A Wisdom East-West Book Grey Series

Jung's Psychology and

Tibetan Buddhism
Western and Eastern Paths
to the Heart
Radmila Moacanin
In her preface to this book, Radmila Moacanin
writes of coming into contact with the work of
Jung and Tibetan Buddhism very
spontaneously and in each c a s e a s the result of
a series of synchronistic events. Both systems
had an immediate and strong impact on me, and
I had an intimation that somehow they must be
related in a profoundly significant way, despite
the fact that they were rooted in very different
traditions and developed under very different
outward circumstances.'
Dr. Moacanin explores the similarities and
differences of these two remarkable systems
with authority and very much from the heart. She
touches on many of their major ideas: the
collective unconscious and karma, archetypes
and deities, the self and the I, the analyst and
the spiritual friend; mandalas, the union of
opposites and the middle way.
Within Tibetan Buddhism she focuses
especially on Tantra, which is directly concerned
with the process of the growth of consciousness
and spiritual transformation, the process that
w a s also the major concern of Jung, who called it
'the tremendous experiment of becoming
conscious ... which unites the most diverse
cultures in a common task.'
This is the thread that runs throughout the
book and gives it impetus and meaning, lifting
the ideas and methods of both the Buddha and
Carl Jung beyond mere theory into the realm of
experience.

Cover: M a n d a l a of the B u d d h a , M a h a m a y a ; Tibet, late

19th century, artist u n k n o w n . Photo: Hiroki Fujita;
courtesy of the Office of Tibet, Tokyo.

Radmila Moacanin was born in Belgrade,

Yugoslavia. S h e studied in Geneva, New York,
and Los Angeles, and earned a diploma in
Languages, an M.A. in United Nations and World
Affairs, another Master's degree in Social
Service, and received her Ph.D. in Psychology.
S h e was the recipient of a Fulbright fellowship to
Italy.
Dr. Moacanin had worked a s a
psychotherapist at the University of Southern
California Medical Center. At present she is
engaged in private practice in Los Angeles, and
serves a s consultant in the National Intensive
Journal Program. S h e has travelled extensively
throughout the world, and speaks six languages.
In the past two d e c a d e s the author has bp
student of Zen, and later Tibetan Buddh
 lung's Psychology
and Tibetan Buddhism
lung's Psychology
and Tibetan Buddhism
Western and Eastern Paths to the Heart

Radmila Moacanin

!
-

Wisdom Publications London

F i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1986

W i s d o m Publications
23 D e r i n g S t r e e t
London W i , England

R a d m i l a M o a c a n i n 1986

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Moacanin, Radmila
Jung's Psychology and Tibetan Buddhism:
W e s t e r n a n d Eastern p a t h s to the heart
1. J u n g , C . G . 2. P s y c h o a n a l y s i s a n d R e l i g i o n
3. B u d d h i s m
I. T i t l e

i50.i9 54 ,
BS173J85

I S B N 086171042 8

S e t i n P a l a t i n o 10V2 o n i3pt b y
Characters of Taunton, Somerset, and
p r i n t e d a n d b o u n d b y Eurasia Press of
S i n g a p o r e o n 80 g s m S u n n i n g d a l e O p a q u e
paper supplied by Link Publishing
P a p e r s of W e s t Byfleet, Surrey.
 Contents

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS vii

PREFACE Viii

1 BUDDHISM 1
Tibetan Buddhism 8
Tantric Buddhism - Vajrayana 15

2 C. G. JUNG 23
Collective Unconscious 29
Archetypes 30
The Self 32
Individuation 33
Alchemy 35
Synchronicity 39

3 METHODS IN JUNG'S PSYCHOLOGY AND

TIBETAN BUDDHISM 42
T h e Cure of Souls 42
Emancipation from Suffering 48
T h e Spiritual Friend and the Analyst 56

4 ARCHETYPAL S Y M B O L S - T A N T R A AND JUNG 59

T h e Tibetan Book of the Dead 66
The Mandala 69

5 TANTRIC BUDDHISM AND JUNG - CONNECTIONS,

SIMILARITIES, DIFFERENCES 72
Consciousness and the Unconscious 72
vi Contents

Spiritual Transformation 77
T h e Union of Opposites 80
T h e Middle W a y and the Madhyamika 81
Ego and Non-Ego 83
Suffering and Methods of Healing 85
Redemption of G o d 89
J u n g ' s V i e w of Eastern Traditions 92
Dangers 96
Ethical Issues 98

