5.34
kv = 4.00+ (a when a/h is less than 1.0
h)2
4.00
kv = 5.34+ (a when a/h is more than 1.0
h)2
tw = thickness of web, mm
a = clear distance between transverse stiffeners, mm
h = clear distance between flanges at the section under
investigation, mm
h = d-2tf
d = overall depth of the beam, mm
COMBINED STRESSES
fa fbx fby
+ + 1 Eq. 3 51
0.60Fy Fbx Fby
When fa/Fa 0.15, Eq. 3-52 is permitted in lieu of Eq. 3-50 and
Eq. 3-51.
fa fbx fby
+ + 1 Eq. 3 52
Fa Fbx Fby
Where:
Fa = allowable axial compressive stress if axial force alone
existed MPa
Fb = allowable compressive bending stress if bending moment
alone existed
12 2
= = Euler stress divided by a factor of safety,
23 ( )2
MPa (In the expression for Fe Ib is the actual unbraced
length in the plane of bending and rb is the corresponding
radius of gyration. K is the effective length factor in the
plane of bending). As in the case of Fa, Fb and 0.60 Fy, Fe
may be increased 1/3.
fa = computed axial stress, MPa
fb = computed compressive bending stress at the point under
consideration, MPa
Cm = a coefficient whose values is as follows:
1. For compression members in frames subject to joint
translation (sidesway), Cm = 0.85
2. For rotationally restrained compression members in
frames braced against joint translation and not subject
to transverse loading between their supports in the
plane of bending.
M1
Cm =0.6-0.4 but not less than 0.4
M2
When M1/M2 is the ratio of the smaller to larger
moments at the ends of that portion of the member
unbraced in the plane of bending under consideration.
M1/M2 is positive when the member is bent in reverse
curvature, negative when bent in single curvature.
3. For compression members in frames braced against
joint translation in the plane of loading and subjected to
transverse loading between their supports, the value of
Cm may be determined by rational analysis. However,
in lieu of such analysis, the following values may be
used:
a. For members whose ends are restrained
Cm = 0.85
b. For members whose ends are unrestrained
Cm = 1.0
Axial Tension and Bending
fa fbx fby
+ + 1 Eq. 3 53
Ft Fbx Fby
COMPOSITE BEAMS
Shear Connectors
and Vh = As Fy 2
For unstiffened elements, which are supported along one edge only, parallel to the
direction of compression force, the width shall be taken as follows:
1. For flanges of I-Shaped members and tees, b is the full nominal width.
2. For legs of angles and flanges of channels and zees, b is the full nominal
dimension.
3. For plates, b is the distance from the free edge to the first row of fasteners or
line of welds.
4. For stems of tees, d is the full nominal depth.
For stiffened elements, i.e., supported along two edges parallel to the direction of the
compression force the width shall be taken as follows:
1. For webs of rolled, built-up or formed sections, h is the clear distance between
flanges.
2. For webs of rolled, built-up or formed sections, d is the full nominal depth.
3. For flanges or diaphragm plates in built-up section, b is the distance between
adjacent lines of fasteners or lines of welds.
4. For flanges of rectangular hallow structural sections, b is the clear distance
between webs less the inside corner radius of each side. If the corner radius is
not known, the flat width may be taken as the total section width minus three
times the thickness.
For tapered flanges of rolled sections, the thickness is the nominal value halfway
between the free edge and the corresponding face of the web.
Width Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios
Description of Element Thickness
Compact Non Compact
Ratio
Flanges of I-Shaped rolled beams
b/t 170Fy 250Fy
and channels in flexure
Flanges of I-Shaped of welded
b/t 170Fy 170Fy kec
beams in flexure
Outstanding legs if pairs of angels of
continuous contact; angels or plates
projecting from rolled beams or b/t NA 250Fy
columns; stiffeners on plate girders
h/tw -- 1995Fy
Webs in combined flexural and axial For fa Fy 0.16
compression 1680 fa
1-3.74
Fy Fy
d/tw For fa Fy 0.16 --
675Fy
h/tw -- 1995Fy
Circular hallow sections in axial
D/t 22,750Fy --
compression
Circular hallow section in flexure
D/t 22,750Fy --
Width Limiting Width-Thickness Ratios
Description of Element Thickness
Compact Non Compact
Ratio
Stems of tees d/t NA 333Fy
Unstiffened elements simply
Supported along one edge, such as
legs of single-angle struts, legs of
b/t NA 200Fy
double angle struts with separators
and cross or star-shaped cross
sections
Flanges of square and rectangular
box and hallow structural sections of
uniform thickness subject to
b/t 500Fy 625Fy
bending or compression; flange
cover plates and diaphragm plates
between lines of fasteners or welds.
a For hybrid beams, use the yield strength of the flange F instead of F
yf y
b Assumes net area of plate at widest hole.
c For design of slender section that exceed the non-compact limits See Section 502.6.2.2.
d See also Section 506.4.1
e = 4.05( )0.46 if h/t > 70, otherwise k = 1.0
c
WEB CRIPPLING
R
N+k
k
Toe of Fillet
k
tw
N + 2k
R
1992 NSCP
For Interior Loads
R
(N+2k) tw
0.75 Fy Eq. 3 56
R
(N+k) tw
0.75 Fy Eq. 3 57
2001 NSCP
R
(N + 5k) tw
0.66 Fy Eq. 3 58
R
(N + 2.5k) tw
0.66 Fy Eq. 3 59
Web Crippling
N t 1.5
R=177.2 tw 2 1 + 3 w Fyw tf tw Eq. 3 60
d tf
N t 1.5
R=89.3 tw 2 1 + 3 w Fyw tf tw Eq. 3 61
d tf
Where Fyw = specified minimum yield stress of beam web MPa
d = overall depth of the member, mm
tf = flange thickness, mm
N = bearing length (not less than N for end reactions)
BEARING PLATES
A2
A1
Fp = 0.75 Fy Eq. 3 62
Toe of Fillet
Base Plate
Thickness of plate:
3 fp n2
t= Eq. 3 63
Fb
Load
fb = Eq. 3 64
Bearing Area of Plate
Where fp = actual bearing stress
Fb = allowable bending stress of plates = 0.75 Fy
Concrete
d 0.95d
b
Thickness of plate:
3 fn n2
t= Eq. 3 65
Fb
Y1 Plastic NA
Y2
A2 = A1
Z = Ay = A1 y1 + A2 y2 + Eq. 3 66
bd2
For rectangular section, Z = Eq. 3 67
4
Mp = Fy Z Eq. 3 68
Shapes Factor
Z MP
SF = = Eq. 3 69
S ME
Definition
Blocked Diaphragm is diaphragm in which all sheathing edges
not occurring on framing members are supported on framing
members are supported on and connected to blocking.
Convention Light-Frame Construction is a type of construction
whose primary structural elements are formed by a system of
repetitive wood-framing members.
Diaphragm is a horizontal or nearly horizontal system acting to
transmit lateral forces to the vertical resisting elements when
the term diaphragm is used, it includes horizontal bracing
systems.
Fiberboard is a fibrous-felted homogeneous panel made from
lignocellulosic fibers (usually wood or crane) having a density
of less than 497kg/m3 but more than 160 kg/m3.
Glued Built-Up Members are structural elements, the sections
of which are composed of built-up lumber, wood structural
panels or wood structural panels in combination with lumber,
all parts bonded together with adhesive.
Grade (Lumber), the classification of lumber in regard to strength
and utility in accordance with the grading rules of an approved
lumber grading agency.
Hardboard is a fibrous-felted, homogeneous panel made from
lignocellulosic fibers consolidated under heat and pressure in
a hot press to a density not less than 497 kg/m3.
Nominal Size (Lumber), the commercial size designation of
width and depth, in standard sawn lumber grades, somewhat
larger than the standard net size of dressed lumber. In
accordance to Philippine National Standards (PNS).
Normal Loading, a design load that stressed a member or
fastening to the allowable stress tabulated in this chapter. This
loading may be applied for the remainder of the life of the
member or fastening.
Particleboard is a manufactured panel product consisting of
particles of wood fibers bonded together with synthetic resins
or other suitable bonding system by as bonding process, in
accordance with approved nationally recognized standard.
Plywood is a panel of laminated veneers conforming to
Philippine National standards (PNS) Construction and
Industrial Plywood and UBS Standard 23-3, Performance
Standard for Wood-based Structural-User Panels.
Rotation is the torsional movement of a diaphragm about a
vertical axis.
Sub diaphragm is a portion of a larger wood diaphragm
designed to anchor and transfer local forces to primary
diaphragm struts and the main diaphragm.
Treated Wood, is wood treated with an approved preservative
under treating and quality control procedures.
Wood on Natural Resistance to decay or Termites is the
heartwood of the species set forth below. Corner sapwood is
permitted on 5 percent of the pieces provided 90 percent or
more of the width of each side on which it occurs is heartwood.
Recognized species are:
Decay resistant: Narra, Kamagong, Dao, Tangile.
Termite resistant: Narra, Kamagong.
Wood Structural Panel is a structural panel product composed
primarily of wood and in meeting the requirements of the
Philippine National Standards (PNS). Wood structural panels
include all veneer plywood, composite panels containing a
combination of veneer and wood-based material and mal-
formed panel such as oriented stranded board and wafer
board.
Duration of Load
1
300 9
Cf = Eq. 4 1
d
Ie d
Cs = Eq. 4 2
b2
Unsupported Length, Lu
FLEXTURAL STRESS
When Cs 10
When the slenderness factor Cs does not exceed 10, the full
allowable unit stress in bending Fb may be used.
When Cs > 10 and Cs Ck
When the slenderness factor Cs is greater than 10 but does not
exceed Ck the allowable unit stress in bending Fb shall be:
1 C 4
F'b = Fb 1- s Eq. 4 3
3 Ck
0.438 E
F'b = 2
Eq. 4 4
Cs
Beam Span
For simple beams, the span shall be taken as the distance from
face to face of support, plus one half the required length of
bearing at each end; for continuous beams, the span is the
distance between centers of bearings on support over which the
beam is continuous
Flexure
Notching
Horizontal Shear
3V
fv = . 4 7
2bd
The actual unit shear fv shall not exceed the allowable for the
species and the grade as given in Table 4-3 adjusted for duration
of loading.
3V d
fv = . 4 8
2bd d'
Where: d = total depth of beam
d = actual depth of beam of notch
3V d
fv = . 4 9
2 A n dn
2 d-d'
V= Fv b d - ' e . 4 10
3 d
3V
fv = . 4 11
2bde
3V d
fv = . 4 12
2bde de
and the 50 percent increase in design values for shear in joints
does not apply.
Fc ' = 0.73 Fc . 4 13
For bearing less than 150mm in length and not nearer than 75mm
to the end of a member, the maximum allowable load per square
mm may be obtained by multiplying the allowable unit stresses in
compression perpendicular to grain factor given by:
Ib +9.5
Cb = . 4 14
Ib
Length of 150 or
13 25 38 50 75 100
bearing (mm) more
Factor 1.75 1.38 1.25 1.19 1.13 1.10 1.00
Lateral support
COLUMN DESIGN
Column Classifications
Buckled shape of
column is shown by
dashed line
FcE
Where =
Fc *
c = 0.8 for sawn lumber & 0.85 for round timber pile
KcE E'
FcE =
(Ie d)2
Fc* = tabulated compression design value multiplied by
all of the applicable adjustment factors
KcE = 0.3 for visually graded lumber
KcE = 0.418 for products such as machine stress rated
sawn lumber
Tapered Columns
Support conditions:
Large end fixed, small end unsupported.
a=0.70
Small end fixed, large end unsupported.
a=0.30
Both ends supported:
Tapered toward one end.
a=0.50
Tapered toward both ends. A=0.70
dmax - dmin
d = dmin + . 4 17
3
ft fb
+ 1.0 . 4 18
Ft ' Fb *
fb ft
and . 4 19
Fb **
Where: Fb* = tabulated bending design value multiplied by all
applicable adjustment factors except CF
Fb** = tabulated bending design value multiplied by all
applicable adjustment factor except CF
ft = allowable tension design value parallel to grain.
fb = actual unit stress for extreme fiber in bending
fc fbx
+ 1.0 Eq. 4-20
F'c F'bx Jfc
Ie d -11
J= . 4 21
K-11
E
K = 0.671 . 4 22
Fc
Where 0 J 1.0
1 + 0.62 Ie
CT = . 4 23
E0.05
F'c = Fc . 4 25
R
K = 0.671 CT . 4 26
Fc
4
1 Ie d
F'c = Fc 1- . 4 27
3 K
Long column (Ie/d K)
0.30 E CT
F'c = . 4 28
(Ie d)2
Fc Fc
Fn = . 4 29
Fc sin2 + Fc cos2
The loads given in Table 4-4 are for a joint consisting of three
members. The bolts are in double shear. The length of the bolt l,
is the thickness of the main member.
A wire nail driven parallel to the grain of the wood shall not be
subjected more than two thirds of the lateral load allowed when
driven perpendicular to the grain. Toenails shall not be subjected
more than five sixths of the lateral load allowed for nails driven
perpendicular to the grain.
Safe resistance to withdrawal
Common wire nails shall have penetration into the piece receiving
the point as set forth in the Table. Nails or spikes for which the
wire gauges or lengths are not set forth in the Table shall have a
required penetration of not less than 11 diameters, and allowable
loads may be interpolated. Design values shall be increased
when the penetration of nails into the member holding the point
is larger than the required by this item.
Allowable lateral design values for drift bolts and drift pins driven
in the side grain of wood shall not exceed 75 percent of the
allowable lateral design values for common bolts of the same
diameter and length in main member. Additional penetration of
pin into members should be provided in lieu of the washer, head
and nut on a common bolt.
Spike grids
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
X
=
mpv, X
n
Residual, v
Residual or deviation is the difference between any measured
value of a quantity and its most probable value,
v = X x
PROBABLE ERROR
v2
PEs = 0.6745
n-1
v2
PEm = 0.6745
n (n-1)
INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS
Sum of Errors
Precision
PEm
Precision =
mpv
Standard Deviation
The MEDIAN is the middle value when all data are arranged in
decreasing or increasing order
-5, 2, 2, 2, 3, 5, 7, 7, 12 (9 terms)
The MODE is the value that occurs most frequently. The value 2 occurs
three times, therefore, is the mode.
X- X
2
SD = variance =
n
MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE
Pacing
Distance measured
PF = m/pace
Average pace
Paces
Average pace =
no.of observation
Stadia Measurement
d s
D
b'
v
f+c
f
c
H
Where:
f/I = k = stadia interval factor (equal to 100 for most instruments)
S = stadia constant
f + c = stadia constant (equal to zero for internal focusing)
= angle of inclination of the line of sight
s
D=
2 tan ( )
2
For S = 2 m
1
D= = cot
2
tan ( )
2
CORRECTIONS IN TAPING
Temperature Change
e = Lo (T To)
Pull Correction
( P - Po ) Lo
e=
AE
w2 L3
e=
24 T2
h2
e=
2S
TD = MD + Error
Error = e x N
MD
N=
L1
e = error per tape length (+) if too long and (-) if too short
N = number of tape lengths
LT = length of tape
R R
By proportion of figures:
D Dh Dh R
= or D=
R R+h R+h
Correction , D = Dn - D
Approximate formula
h2 h
Correction, D = Dh 2 -
R R
h
Reduction Factor, k = 1 -
R
D = Dh x k
hcr = 0.0675 K2
y = 1000 K tan
LEVELING
HI = Elev. of A + BS
Elev. of B = HI - FS
Difference in elev. = FS - BS
h c
=
D R
Where: R = radius of curvature of the bubble tube
c = displacement of bubble from center, usually in
number of spaces
D = horizontal distance from instrument to rod
h = error in vertical reading
Error, E= e tan
Where:
e = angle of inclination of the telescope axis, usually in minutes
or seconds
= observed vertical angle of the object
E = error in horizontal angle in minutes or seconds
Where:
1 = first vertical angle
2 = second vertical angle
TRAVERSE
ERROR OF CLOSURE
For any closed traverse where the north and south latitudes are
not equal and not equal and the east and west departure are not
equal E
Error of Closure:
E = L2 + D2
Error of closure
Relative Error =
Perimeter of traverse
Angular Closure
The sum of the internal angles of a polygon (traverse) is given by
the rule:
= 180 (n - 2)
CL Length of course
=
|NLat - SLat | Perimeter of Traverse
CL Length of course
=
|EDep - Wdep | Perimeter of Traverse
If the sum of the East Departures is greater than the sum of the
West Departures, the correction is subtracted for East
Departures and added for West Departures and vice versa.
AREA OF CLOSED TRAVERSE
DMD Method
1
Area = Double Areas
2
DPD Method
1
Area = Double Areas
2
MISSING DATA
B
D
C
Dep
tan(Bearing) =
Lat
C
With reference to the figure, the missing data are length of side
a, and side e.
f a
= ; = _______
sin sin
+ + = 180 ; = _______
e a
= ; e= _______
sin sin
C
e F
a
=? f c Closing Line
E
=?
d D
Unknown Bearing
Shift side e to BF and solve the closing line f from polygon DCBF.
Shift side a to EF to form triangle DEF with three known sides,
and solve angles and . With bearing of closing side f known,
the bearings of side a and d can be solved.
5. Bearing of One Side and Length of One Non Adjacent
Side:
B
Unknown Bearing
a
b
A e
C
e F
a
=? f c Closing Line
=?
E
d D
Unknown Length
Shift side e to BF and solve the closing line f from polygon DCBF.
Shift side a to EF to form triangle DEF.