CONCLUSION 101

NOTES 107

GLOSSARY ll8

BIBLIOGRAPHY 121
Acknowledgments

M y p r o f o u n d gratitude a n d heartfelt thanks,

to m y T e a c h e r s , L a m a T h u b t e n Y e s h e a n d Lama T h u b t e n
Z o p a R i n p o c h e , w h o s h o w e d m e t h e p a t h to a n o t h e r reality;

t o D r . Ira P r o g o f f w h o i n t r o d u c e d m e t o t h e w o r l d o f J u n g ;

to D r . Russell Lockhart: with his guidance the horizons of

t h a t m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l w o r l d e x p a n d e d b e y o n d all b o u n d -
aries;

to m y M o t h e r w h o patiently gave m e invaluable help a n d

support-
t o m a n y f r i e n d s a n d s t r a n g e r s in E u r o p e a n d A s i a , A m e r i c a
a n d Africa, w h o w i t h their hearts a n d m i n d s contributed to
t h i s w o r k in m a n y d i f f e r e n t w a y s .
Preface

THIS BOOK HAD its o r i g i n s in E u r o p e , w h e n s o m e y e a r s a g o

the Tibetan Buddhist master, Lama Thubten Yeshe, flew
W e s t f r o m Asia to give teachings a n d I flew East from
A m e r i c a t o r e c e i v e t h e m . O n e d a y in a private interview
w i t h h i m , k n o w i n g o f m y i n t e r e s t in J u n g , u n e x p e c t e d l y h e
a s k e d m e t o g i v e a talk o n J u n g ' s p s y c h o l o g y a n d its relation
t o T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m . I p r o t e s t e d : I w a s totally u n p r e p a r e d
and k n e w s o little a b o u t it. B u t L a m a g e n t l y insisted.
F r i g h t e n e d , I kept pleading with h i m to b e excused from
s u c h a n impossible task, but h e w a s relentless and would
n o t h e a r o f it. F o r t h e first a n d o n l y t i m e t h a t I h a d k n o w n
L a m a Y e s h e I t r u l y b e l i e v e d w e h a d failed t o c o m m u n i c a t e .
Little did I k n o w w h a t w a s to follow....
L a t e r that v e r y s a m e d a y I quietly sat crosslegged on the
f l o o r o f t h e m e d i t a t i o n r o o m in f r o n t o f a large a u d i e n c e of
L a m a Y e s h e ' s s t u d e n t s a n d p r o c e e d e d to deliver t h e talk. It
t u r n e d o u t t o b e a m e m o r a b l e a n d a m a j o r e v e n t in m y life.
F r o m t h e n o n I w a s gripped b y the urge to learn a n d experi-
e n c e m o r e o f t h e t w o traditions. I b e g a n travelling o n that
e x c i t i n g j o u r n e y E a s t a n d W e s t , W e s t a n d E a s t , a n d in m y
m i n d e a c h of the t w o disciplines supplemented, helped
explain further, a n d enriched each other. A s a result a few
y e a r s later this b o o k w a s produced. Synchronistically, just
a s it c a m e i n t o b e i n g in California, L a m a Y e s h e after a l o n g
a b s e n c e arrived there. I s h o w e d him the work, and h e
i m m e d i a t e l y e n c o u r a g e d m e to h a v e it published. O n c e again
I w a s reluctant, b u t o n c e again it w a s a task from w h i c h I could
not be excused.
T h e b o o k a t t e m p t s t o d r a w a parallel, a n d d i s c u s s similari-
ties a n d d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n , T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m a n d J u n g ' s
p s y c h o l o g y . T h e p u r p o s e is to identify p o s s i b l e c o n n e c t i o n s
s o a s to m a k e a b r i d g e b e t w e e n s o m e a s p e c t s of E a s t e r n a n d
W e s t e r n philosophical a n d spiritual traditions, psychological
a n d ethical systems.
O n e o f t h e m a i n p r o b l e m s w h i c h I s h o u l d like t o i n v e s t i -
g a t e is t h e following: since the t w o traditions h a v e d e v e l o p e d
at d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l t i m e s , u n d e r v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t s o c i o -
c u l t u r a l c o n d i t i o n s , a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l l y at t w o o p p o s i t e
s i d e s o f t h e w o r l d , a r e t h e y intrinsically s o d i f f e r e n t , a n d o f
psychological a n d ethical value only to the people w h e r e
e a c h w a s d e v e l o p e d ? O r is it p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n c i l e t h e t w o
t r a d i t i o n s , ' b r i n g t h e t w a i n t o g e t h e r / a l l o w a cross-fertiliz-
ation, synthesize a n d adapt the findings, methods and
w i s d o m of t h e respective s y s t e m s to t h e needs a n d condi-
tions of c o n t e m p o r a r y society, regardless of geographical
boundaries?
O t h e r r e l a t e d q u e s t i o n s w h i c h I shall p u t f o r w a r d f o r
investigation are as follows. Are there possible dangers
i n h e r e n t in a l l o w i n g t h e W e s t e r n e r to e x p e r i m e n t w i t h l o n g
e s t a b l i s h e d a n d d e e p l y r o o t e d E a s t e r n traditions? A r e t h o s e
d a n g e r s d u e b a s i c a l l y to t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n o f spiritual disci-
p l i n e f r o m o n e c u l t u r e t o a n o t h e r - f r o m E a s t to W e s t - in
t h e w a y t h e r e v e r s e o c c u r r e d w h e n W e s t e r n industrial t e c h -
nology was introduced in so-called underdeveloped
c o u n t r i e s o f t h e E a s t , c a u s i n g d i s r u p t i o n o f traditional p a t -
t e r n s o f living a n d w o r k i n g a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y o f t e n s e r i o u s
d a m a g e to the psychological equilibrium of the individuals
c o n c e r n e d ? O r a r e t h e d a n g e r s e v e n m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l , like
t h o s e the alchemists k n e w and w a r n e d us about - that their
opus w a s Tike a death-dealing p o i s o n / meaning not only
h a z a r d s of chemical poisoning but also of mental aberra-
tions.
W h a t a r e t h e n t h e p r e c a u t i o n s a n d s a f e g u a r d s , if a n y , in
a p p r o a c h i n g t h e s t u d i e s a n d p r a c t i c e s o f a n E a s t e r n spiri-
t u a l d i s c i p l i n e w h i c h h a d b e e n k e p t s e c r e t for c e n t u r i e s
x Preface