Solution:
The area of any irregular plane figure (such as the one shown)
can be found approximately by dividing it into a number of strips
or panels by a series of equidistant parallel chords (offsets) h1, h2,
hn the common distance between the chords being d
h1 h2 h3 h4 h5
d d d
d
Area = [h + 2( h2 + h3 +)+ hn ]
2 1
d
Area = h1 +2 hodd +4 heven +hn
2
AREA BY COORDINATES
1 X1 X2 X X3 X X1
Area = + 2 ++ n
2 Y1 Y2 Y2 Y3 Yn Y1
1 X1 X2 X3 X4 Xn X1
Area =
2 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Yn Y1
1
Area = [X Y X2 Y1 + X2 Y3 X3 Y2 + Xn Y1 X1 Yn ]
2 1 2
A 1 + A2
Vend area = L
2
PRISMOIDAL FORMULA
L
V= (A1 + 4 Am + A2 )
6
C
B
C
B
L
VPC = (C1 - C2 )(D1 - D2 )
12
Corrected volume
Vc = Vendarea - VPC
ROAD, Gg Ground, Gs
FILL
CUT
L
g
FILL + CUT
Gs L Gg L
L
HCUT + HFILL
L=
Gground - Groad
Truncated Prism
h3
h2
h1
hn
h
V=A
n
A = base area
h = corner height
n = number of corners
ASSEMBLY OF RECTANGULAR PRISM
h2 h2 h2
h1 h1
A A A A
h2 h4 h4
h4 h2
A A A A
h1 h2 h3 h4
A A
h2 h4 h2
A A
h1 h1
h1 + 2 h2 + 3 h3 + 4 h4
V=A
4
1
V= A1 + 2 A1 + An
2
d
V= A1 + 2 Aodd + 4 Aeven + An
3
SIMPLE CURVE
b
R-x O
L
I
T
PT
m
x
T P R
I/2
I/2
b
I
I/2
R O
PC
x = perpendicular offset from the tangent to the curve
= deflection angle from PC to any point P on the curve
=
2
x
tan =
b
Radius of Curve
Arc Basis 20 m
RD D
20 = R R
180
Chord Basis
20 m 10m
D
10 = R sin D/2
2 D
R
R R
LENGTH OF CURVE
RI
Lc =
180
20I
Lc = (using arc basis)
D
TANGENT DISTANCE
I
T = R tan
2
I
L = 2 R sin
2
EXTERNAL DISTANCE
I I
E = R sin - R = R sec - 1
2 2
MIDDLE ORDINATE
I I
m = R - R cos = R 1- cos
2 2
The minimum radius of curve so that a car can round the curve
at velocity v without skidding is:
e
v2
Rmin = in meter
127 (e + f)
IMPACT FACTOR
v2
If = tan(+ ) =
gR
COMPOUND CURVE
x y
I1 I2
PI I = I1 + I2
T1 + T2
x y
I1 I2
PCC Common Tangent
T2
T1 Lc2
Lc1 PT
PI
I2 R2
R1
I1
PC T1
A
Lc1 T1
R1
I1 PRC
R2
R1
I2
T2
Lc2
R2
B
T2
PT
I
PI ST
S
p
CS
Short tangent Spiral
Ic
Offset CT
Simple Curve
SC R
Ts
XC I
S
LS Ic
X R
S
YC Y Offset CT
L
Spiral
TS = tangent to spiral
SC = spiral to curve
CS = curve to spiral
ST = spiral to tangent
LT = long tangent
ST = short tangent
R = radius of simple curve
XC
YC SC
X
S
Y
LC
L5 Ls 3
Y=L- 2 2
and Yc = Ls -
40R Ls 40R2
Offset Distance from Tangent to Any Point on the Spiral
L3 Ls 2
X= and Xc =
6RLS 6R
L2 Ls
= and s = , radians
2RLs 2R
s
i= and is =
3 3
i L2
and = 2
i s Ls
Tangent Distance
Ls I
Ts = + (R + P) tan
2 2
Ic = I - 2s
Length of Throw
Xc Ls 2
P= =
4 24R
External Distance
I
E = (R + P) sec -R
2
D L
=
Dc Lc
0.036v2
Ls = ;v = velocity in Kph
R
e = tan
v2 m
tan ( + )= ; (v in & R in m)
gR s
0.0079v2
tan ( + )= ; (v in kph & R in m)
gR
0.0079v2
e= ;( v in kph & R in meter)
R
Role of Change of Centripetal Acceleration
v3 m
q= ;( ms3 , v in ,R & Ls in m)
RLs s
PARABOLIC CURVES
L
L/2 L/2
Back Tangent
Forward Tangent
a x
H
d g1 y g2
h1 v
Summit H
h2
PC PT
S1 S2
g1 g
A g2
s Grade Diagram
g1
From the grade diagram shown:
S1 L g1 L
= or S1 =
g1 g1 - g2 g 1 - g2
S2 L g2 L
= or S2 =
g2 g1 - g2 g 1 - g2
v=A
1
h1 = As1 = g S
2 1 1
1
h2 = As2 = g S
2 2 2
Other Formulas
L
H= g - g
8 1 2
a = (L2)g1 d = g1 x
=
2 (2)2
SYMMETRICAL PARABOLIC CURVES
S1 S2
PI
g1
g2
H
Common Tangent g3
Summi h2
h1
y
PT
L1/2 L1/2 L2/2 L2/2
PC
L1 L2
x
g1 A1 g3
g2
g1 - g2 L1 L2 L1
H= = g1 - g3
2L 2
h1 = h2 = H4
2H g1 L1 - g2 L2
g3 = g 1 - =
L1 L
Location of highest or lowest point of the curve
When L1g1 > 2H, the highest or lowest point is on the right side of
the curve
g 2 L2 2
S2 = and S1 = L - S2
2H
When L1g1 < 2H, the highest or lowest point is on the left side of
the curve,
g 1 L1 2
S1 = and S2 = L - S1
2H
SIGHT DISTANCE
The first two time intervals is called perception reaction time. Its
ranges from 2 sec to 2.5 sec. It depends on the alertness, care,
skill and vision of the driver, and weather.
D =v t , v in meters
vt
D= , v in kph
3.6
v2
BD = , v in m/s
2g (f + G)
v2
BD = , v in kph
2g (f + G) (3.6)2
Where f is coefficient of friction, G is the road grade (0 if
horizontal) and BD is the distance in meters.
v2 m
SSD = v t + , (v in , t in sec)
2g (f + G) s
v2
SSD = v t + (v in kph , t in sec)
2g (f + G) (3.6)2
This the shortest distance sufficient for a vehicle to turn out of its
traffic lane, pass another vehicle, and then turn back to its lane
safely without interfering with the overtaken vehicle and the
incoming vehicle which was sighted when the overtaking
maneuver started
Minimum PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
SIGHT DISTANCE ON HORIZONTAL CURVES
LC
S
Obstruction
When S < LC
S2
R=
8m
When S > LC
L (2S - L)
R=
8m
h1 h2
g1 g2
L
When S < L
AS2
L= 2
100 2h1 + 2h2
When S > L
2
200 h1 + h2
L = 2S -
A
When S < L
AS2
L= , ft or m
200 tan +H)
(S
For H = 2 ft & = 1
AS2
L= , ft
400+ 3.5S
When S > L
200 (H + S tan )
L = 2S - , ft or m
A
For H = 2 ft & = 1
400 + 3.5S
L = 2S - , ft or m
A
L = Length of Curve
S = sight distance
A = change in grade in percent = g2 g1
SIGHT DISTANCE ON VERTICAL SAG CURVE WITH
OBSTRUCTING OVERPASS
When S > L:
Sight Distance, S
Overpass (obstruction)
Line of sight
h1 Z h2
PC PT
C H
2S g2 - g1 - 8H
L=
g2 - g 1 g2
g1
H=Cz
Lengthhof+curve, L
1 h2
z=
2
When S < L:
S2 g2 - g1
L=
8H
H=Cz
h 1 + h2
z=
2
Where C is the vertical clearance between the sag curve and the
obstruction (underpass)
PAVEMENTS
RIGID PAVEMENTS
Joints
Construction Joints
Isolation Joints
Load transfer
When dowels are not used, joint depend solely upon aggregate
interlock for load transfer. Aggregate interlock is the mechanical
locking which forms between the fractured surfaces along the
crack below the joint saw cut. Reliance on aggregate interlock
without dowels is acceptable on low-volume and secondary road
systems where truck traffic is low and slabs are less than 8 inches
thick. Ordinarily, transverse joints with dowel bars provide better
load transfer than those relying strictly on aggregate interlock.