a n d h a s o n l y v e r y r e c e n t l y b e e n r e v e a l e d to t h e W e s t e r n
world?
C. G . J u n g , the alchemists, and Tibetan Buddhists, have
t h e y all b e e n in s e a r c h o f t h e s a m e truth - Self, P h i l o s o p h e r ' s
S t o n e , E n l i g h t e n m e n t ? H a v e their w o r k s a c o m m o n core
w h i c h , if p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d a n d p r a c t i c e d , c o n t a i n a
universal value?
Is t h e r e a m e a n i n g f u l c o i n c i d e n c e in t h e e i g h t h c e n t u r y
p r o p h e c y t h a t ' w h e n t h e i r o n b i r d s will fly t h e T i b e t a n s will
l e a v e t h e i r h o m e , ' t h e p r o p h e c y b e i n g fulfilled in t h e v e r y
t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y w h i c h b r o u g h t C. G . J u n g to u s ?
M a n y T i b e t a n s h a v e f o u n d a n e w h o m e in S w i t z e r l a n d ,
o n e o f t h e m o s t c o n g e n i a l p l a c e s for t h e m o u t s i d e o f T i b e t ,
looking at the s a m e Alps which inspired Jung, and which
are reminiscent of their o w n Himalayas, the surroundings
a n d visions w h e r e the mind can best meditate and expand.
S o m e y e a r s b a c k , u n d e r t h e i m p a c t o f t h e v e r y s a m e force
t h a t m a d e the Tibetans leave their h o m e , I too h a d to leave
m i n e , a n d f o u n d t e m p o r a r i l y a n e w h o m e in S w i t z e r l a n d . It
w a s t h e r e t h a t m y first i n t e r e s t in E a s t e r n m y s t i c a l tradi-
t i o n s w a s b o r n . It w a s in S w i t z e r l a n d a l s o t h a t I h a d m y first
e n c o u n t e r with the Dalai L a m a . Ever since I met Tibetans I
h a v e o f t e n felt g r a t e f u l , i n a s t r a n g e w a y , t o t h a t ' e v i l ' force
w h i c h w a s d i r e c t l y i n s t r u m e n t a l in b r i n g i n g u s t o g e t h e r .
F o r m e t h i s r e p r e s e n t e d a striking e x a m p l e o f t h e possibility
of experiencing that 'thought transformation' which the
Tibetans teach, and a demonstration of the multi-dimen-
sional aspects of every event.
I c a m e i n t o contact b o t h w i t h the work of Jung and with
T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m very s p o n t a n e o u s l y , and in each case as
the result of a series of synchronistic events. Both systems
h a d an i m m e d i a t e a n d strong impact on m e , and I had an
i n t i m a t i o n that s o m e h o w they m u s t b e related in a pro-
f o u n d l y s i g n i f i c a n t w a y , d e s p i t e t h e fact that t h e y w e r e
rooted in very different traditions and developed under
very different outward circumstances.
I n t h i s b o o k I shall try t o e n c o m p a s s g e n e r a l a r e a s o f
J u n g ' s p s y c h o l o g y a n d T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m . T h e s e are s u b -
j e c t m a t t e r s o f i m m e n s e s c o p e a n d complexity, both in theory
a n d practice, a n d voluminous works have been produced
i n e a c h o f t h e a r e a s . T h e r e f o r e m y s t u d y shall b e l i m i t e d to
c e r t a i n i s s u e s o n l y d e a l t w i t h b y J u n g , a n d t h e relation o f
a l c h e m y t o h i s o w n f i n d i n g s . T h e d i s c u s s i o n of B u d d h i s m
w i l l f o c u s o n T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m a n d i t s relation to J u n g ' s
psychology. I can hardly discuss Tantric Buddhism, how-
e v e r , w i t h o u t p l a c i n g it i n t h e b r o a d e r c o n t e x t of T i b e t a n
B u d d h i s m i n g e n e r a l . T h i s is t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r g i v i n g a b r i e f
o v e r v i e w o f T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m . T h e r a t i o n a l e for d i s -
c u s s i n g T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m a n d r e l a t i n g it to J u n g ' s p s y c h -
o l o g y i s b a s e d o n m y i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h i s particular f o r m
of B u d d h i s m is m o s t directly concerned with the issues
a n d p r o b l e m s t h a t p r e o c c u p i e d J u n g t h r o u g h o u t h i s life -
a b o v e all, t h e p r o c e s s of the g r o w t h of consciousness and
spiritual transformation. Jung refers to it as 'the
t r e m e n d o u s experiment of b e c o m i n g conscious, which
n a t u r e h a s laid u p o n m a n k i n d , a n d w h i c h unites the most
d i v e r s e cultures in a c o m m o n task.'
Despite its i n t r i c a t e c o m p l e x i t y a n d e s o t e r i c nature,
T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m is e s s e n t i a l l y a p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d ethical
s y s t e m . A n d u n l i k e o t h e r p h i l o s o p h i c a l t h e o r i e s a n d spiri-
tual a p p r o a c h e s that h a v e c o m e to us from Asia, Tantric
B u d d h i s m is v e r y m u c h a living p r o c e s s , b r i d g i n g t h e g a p
b e t w e e n o u r d e e p e s t y e a r n i n g s for s y m b o l i c a n d spiritual
m y s t e r y , a n d t h e d e m a n d s o f o u r m u n d a n e life, a l w a y s
s t r e s s i n g t h a t t h e m e a n i n g o f life is in living it.
I h o p e t o a r r i v e a t s o m e s o l u t i o n s to a f e w f u n d a m e n t a l
i s s u e s e x a m i n e d , a n d t h a t t h e r e s u l t s will d e m o n s t r a t e a n d
point to interconnections between the two systems. I hope
t o b e a b l e t o s h o w t h a t it is p o s s i b l e to r e c o n c i l e a n a n c i e n t
E a s t e r n spiritual discipline with a contemporary Western
p s y c h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m in a fruitful a n d m e a n i n g f u l w a y .
i Buddhism