OLDERS THEORY
3W
Thickness at edge, t =
fcT
3W
Thickness at edge, t =
2fcT
3W
Thickness at center, t =
4fcT
PSI
log
4.2 - 1.5
W 18 = (ZR )(SO ) + 9.36 log (SN + 1)-0.20 +
log 1094
0.4+
(SN + 1)5.19
+2.32 log MR -8.07
Pavement
Stress, f1 Base
Stress, f2
W
t=
f
McLeods Method
= log
F P
K= , where F =
0.125 A
1.75 1
t = W -
CBR pt
Unit Load at 0.10 inch penetration
CBR = x 100
1000 psi
3 k
Stiffness Factor, S =
E
F
k= , where F = P/A
0.125
Where P = load in kg causing 0.125 cm settlement
A = area of standard plate (with 75 cm diameter)
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
D n nD
Us = = =
tave 1 tl
ul
1
ut = (u +u ++ un )
n 1 2
FLOW OR FLOW RATE
q = k us
DENSITY
SPACING OF VEHICLES
1000
Spacing = in meters/veh
k
uave
Spacing = , (km/veh)
q
Peak hour factor is the ration of the traffic flow of the highest
volume of traffic in one hour, based on highest five-minute volume
of traffic.
vehicles
Flow, q in
hour
PHF =
Highest volume every 5 min x 12
TRAFFIC INDEX
TI = 1.35 (EWL)0.11
n
EWL = (1+r) (Total annual EWL)
2
Total annual EWL = Sum of products of ADT & EWL
1000 v vehicles
Capacity = ;
s hr
s=vt+L
ACCIDENT RATE
No. of Accidents
Accident Rate =
No. of entering vehicles
N x 1,000,000
R=
ADT (t)(365)
N x 1,000,000
R=
ADT (t)(365) (L)
Properties of Fluid
Weight of Fluid
=
Volume
Mass of Fluid
=
Volume
Density of Gases
p
=
RT
Specific Volume, Vs
1
Vs =
Specific Gravity, s
fluid fluid
s= =
water water
VISCOSITY
= (Pascal-second or poise)
dVdy
= m2 s or stroke
4
p=
d
where:
= surface tension in N/m
d = diameter of the droplet in meter
p = gage pressure in Pascals
CAPILLARITY
d d
h
h
4 cos
h=
d
4
h=
d
Where:
h = capillary rise or depression
= unit weight
d = diameter of the tube
= surface tension
dp' p
E= = ( lbin2 or Pa)
-dvv v
v
Where:
dp' = change in pressure
dv = change in volume
v = volume
COMPRESSION OF GASSES
pvn = p1 v1 n = constant
pv = p1 v1
if there is no heat transfer to and from the gas, the process is
known as adiabatic.
p1 v1 k = p2 v2 k
k
p= or pV = k
V
p 1 V 1 = p2 V 2
p1 V 1 p2 V 2
=
T1 T2
Pressure Disturbances
EB
c= ( ms or fts)
where:
c = celerity or velocity of pressure wave in m/s or ft/s
EB = bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid in Pa or lb/ft2
UNIT PRESSURE
Variations in Pressure
p2 - p2 = h
Air Pressure = p
h1 Liquid 1
h2 Liquid 2
h3 Liquid 3
Pbottom
Pbottom = h + p =1 h 1 + 2 h 2 + 3 h 3 + p
e
c.g
c.g
F = pcg x A or F = h A
Ig h
e= =
Y
AY sin
D C
Fv
F
FH
c.g.
FH =pcg A
Fv = VABCD
F = FH 2 + Fv 2
tan = Fv FH
Where: FH = total force acting on the vertical projection of the
curved surface
Fv = the weight of imaginary or real fluid directly above
the curved surface
Note: For cylindrical and spherical surfaces, the total force F
always passes to the center of the circle defined by its
surface
DAMS
1m
X2
h X1
F
y W2 Toe
W1
Vertical
projection
Rx
of
submerged Heel Ry R
face
Assumed uplift pressure
diagram
z
B
Weight of dam, W = conc Volume
Hydrostatic force, F = pcg A = h A
Ry = Fv = W1 + W2 U
Total uplift pressure, U = w x voluplift diagram
Righting Moment
These are the moments about the toe causing rotation towards
the upstream side. From the figure shown,
RM = W1 x1 + W2 x2
Overturning Moment
These are the moments about the toe causing rotation towards
the downstream side. From the figure shown,
OM = Fy + U z
Ry
FSs =
Rx
RM
FSo =
OM
Location of R
Ry x = RM OM
Eccentricity, e
B
e= x
2
For e B/6:
Ry 6e
q= 1
B B
For e B/6:
2Ry
q=
3 x
BOUYANCY
VD
VD
BF
BF
body Sbody
VD = Vbody = V
liquid Sliquid body
STATICALLY STABILITY OF FLOATING BODY
S
Metacenter
Volume of M
wedge, v W
G x
Bo
D
BF L
B
vS
MBo =
VD sin
RM or OM = W (x) = W (MG sin )
B2 tan2
MBo = 1+
12D 2
Where B = width, D = draft
Metacentric Height
MG = MBo GBo
1
MBo =
VD
Horizontal Acceleration
a
tan =
g
ay
a ax
tan =
g
ah = a cos ; av = a sin
Vertical Acceleration
= 1
2 x2
y=
2g
dy 2 x
tan = =
dx g
Volume of Paraboloid
1
Volume = r2 h
2
Flow Rate
Continuity Equation
Q
1
3
2 Q
Incompressible fluid
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 =
A1 v 1 = A 2 v 2 = A 3 v 3 =
Compressible fluid
1 Q1 = 2 Q2 = 3 Q3 =
vD vD
R= =
v
ENERGY EQUATION
Total Energy of Flow
Where
v2
= velocity head (K.E.)
2g
= pressure head (P.E.)
Z = elevation head (P.E.)
ZB
A
ZA
Datum
E1 + HA - HE - HL = E2
DARCY-WEISBACH FORMULA
fL v2
hf = in ft or meter
D 2g
64 64
f= =
R v D
32 L v
hf =
g D2
v2 8 Q2 fL 8 Q2
= hf =
2g 2 g D4 D 2 g D4
0.0826 f L Q2
For S.I. units, hf =
D5
128 L Q2
hf = (for laminar flow)
g D4
MANNINGS FORMULA
1 2 1
S.I. units, v = R 3 S 2 , (ms)
n
1.486 2 1
English unit, v = R 3 S 2 ,(fts)
n
6.35 n2 L v2
hf = 3
(m)
D4
10.29 n2 L Q2
hf = 16
(m)
D 3
HAZEN-WILLIAMS FORMULA
English Units
ft
v = 1.318 C1 R 0.63 S 0.54 , v in , R in ft
s
ft3
Q = 0.4322 C1 D 2.63 S 0.54 , Q in , D in ft
s
S.I. Units
m
v = 0.849 C1 R 0.63 S 0.54 , v in , R in m
s
ft3
Q = 0.2785 C1 D2.63 S 0.54 , Q in , D in ft
s
10.67 L Q1.85
and hf = 1.85
C1 D4.87
Where:
R = hydraulic radius
S = slope of EGL = hf / L
C1 = Hazen Williams coefficient
MINOR HEAD LOST
Minor losses are due to changes in direction and velocity of flow,
and is expressed in terms of the velocity head at the smaller
section of the pipe in case of constrictions
v2
hm = K
2g
1 vn 2
hn = 2
Cv 2g
For horizontal pipes with uniform diameter, the head lost between
any two points is equal to the difference in pressure head
between the points.
P 2 - P1
HL =
H
HL = H
PIPIE IN SERIES
A 1 B 2 C 3 D
Q1 Q2 Q3
Q1 = Q2 = Q3
HL = hL1 + hL2 + hL3
PIPE IN PARALLEL
1 Q1
2 Q2
3 Q3
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
HL = hL1 = hL2 = hL3
EQUIVALENT PIPE
For a pipe or system of pipes (O), the equivalent single pipe (E)
is must satisfy the following conditions:
QE = QO
and HLE = HLO
ORIFICE AND TUBES
v = Cv 2gH
Q = C Ao 2gH
C = Cc x Cv
Value of H
Where
va = velocity approach
pu = pressure at the upstream side
po = pressure at the downstream side
UNSTEADY FLOW (VARIABLE HEAD)
Qi
If water flows into a tank at the rate of Qi and
at the same time leaves Qo, the time for the
level to change from h1 to h2 is h1
h2
h2 Qo
As dh
t=
Qi - Qo
h1
If Qi = 0 (no inflow)
h2
As dh
t=
Qo
h1
Qo = C Ao 2gH
2 As
t= H1 - H2
C Ao 2g
As1 As2 2 As
t= H1 - H2
As1 + As2 C Ao 2g
WEIR
General Formula
2
Q= C 2g L (H+ hv )23 - hv 2 3
3
or Q = Cw L (H+ hv )23 - hv 2 3
va 2
where hv = velocity head of approach
2g
C = coefficient of discharge
Cw = weir factor
Neglecting va:
2 2
Q= C 2g L H 3
3
2
or Q = Cw L H 3
Q =1.84 L(H+ hv )23 - hv 2 3
Neglecting va:
2
Q =1.84 LH 3
Contracted Weirs
2
Q = 1.859 L H 3
= 75.9637= 75 57' 50"
= 14.0363 = 14 2' 10"
8 5
Q= C 2g tan H 2
15 2
X
H
Y
Q = C K 2g H
K = x y
H2
As dh
t=
Qo
H1
2 As 1 1
t= -
Cw L H2 H1
OPEN CHANNEL
Open channels are conduits which fluid flows with a free surface
in an open channel flow, the hydraulic grade line is coincident with
the stream surface and the flow may be uniform or non-uniform.