ONCE UPON A t i m e , in a f a r - o f f l a n d t h e r e w a s a p r i n c e w h o
h a d a b e a u t i f u l w i f e a n d a y o u n g s o n . H e w a s called S i d -
d h a r t h a G a u t a m a . H e h a d l i v e d all h i s life i n a b i g palace a n d
a c c o r d i n g t o h i s f a t h e r ' s w i s h e s n e v e r left t h e p a l a c e . H i s
father, the king, w a s determined to protect his son and heir
f r o m s e e i n g a n y m i s e r y a n d t o o f f e r h i m all t h e w o r l d l y
p l e a s u r e s o f life. I n d e e d , S i d d h a r t h a t a s t e d to t h e full all t h e
w o r l d l y p l e a s u r e s o f life.
B u t o n e d a y h e d i s o b e y e d h i s f a t h e r ' s strict o r d e r s n e v e r
to leave the palace g r o u n d s . With his devoted companion
a n d charioteer C h a n n a , h e passed b e y o n d the gate and
v e n t u r e d i n t o t h e w o r l d . H e c a m e a c r o s s a n o l d m a n , a sick
m a n , a n d a d e a d m a n - t h r e e s i g h t s totally u n k n o w n to t h e
y o u n g prince. H e asked Channa whether he ever saw any-
t h i n g like t h a t . C h a n n a a n s w e r e d t h a t o l d a g e , s i c k n e s s ,
a n d d e a t h m u s t c o m e t o all o f u s . F o r t h e first t i m e in h i s life
Siddhartha w a s w o u n d e d by the arrow of a new awareness:
t h e s u f f e r i n g o f all h u m a n i t y f r o m w h i c h t h e r e is n o e s c a p e .
Finally, t h e fourth a n d decisive sight S i d d h a r t h a e n c o u n t e r e d
w a s that of a wandering holy man. H e no longer had a
c h o i c e : t h e i n n e r u r g e n c y , h i s n e w l y d i s c o v e r e d calling,
w a s o v e r w h e l m i n g a n d h e too h a d to leave his h o m e , his
r o y a l life a n d e v e r y t h i n g h e c h e r i s h e d , including his parents,
his beautiful wife a n d small son.
S i l e n t l y h e left t h e r o y a l p a l a c e for g o o d to e m b a r k a l o n e
o n a l o n g j o u r n e y in p u r s u i t o f a n s w e r s to t h e riddle o f life.
In h i s w a n d e r i n g s h e m e t m a n y f a m o u s , l e a r n e d t e a c h e r s ,
p h i l o s o p h e r s ; h e s t u d i e d w i t h t h e m a n d f o l l o w e d their
m e t h o d s . B u t n o n e o f t h e l e a r n e d m e n c o u l d a n s w e r his
o w n q u e s t i o n s , for these w e r e n o ordinary questions, not
f o r m u l a t e d in his h e a d , b u t felt deeply in his heart, searching
not for philosophical a n d metaphysical speculations but
t h e living truth. S o , S i d d h a r t h a continued his solitary journey
s e a r c h i n g for his treasure, the only treasure h e so desper-
a t e l y w a n t e d , a n d for w h i c h h e w a s d e t e r m i n e d o n c e m o r e
t o s a c r i f i c e e v e r y t h i n g . F o r m a n y y e a r s h e lived in the forest
a s a h e r m i t e n d e a v o r i n g to g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r his b o d y a n d
h i s m i n d . H e w a s s u c c e s s f u l in his e f f o r t s , b u t the results
w e r e a s t a r v e d , e x t r e m e l y w e a k e n e d b o d y a n d a discouraged
m i n d , w h i l e t h e t r e a s u r e h e w a s s e e k i n g still e l u d e d h i m .
A t t h e d e p t h o f h o p e l e s s n e s s S i d d h a r t h a r e a l i z e d that h i s
b o d y w a s h i s m o s t p r e c i o u s i n s t r u m e n t , n o t to b e a b u s e d