Chezy Formula
Value of C
1. Manning (S.I.)
1 1
C= R6
n
2. Kutter (S.I.)
1 0.00155
+ 23 +
C= n S
n 0.00155
1+ 23 +
R S
MANNINGS FORMULA
SI Units
1 2 1
v= R 3 S 2 , ( ms )
n
1 2 1
Q = A R 3 S 2 , ( ms )
n
English Units
1.486 2 1
v= R 3 S 2 , ( ft s )
n
1.486 2 1
Q=A R 3 S 2 , ( fts )
n
UNIFORM FLOW
S = So
HL = So x L
L = length of channel
Normal Depth
The normal depth dn is the depth at which uniform flow will occur
in an open channel. Normal depth may be determined from the
following equation for discharge:
Chezy : Q = AC RS
1 2 1
Mannings: Q = A R 3 S 2
n
SPECIFIC ENERGY, H
The specific energy (H) is defined as the energy per unit weight
relative to the bottom of the channel. It is given by:
v2
H= +d
2g
Rectangular Section
b = 2d
d
R = d/2
b
Trapezoidal Section x
Top width = sum of sides
x = y1 + y2
y1 d y2
R = d/2
b
Note: The most efficient of all trapezoidal section is the half
regular hexagon
2x
x x
60 60
Triangular Section
90 V-notched 1
1 90
1 1
FROUDE NUMBER
The ratio of the inertia force to gravity force and is given by the
expression:
V
F=
gL
For rectangular channel L = depth of flow d.
V
F=
gd
Upper Stage
Flow is tranquil
Depth is called subcritical depth
Froude Number, F < 1
Lower Stage
Flow is rapid or shooting
Depth is called supercritical depth
Froude Number, F > 1
Critical Depth, dc
Critical depth is the depth at which for a given total specific energy
H, the discharge is maximum or it is the depth at which for a given
discharge Q, the total specific energy is minimum.
Q = A2g (H-d)
3 q2 2
dc = = H
g 3
Q
q=vd=
b
g n2
Sc = 1
dc 3
Critical Depth for Any Section
The critical depth for any section may be computed from the
formula
Q2 A3
=
g B
EGL, Slope = S
d1 v2/2g
SLo d2
v2 2 v 2
+ d2 1 + d1 H - H
2g 2g 2 1
L= =
So -S So -S
1 2 1
vm = R 3 S2
n m
2
n vm
S= 2
Rm 3
Where
vm = mean velocity between the two section 1 and 2
v1 + v 2
vm =
2
R +R
Rm = mean hydraulic radius = 1 2
2
HYDRAULIC JUMP
General Equation
Q2 1 1
2 A1 h
A2 h
1 =
g A1 A2
q2 d1 d2 (d1 + d2 )
=
g 2
F1 1
Length, L = 220 d1 tanh , in meter
22
Where q= v d = Q/b
F1 = Froude number at section 1
v1 2 v2 2
HL = + d1 + d2
2g 2g
(d2 - d1 )
HL =
4 d1 d2
HYDRODYNAMICS
Q
Dynamic force, F = v=Qv
g
Force against Fixed Curved Vane
V2
R RY
RX
V1
Q Q
Fx = (v1x - v2x ) ; Fy = v1y - v2y
g g
F =Fx 2 +Fy 2
u v
RY
RX v
v
u
v
u
v1 v'
v
v'
Q' Q'
Fx = (v1x - v2x ) ; Fy = v1y - v2y
g g
If the vane is frictionless, such that the jet leaves the vane with
relative velocity (u) in the direction of :
WATER HAMMER
ph/
Xo Normal HGL
x
B
A
GATE
v c
L
Consider the pipe line shown leading from a reservoir A to the
valve at B. If the value is suddenly closed, the lamina of the liquid
next to the valve will be compressed by the rest of the column of
liquid flowing against it. At the same time the walls of the pipe
surrounding this lamina will be stretched by the excess pressure
produce. The cessation of flow and resulting pressure increase
move along the pipe as a wave with the velocity c which is given
by the following equations:
EB
c=
For non-rigid pipes
EB
c=
E d
B
Et
The time for the pressure wane to travel from A to B and back
again is:
2L
T=
c
ph = cV
ph = cV
No matter how rapid the valve closure may be, so long as it is not
the idealized instantaneous case, there will be some distance xo
from the intake within which the pressure rise cannot extend all
the way to the reservoir intake:
2L v
ph =
tc
Where:
c = celerity of pressure wave in m/s
EB = bulk modulus of elasticity of the fluid in Pa
(for water at 30 C, EB = 2.25 x 106 Pa)
E = modulus of elasticity of the pipe wall in Pa
t = pipe thickness in mm
d = internal diameter of pipe in mm
tc = time of closure in seconds
L = length of pipe in m
v = velocity of flow in m/s
ph = pressure change due to water hammer in Pa
= density of the fluid in kg/m3
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
PROPERTIES OF SOIL
Basic Formulas
Wa =0
Va Air
Vv
Vw Water Ww
V
W
Vs Solids Ws
Void Ratio, e
Vv
e=
Vs
Porosity, n
Vv
n=
V
Ww
MC or w = 100%
Ws
Degree of saturation, S
Vw
S= 100
Vv
G MC = S e
Unit Weight (or bulk unit weight) of Soil Mass, m
W
m =
V
G + Se G + GMC
m = w = w
1+e 1+e
Ws G
d = =
V 1+e w
d
Ws =
1 + MC
m
d =
1 + MC
G +e
sat =
1+e w
Submerged or Buoyant Unit Weight, b or '
b or ' = sat - w
G-1
b or ' =
1 +e w
b G -1
icr = =
w 1 +e
OTHER FORMULAS
V
Volume of solid, Vs =
1+e
Se
Volume of water, Vw = V
1+e
Se
Weight of water, Ww = V w
1+e
1
Weight of solid, Ws = V Gm w
1+e
G + Se
Weight of soil, W = V w
1+e
m
Dry unit weight, d =
1 + MC
1 1
min - d
or Dr =
1 1
min - max
Where:
emax = void ratio of the soil in the loosest state.
emin = void ratio of the soil in densest state.
e = void ratio of the soil deposit (in-situ sate)
d max = dry unit weight in densest state.
d min = dry unit weight in loosest state.
d = dry unit weight in-situ state.
Designation Dr (%)
Very Loose 0 - 15
Loose 15 - 53
Medium Dense 35 - 70
Dense 70 - 85
Very Dense 85 - 100
CONSISTENCY
Liquid state
Water content increase
Liquid limit, LL
Plastic State
Plastic limit, PL
Semisolid state
Shrinkage limit, SL
Solid state
Soil Indices
30
40mm
Fall cone apparatus
60
80 gram cone
55
Water content (%)
50
LL= 45% MC
45
35
10 20 30 40 100
PP
Penetration (mm) logarithmic scale
2MC
PL =LL
M
log 2
M1
Cup Method to Determine Liquid Limit
Crank
Brass
Soil
Hard
The soil paste is placed in the cup, a groove is then cut at the
center of the soil pat with the standard grooving tool. By the use
of the crank-operated cam, the cup is lifted and dropped from a
height of 10 mm. The moisture content required to close a
distance of 12.7 mm along the bottom of the groove after 25
blows is defined as the liquid limit.
MC1 - MC2
Flow index, FI = N
log( 2N )
1
N 15 20 22 30 36
60
55
Water content (%)
Flow curve
50
LL= 44%
45
40
Figure flow Ncurve
= 25
35
10 20 30 40 100
Number of blows, N
Figure Flow Curve
This method may be used when only one test is run for the soil.
This is established by the U.S. corps of Engineers in 1949 and
was also adopted by ASTM under designation D-4318.
N tan
LL = MCN
25
Where:
N = number of blows in the liquid limit device for a 0.5-in groove
closure.
MCN =corresponding moisture content
tan =0.121 (but note that tan is not equal to 0.121 for all soils)
This method yields good results for the number of blows
between 20 and 30
Shrinkage Limit
m1 - m2 V 1 - V 2
SL = - w
m2 m2
Where:
m1 = mass of wet (saturated)soil
m2 = mass of oven-dried soil
V1 = volume of wet soil
V2 = volume of oven-dried soil
w = density of water
Shrinkage Ratio
1 m2
SR =
w V2
1
G=
1 SL
-
SR 100
LL - MC
Consistency Index, CI =
LL - PL
CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL
TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION
100
10
90
20
80
30
70
40
clay
60
Percent Silt
50
Percent Clay
50
60
40
70
silty clay
clay loam
30 Sandy clay
80
20 loam
90
Sandy silty loam
10
Loamy silt
sand 100
sand
0
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Percent Sand
UNIFIED SOIL
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
Major
Divisions Typical Names Classification Criteria
Well-graded
gravels and Cu = (D60/D10) > 4
GW gravel-sand Cc = (D30)2/(D10xD60)
Clean Gravels
5% to 12% pass No. 200 sieve borderline classification requiring use of dual symbols
Gravels 50% or more of coarse fraction
gravels and
Coarse-Grained Soils: More than 50% retained on No. 200 sieve
More than 12% pass No. 200 sieve GM, GC, SM, SC
Less than 5% pass No. 200 sieve GW,GP, SW, SP
no fines
Atterberg limits Atterberg
Classification on basis of percentage of fines
Silty gravels,
plot below A limits
GM gravel-sand-silt
Gravel with fines
SW Cc = (D30)2/(D10xD60)
Clean Sand
gravely sands,
Between 1 and 3
little or no fines
Poorly graded
sands and
passes No. 4 sieve
low to medium
plasticity, gravely
CL clays, sandy
clays, silty clays,
lean clays
Organic silts and
sieve
diatomaceous
MH fine sands or
silts, elastic silts
Inorganic clays of
CH high plasticity, fat
clays
Organic clays of
OH medium to high
plasticity
Highly Peat, muck, and
Visual-Manual identification, See ASTM
Organic PT other highly
Designation D2488
Soils organic soils
CH
40
30 Equation of A line
PI = 0.73(LL 20)
CL
20
CL - ML MH & OH
10
ML&CL
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
LIQUID LIMIT
70
CH
60
U-LINE OR
CL OH
50
OR
PLASTICITY INDEX
40 OL
30
A-LINE
20 MH
CL - ML ML OR
10 OR OH
CL - Inorganic; LL < 50;OLPI > 7; Atterberg limits plot on or
above A line
ML 0 - 10
Inorganic;
20 LL
30 < 50;
40 PI <504 or Atterberg
60 70 limits
80 plot
90 100
below A line
OL - Organic; (LL oven-dried)/(LL not dried) < 0.75;
LL < 50
CH - Inorganic; LL 50; Atterberg limits plot on or
Above A line
MH - Inorganic; LL 50; Atterberg limits plot below
A line
OH - Organic; (LL oven-dried)/(LL not dried) < 0.75;
LL is greater than or equal to 50
CL ML - Inorganic; Atterberg limits plot in the hatched zone
D60
Cu =
D10
(D10 )2
Cc =
D60 D10
Sorting Coefficient, So
D75
So =
D25
Where
D75 = diameter corresponding to 75% finer
D25 = diameter corresponding to 25% finer
To classify the soil using the tables below, one must apply the
test data from left to right. By process of elimination, the first
group from the left into which the test data fit is the correct
classification.
Where:
F200 = percentage passing No. 200 sieve
LL = liquid limit, PI = plasticity index
70
60
50
A-7-6
PLASTICITY INDEX
40
30
A-2-6 A-2-7
A-6 A-7-5
20
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS
DARCYS LAW
v=ki
Seepage velocity, vs = vn
Where
H
i= =hydraulic gradient
L
k = coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity, m/s or
m/day
n = porosity
Q =k i A
DETERMINATION OF THE COEFFICIENT OF
PERMEABILITY
Constant-Head Test
VL
k=
tAh
Where:
V = volume of water collected in time t
h = constant head
A = cross-sectional area of the soil
L = length of soil sample
T = duration of water collection
aL h1
k= ln
A(t2 - t1 ) h2
Where:
a = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
h1 = head at time t1
h2 = head at time t2
Effect of Water temperature on k
kT 1 T wT
= 2 1
kT 2 T wT
1 2
Where
kT1 , kT2 =hydraulic conductivities at temperatures T1 and T2 , respectively
T , T =viscosity of water at temperatures T1 and T2 , respectively
1 2
wT ,
1
wT = unit weight of water at temperatures T1 and T2 , respectively
2
h
Hydraulic gradient, i =
L
cos
k(cm / sec)=c(D10 )2
Where:
c = a constant that varies from 1 to 1.5
D10 = effective size, mm
k = 1.4 e2 k0.85
Kozeny-Carman Equation
e3
k = C1
1+e
en
k = C3
1+e
Where C3 and n are constants to be determined experimentally.
(kx )eq H = kx z
H z
=
(kz )eq kz
H z1 2
= + + +
(kz )eq kz1 kz2 kzn
FLOW THROUGH LAYERS OF AQUIFERS
keq (H) = k1 H1 + k2 H2
Flow per unit width, q = keq i a
D1 - D2 D1 + D2
i= ;a= (1)
L 2
L L 1 L2
= +
keq k1 k2
Flow per unit width, q = keq i a
D1 - D2 D1 + D2
i= ;a= (1)
L 2
HYDRAULIC OF WELLS
GRAVITY WELL
R2
Drawdown
Cone of
H2 depression
H1
Bottom of well
Figure: Gravity well
kh2 2 - h1 2
Q=
ln(R2 R1 )
Artesian Well
2kt( h2 - h1 )
Q=
ln(R2 R1 )
Where:
h1, h2, R1, R2 are in meters
k = coefficient of permeability
Q = discharge in m3 / hr
R2
R1
h2
h1
Confined t
Bottom of well
Figure: Artesian
Flow Nets
1 10
Flow line
2 9
3 8
Equipotential line 7
4
5 6
Flow nets
Nf
q =kH
Nd
Where:
K = coefficient of permeability
H = head
Nf = number of flow channels
= number of flow lines minus 1
Nd = number of equipotential (pressure) drops
= number of equipotential line minus one
Nf/Nd is called the shape factor
If the soil is anisotropic
Nf
q =H kx kz
Nd
STRESSES IN SOIL
p E = p T - pw
p w = w hw
Total Stress, pT
pE = pT + pw
STRESS IN SOIL WITHOUT SEEPAGE
h4
h1 A
Water table h2
h5
1 , 1 = 1
h2 B
H6
h3
2 , 2 = 2
C
At Point A:
Total stress, pT = m h4 +q
Neutral stress, pw = 0
Effective stress, pE = pT pw
At point B:
Total stress, pT = sat1 h5 + m h1 +q
Neutral stress, pw = w h5
Effective stress, pE = pT pw
or p E = b1 h5 + m h1 + q
At point C:
Total stress, pT = sat3 h3 + sat1 h2 + m h1 + q
Neutral stress, pw = w h6
Effective stress, pE = pT pw
pE = b2 h3 + b1 h2 + m h1 + q
STRESS IN SATURATED SOIL WITH SEEPAGE
Upward seepage
h
overflow h1
H1
A
soil
H2
B
inflow
At Point A:
pT = w H1
pE = w H1
pE = p T - pw = 0
At Point B:
pT = sat z1 + w H1
pw = w (z1 + H1 + h1 )
p E = p T - pw = b z 1 - w h1
At Point C:
pT = sat H2 + w H1
pw = w (H2 +H1 + h)
pE = pT - pw = b H2 - w h
The seepage force per unit volume of soil is:
F =i w
Downward Seepage
inflow
h1
overflow
H1 h
A
soil
Z1
H2
B
outflow
Hydraulic gradient, i= hH2
h1 = i z1 = i (hH2 )
At Point A:
pT = w H1
pE = w H1
pE = p T - pw = 0
At Point B:
pT = sat z1 + w H1
pw = w (z1 + H1 - h1 )
pE = p T - p w = b z 1 + w h 1
At Point C:
pT = sat H2 + w H1
pw = w (H2 +H1 - h)
pE = pT - pw = b H2 + w h
SOIL h2
h1
100% Degree of
Saturation (%)
C
h2 =
eD10
The pore water pressure, pw, at a point in the layer of soil fully
saturated by capillary rise is:
pw = -w h
pw = -S w h
Capillary S 1, 2 , e A h
rise WT h3
B
Ssat= 1 3 S=1
h4
At point A:
Total stress, pT = 1 h1 + 2 h2
Pore water stress, pw = -S1 w h3
At point B:
Total stress, pT = 1 h1 + 2 h
Pore water stress, = 0
At point C:
Total stress, pT = 1 h1 + 2 h+ 3 h4
Pore water stress, pw = w h4
COMPRESSIBILITY OF SOIL
H
H = Hs (1+ e); Hs =
1+ e
H
H ' = Hs 1+ e' ; H' = 1+ e'
1+ e
H = H - H'
H
H = H - 1+ e'
1+ e
1+ e - 1+ e' e- e'
H = H =
1+ e 1+ e
H(eo - e' ) e
H= =H
1+ eo 1+ eo
Where:
H = thickness of stratum
eo = void ratio before the vertical load is applied
e = void ratio after the vertical load is applied
Cc p
H = H log f
1+ eo po
Where:
H = thickness of stratum
Cc = compression index
eo = initial void ratio
po = initial vertical effective soil stress
pf = final vertical effective soil stress
pf = po +p
When pf < pc
Cs p
H = H log f
1+ eo po
When pf > pc
Cs p Cc p
H = H log c + H log f
1+ eo po 1+ eo pc
Where:
Cs = swell index
pc = preconsolidation pressure
pc
OCR =
po
Where:
pc = preconsolidation stress (past maximum vertical effective stress)
po = overburden effective stress (concurrent vertical effective stress)
Skempton:
For remolded clay:
Cc = 0.007(LL - 7%)
For undisturbed clay:
Cc = 0.009(LL - 10%)
Rendon-Herreo:
1+ eo 2.38
Cc = 0.141 G1.2
G
Nishida:
All clays
1 1
Cs C to C
5 c 10 c
LL%
Cs =0.0463 G
100
SETTLEMENT FROM SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION
SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION CAN BE CALCULATED AS:
t2
Hs = C' H log
t1
' C e
C = ;C =
1+ ep logt2 - logt1
Where
C =secondary compression index
e = change in void ratio
t1 =time for completion of primary settlement
t2 =time after completion of primary settlement,
where settlement is required
ep = void ratio at the end of primary consolidation
ep = eo - e
H = thickness of clay layer
Where:
p1 =increase in pressure at the top of the layer
pm =increase in pressure at the middle of the layer
pb =increase in pressure at the bottom of the layer
(Hdr )2
t= Tv
Cv
Where:
Hdr = one-half the thickness of the drainage layer if drainage
occurs at the top and bottom of the layer (two-way drainage)
Hdr = thickness of the drainage layer if drainage occurs at the
top of the bottom only (one-way layer)
Variation of Tv with U
U% Tv U% Tv U% Tv U% Tv
1 26 0.0531 51 0.204 76 0.493
2 0.00008 27 0.0572 52 0.212 77 0.511
3 0.00030 28 0.0615 53 0.221 78 0.529
4 0.00071 29 0.0660 54 0.230 79 0.547
5 0.00126 30 0.0707 55 0.239 80 0.567
6 0.00196 31 0.0754 56 0.248 81 0.588
7 0.00283 32 0.0803 57 0.257 82 0.610
8 0.00502 33 0.0855 58 0.267 83 0.633
9 0.00636 34 0.0907 59 0.276 84 0.658
10 0.00785 35 0.0962 60 0.286 85 0.684
11 0.0095 36 0.102 61 0.297 86 0.712
12 0.0113 37 0.107 62 0.307 87 0.742
13 0.0133 38 0.113 63 0.318 88 0.774
14 0.0154 39 0.119 64 0.329 89 0.809
15 0.0177 40 0.126 65 0.344 90 0.848
16 0.0201 41 0.132 66 0.352 91 0.891
17 0.0227 42 0.138 67 0.364 92 0.938
18 0.0254 43 0.145 68 0.377 93 0.993
19 0.0283 44 0.152 69 0.390 94 1.055
20 0.0314 45 0.159 70 0.403 95 1.129
21 0.0346 46 0.170 71 0.417 96 1.219
22 0.0380 47 0.173 72 0.431 97 1.336
23 0.0415 48 0.181 73 0.446 98 1.500
24 0.0452 49 0.188 74 0.461 99 1.781
25 0.0491 50 0.197 75 0.477 100 infinity
For U = 0 to 60%
2
U%
Tv =
4 100
t1 U1 2
Also, =
t2 U2 2
pwz
Uz = 1 -
pwo
The average degree of consolidation for the entire depth of layer
at any time is:
Ht
Uz =
Hmax
Where
pwz =excess pore pressure at time t
pwo =initial excess pore water pressure
Ht =settlement of the layer at time t
Hmax =ultimate settlement of the layer from primary consolidation
Coefficient of Consolidation
0.848(Hdr )2
Root time method, Cv =
t90
0.197(Hdr )2
Log time method, Cv =
t50
Where:
t90 =time for 90% consolidation t curve
t50 =time for 50% consolidation (logt curve)
av (eo - e)/ p
mv = =
1+ eave 1+ eave
e + eo
eave =
2
The hydraulic conductivity of the layer for the loading range is:
k = Cv m v w
IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT
1 - 2
H1 =pB I
E f
Where:
p = net pressure applied in kPa or psf
B = width or diameter of foundation in m or feet
= Poissons Ratio
E = modulus of elasticity of soil in kPa or psf
If =influence factor (dimensionless)
The influence factor for the corner of a flexible rectangular
footing given as:
1 1 + 1 + m1 2
If = m1 ln +ln m1 + 1 + m1 2
m1
HT = H +Hs + Hi
f = f()
f = C+ tan
Where C = cohesion
= angle of internal friction
Z
Y Mohrs
Failure
X Envelope
Mohr-Coulomb
Failure criteria
C
Normal stress
Shearing stress
Failure envelope
R
2
C Normal stress
O 3 1
= 45 +
2
1 = 3 tan2 45+ + 2c tan 45+
2 2
TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST (SINGLE TEST)
Cohesionless Soil
3 3
1
Mohrs
Strength 3 1
Envelope
Plane of
Failure
R max
2
O
3 Deviator stress
1
= tan = R sin2
R = 12 (1 - 3 ) = max
1 - 3
sin=
1 + 3
= 45 + 2
COHESIVE SOIL
= C + tan = R sin2
Where:
1 =Major principal stress at failure
3 =Minor principal stress at failure
= Shear stress
C = Cohesion of soil
=angle of internal friction
= angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane.
1
3 3
1
Mohrs
Strength 3 1
Envelope
Plane of
Failure
R max
2
O c
3 Deviator stress
1
Undrained
Condition
3 3 1 1
R2 R1
C2 C1
R2
C R1
X C1 3 C2
3 1 1
X
1 - 3 ' 1 - ' 3
R1 = ; R2 =
2 2
1 + 3 ' 1 + ' 3
C1 = ; C2 =
2 2
R2 - R1
sin= ; c = x' tan
C2 C1
R1
x' =x-C1 and x=
sin
=0
3 3
Cu
R
3 = 0 1 1
NORMAL FORCE
Loading plate
Shear box
Porous stone
Unit weight,
v
H/3
Ph
Earth Pressure at Rest
d
K o = (1 - sin)+ 5.5
dmin
Where:
d =actual compacted dry unit weight of the sand behind the wall
dmin = dry unit weight of t5he sand in the loosest state
Preconsolidation pressure
OCR =
Present effective overburden pressure
ph = K o H
F= 12 Ko H2
RANKINES THEORY
i i
Fa Fp
i i
Fa Fp
1 - sin
Ka =
1 + sin
1 + sin
Ka =
1 - sin
COULOMBS THEORY
+i
W Slip plane
+
Fa
H + Normal to
Sloping surface
H/3
a
W
+
H
+
Fp
H/3
p
cos2 (- )
Ka = 2
sin(+ ) sin(-i)
cos2 cos( + ) 1 +
cos( + ) cos(-i)
The inclination of the slip plane to the horizontal is:
sin cos
tana = +tan
cossin( + )
cos2 (- )
Ka = 2
sinsin( - i)
cos3 1 +
coscos( - i)
cos2 (- )
Ka = 2
sinsin( - i)
cos3 1 +
coscos( - i)
For wall with vertical back face supporting granular soil backfill
with horizontal surface (i.e. i = 0 and = 0), the above
equation yields
cos2 (- )
Ka = 2
sinsin( - i)
cos3 1 +
coscos( - i)
cos2 ( + )
Kp = 2
sin( + ) sin( + i)
cos2 cos( - ) 1 -
cos( - ) cos( - i)
sin cos
tanp = - tan
cossin( + )
For frictionless wall with vertical back face supporting granular
soil backfill with horizontal surface (i.e. = 0, i = 0 and = 0):
1 + sin
Kp =
1 - sin
= cr = 45 + 2
RETAINING WALLS
Back
Toe Heel
Counterfort
Fill
Heel
Surcharge, q (kPa)
Pc1 P1
H1 Fc1 F1
1, 1, Ka1, C1
P1
Yc2 Y2
Cohesion Surcharge
1- sin
Ka = (Rankine or Coulomb)
1 + sin
Cohesion:
pc1 = 2c1 Ka1 ; Fc1 = pc1 H1
pc2 = 2c2 Ka2 ; Fc2 = pc2 H2
Surcharge:
p1 = Ka1 q ; F1 = p1 H1
p2 = Ka2 q ; F2 = p2 H2
Surcharge, q (kPa)
F3
1, 1, Ka1, C1
P3
y3
2, b2, 2, Ka2, C2
F4
Fs F6
Y4 ys y6
P4 Ps P6
Soil Water
Soil:
p3 = Ka1 1 H1 ; F3 = 12 p3 H1
p4 = Ka2 1 H1 ; F4 = p4 H2
p5 = Ka2 b2 H2 ; F5 = 12 p5 H2
Water:
p6 = w H2 ; F5 = 12 p5 H2
, b,
F1
F3 F2 H , Kp
y3 Y1 C
Y2
P3 P2 P1
1- sin
Ka = (Rankine or Coulomb)
1 + sin
Cohesion:
p1 = 2cKp ; F1 = p1 H
Soil:
1
p2 = K p b H ; F2 = p H
2 2
Water:
1
p3 = w H ; F3 = p H
2 3
Total passive resistance, Fp = F1 + F2 + F3
Total passive moment, Mp = F1 y1 + F2 y2 + F3 y3
FACTORS OF SAFETY
Wsa
Fa
Wsp
Wwall
Fp
Toe
F
N
Resisting forces
FSS =
Active forces
For granular backfill, FSS 1.5
For cohesive backfill, FSS 2.0
Stabilizing moment
FSS =
Overturning moment
The force F at the base of the wall consist of the friction and
cohesion. It is given by:
F= N+Cb B
0.5c cb 0.75c
Ry = Fy
Ry x =RM-OM
B
e= -x
2
Where:
RM = righting or stabilizing moments
OM = overturning moments
When e B6
P
qmin
qmax
Ry
x eB/6 B/2
B
Ry 6e
qmin = - 1
B B
When e > B6
3x
P
M
qmax
Ry
2R1
qmax = -
3x
x = mH
Q (kN)
z = nH
z (kPa)
F
H
x = mH
Q (kN)
z = nH
F
H
4q m2 n
For m > 0.4; x =
H (m2 + n2 )3
0.203q n
For m 0.4; x =
H (0.16 + n2 )2
Where q is the line load (kN/m or lbs/ft), H is the height of wall
(m or feet), and x is the stress (kPa or psf)
The force F per unit length of wall caused by the strip load can
be obtained by approximating the area of the shaded portion
using trapezoidal rule or Simpsons one-third rule.
q (kN/m)
z L/2
H F
z (kPa)
2q
x = (-sin cos2)
H
The force F per unit length of wall caused by the strip load can
be obtained by approximating the area of the shaded portion
using trapezoidal rule, or Simpsons one-third rule, or by
integration of x with limits from 0 to H.
BRACED CUTS
Pmax = 0.65KaH
0.1 H
strut strut
Pmax = 0.65KaH
H 0.7 H
strut strut
0.2 H
strut strut
0.5 H
strut
Pmax 0.25 H
strut
4c
pmax = 1- H
H
0.25 H
strut
strut 0.75 H
strut
Pmax
Figure: Pecks pressure diagram for soft clay
pmax = - 4c
If 4 < Hc <6, the soft and stiff clay cases should both be
evaluated, the case that results in greater pressure should be
used when designing the bracing.
Since braced excavations with more than one strut are statically
indeterminate, strut forces and sheet piling moments may be
evaluated by assuming hinged beam action.
The strut load may be determined by assuming that the vertical
members are hinged at each strut level except the topmost and
the bottommost ones.
R1
R1
R2A
R2A + R2B
R2B
R3A + R3B R3A
R3B
R4
R4
DEFINITIONS
Foundation is that part of structure which transmits the building
load directly into the underlying soil. If the soil conditions at the
site are sufficiently strong and capable of supporting the
required load, then shallow spread footings or mats can be used
to transmit the load.
B B2
L
L
B1
B B1
Combined footing
Isolated footing
L
L B
Df
B
Mat or Raft
Wall footing
q u = K c c N c + K q q N q + K e B N
Where:
qu =ultimate bearing capacity
e =unit weigth of the soil in kPa or pcf
B = width of footing in meter or feet
N =factor for unit weight of soil
Nc =factor of soil cohesion
Nq =factor of overburden pressure
q = overburden pressure (effective stress)
Kc , Kq , K =constant
Long Footings
qu = cNc + qNq + 12 e BN
Square Footings
Circular Footings
Where:
e =unit weight of soil at base of footing in kPa or pcf
B = width of footing in meter or feet
c = cohesion of soil in kPa of psf
N =factor for unit weight
Nc =factor of soil cohesion
Nq =factor of overburden pressure
q = overburden pressure (effective stress) at base of footing
Df =depth of footing in meter or feet
2
C= c
3
2
tan = c
3
Long Footing (Strip Footing)
qu = cNc + qNq + 12 e BN
Square Footing
Circular Footing
qu
qall =
FS
Net Allowable Bearing Capacity:
qunet
qall(net) =
FS
qunet = qu - q
1
For example, on strip footing, qa =cd Nc + qNq + e Bn
2
Alternatively, if the maximum applied foundation stress,
(fa )max is known, the factor of safety can be computed by
replacing qa by (fa )max .
qu
FS = ;q < (fa )max
(fa )max - q
EFFECT OF WATER TABLE ON BEARING CAPACITY
The unit weight of soil used in the equations for bearing capacity
are effective unit weights. With the rising water table, the subsoil
becomes saturated and the unit weight of submerged soil is
greatly reduced. The reduction of this unit weight results in a
decrease in the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil.
W.T.
Df
b
dw
q = (Df - Dw ) + b dw
Unit Weight, e = b
Groundwater level at the base of footing
Df
W.T.
B
b
overburden pressure, q= Dt
Unit Weight, e = b
overburden pressure, q= Dt
When dw < B
e = b (1 + dw B) = approx.
When dw B
e =
Df
b
B
dw < B
W.T. dw B, use e =
e = b (1 + dw/B)
W.T.
MEYERHOFS EQUATION
Inclined load:
Nd = e tan tan2 45 + 2
Nc = Nq - 1 cot
N = Nq - 1 tan(1.4)
qa = 0.41Ncor a (kpa)
Ncor = CN Cw N
Where:
N = standard penetration number
CN =correction factor for over burden pressure
Cw = correction factor if the groundwater level is below the base of footing
AASHTO Formula
2h(Wr + Ar p)
Qu =
s +0.1
Navy-McKay Formula
eh E h
Qu = ,lbs
Wp
s 1 + 0.3
Wr
Eytelwein Formula
eh E h
Qu = , lbs
s + 0.1Wp Wr
Qu = Qf + Qb
Where:
Qf = skin/shaft friction or side shear (ultimate)
Qb = end bearing or point resistance (ultimate)
Qf = cu PL
Qb = fb Ab
q su
cu = u of
2 2
The Beta Method
Qf = peff PL
Qb = Nq peff Ab
b
SLOPE STABILITY
= c + tan
d = cd + tan d
c + tan
FSs = =
d cd + tan d
c
FSc =
cd
tan
FS =
tan d
Relation of FSs , FSc , FS :
FSs = FSc = FS
Consider 1 m strip
perpendicular to the
paper
W
NW TW
H
TR
NR
ROCK
R
Nw W cos
= =
Area of base (1)( Lcos)
Vcos LH(1)cos
= =
Lcos Lcos
= Hcos2
Tangential stress:
Tw W sin
= =
Area of base (1)( Lcos)
Vsin LH(1)sin
= =
Lcos Lcos
= H sin cos
c tan
FSs = +
Hcos2 tan tan
c tan
1= +
Hcr cos2 tan tan
tan tan c
=
tan Hcr cos2 tan
c 1
Hcr =
cos2 (tan -tan)
For soils with seepage and ground water level coincides with the
ground surface:
= c + ' tan
d = cd + ' tan d
Normal stress:
= sat Hcos2
Effective stress:
Tangential stress:
c ' tan
FSs = +
sat H cos2 tan sat tan
FINITE SLOPE WITH PLANE FAILURE (CULMANNS
METHOD)
a
u x
B C
W Tw
NW
H
TR
NR
A R
Normal stress:
1 sin( - )
= H cos
2 sin
+ d 1 1 -cos( - d )
cr = ; cd = H
2 4 sin cos d
This equation can also be written as
cd 1 -cos( - d )
=m=
H 4sin cos d
4c sin cos
Hcr =
1 cos( - )
SLOPES WITH WATER IN THE TENSILE CRACK:
When tensile cracks are developed at the top of the slope and
filled with water, the stability of such slope can be determined in
the following manner
D C
Zc Z F1
W w
B
Zw w
H Zc w
X
F2
A
Zc = depth of crack
Zw = depth of water in the crack
X = length AB = (H - Zc )/sin
= angle of failure plane
W = weight of soil wedge ABCD
F1 = force due to water in the crack
F2 = force due to pore water pressure along AB
1
F1 = w z1 2
2
1 1
F2 = w zc X = w zc (H -zC )sin
2 2
Resisting force to F:
R =cX + (W cos - F1 sin - F2 ) tan
Modes of failure:
Generally, finite slope failure occurs in one of the following
diagrams:
SLOPE FAILURES
SLOPE CIRCLE
TOE CIRCLE
BASE FAILURE
SHALLOW SLOPE FAILURE
MIDPOINT
CIRCLE
C D
Radius = r
Cd H
L2 L1
tf=Cu
W2 W1
F
A B Cd
E NR = (Normal reaction)
Cd
W1 = (Area of FCDEF)
W2 = (Area of ABFEA)
cu
FSs = =
cd cd
cd
cd = Hm or m =
H
cu
Hcr =
m
For saturated clay with slope of zero, the Taylor slope stability
chart can be used to determine the factor of safety against slope
failure. The Taylor chart makes the following assumptions:
(a) There is no water outside the slope
(b) There is no surcharge or tension cracks
(c) Shear strength is derived from cohesion only and is
constant with depth
(d) Failure takes place as rotation on a circular arc
c
FSs = No
'H
11
10
Shear strength, c H=dxH
Effective unit weight;
FIRM BASE
Factor of safety; FS = No = c/(H)
9
SLOPE CIRCLES
SLOPE CIRCLE
Values of d
BASE CIRCLE
0
8
0.1
0.2
0.2
FIRM BASE
0.3
0.3 0.4
7
0.5
0.5 BASE CIRCLES
1.0
6
m = 3.83 1.5 2
1.5
3
@ = 90 deg
0.5
5
TOE CIRCLES 5.53
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
70
60
and (deg)
50
40
30
50 60 70 80 90
(deg)
METHOD OF SLICES
1
nn =p
=1 (cbn +wn tan ) m(n)
FS =
nn=1
=p
Wn sin n
tan sin n
m(n) = cos n +
FS
Wn
Pn+1 n Nr = total force n
T
Tr P
n Nr
n
Force Polygon
Figure: Forces acting on the slice on the nth slice in the Bishop simplified
method of slices