t h r o u g h ascetic practices a n y m o r e than through s e n s e indul-
g e n c e , b o t h o f w h i c h h e h a d k n o w n s o w e l l . It w a s t h r o u g h
h i s h u m a n b o d y - a n d t h r o u g h it a l o n e - t h a t h e c o u l d r e a c h
t h e t r e a s u r e h a r d to f i n d . N o w it w a s t i m e for t h e f o r m e r
p r i n c e , a n d t h e f o r m e r a s c e t i c , a g a i n to c h a n g e his life, to
a b a n d o n the w a y of self-denial and enter a more balanced
p a t h - the Middle Path. S o , h e took a meal, bathed, put on
f r e s h c l o t h e s . S i d d h a r t h a t h e n sat c r o s s l e g g e d u n d e r a t r e e ,
t o m e d i t a t e , a n d v o w e d n o t to r e m o v e h i m s e l f from this
s p o t till h e f o u n d t h e t r e a s u r e . A n d i n d e e d a f t e r m a n y d a y s
o f s i t t i n g u n d e r t h e t r e e t h e t r e a s u r e c a m e to h i m : in a flash
o f i l l u m i n a t i o n h e a t t a i n e d e n l i g h t e n m e n t , t h e l i v i n g truth
h e h a d b e e n s e a r c h i n g for. At that m o m e n t Siddhartha
b e c a m e the Buddha, the Awakened One.
H e l i v e d a l o n g life b r i n g i n g t h e t r e a s u r e h e d i s c o v e r e d to
m a n y p e o p l e , y o u n g a n d o l d , rich a n d p o o r , l e a r n e d a n d
u n e d u c a t e d , to e v e r y o n e a n d a n y o n e w h o w a s r e a d y to
d i s c o v e r t h e t r e a s u r e f o r h i m s e l f ; for t h e t r e a s u r e w a s to
b e f o u n d n o w h e r e e l s e b u t w i t h i n t h e d e p t h o f e a c h indivi-
d u a l m i n d . H i s m o r t a l b o d y d i e d at t h e a g e o f 8 0 or s o . B u t
P r i n c e S i d d h a r t h a G a u t a m a - the B u d d h a - lived happily ever
a f t e r in t h e m i n d s a n d h e a r t s o f m i l l i o n s o f h u m a n b e i n g s
w h o a c c e p t e d h i s m e s s a g e a n d m a d e it a living reality.
T h i s is t h e tale o f S h a k y a m u n i B u d d h a , p r o b a b l y o n e o f
t h e o l d e s t , m o s t o f t e n r e p e a t e d , t h e m o s t fantastic o f all
t a l e s . It h a s b e e n t o l d a n d h a s i n s p i r e d c o u n t l e s s h u m a n
b e i n g s for t w o a n d a h a l f m i l l e n i a .
W h a t w a s t h e m e s s a g e that S h a k y a m u n i B u d d h a b r o u g h t
to t h e w o r l d ? A b o v e all t h a t e a c h h u m a n b e i n g h a s t h e
potential to attain e n l i g h t e n m e n t a n d b e c o m e a B u d d h a .
' M a n is h i s o w n m a s t e r , a n d t h e r e is n o h i g h e r b e i n g o r
p o w e r t h a t sits in j u d g m e n t o v e r h i s d e s t i n y . ' 1
Buddha,
a n d his followers to this day, can only teach, guide, point to
t h e p a t h to l i b e r a t i o n ; e a c h p e r s o n m u s t e n t e r a n d w a l k t h e
path alone, just as Siddhartha did. O n e must maintain a
healthy d o u b t about the teachings o n e receives, n o matter
w h o the a u t h o r i t y , i n c l u d i n g t h e B u d d h a , until their validity
is clearly c o n f i r m e d t h r o u g h i n v e s t i g a t i o n , a n a l y s i s , a n d
e x p e r i e n c e . O n l y w h e n w e h a v e discovered that the teachings
a r e v a l u a b l e a n d a p p l i c a b l e t o o u r o w n life s h o u l d w e
f o l l o w t h e m . U l t i m a t e l y , w e a r e o u r o w n a u t h o r i t y in t h e
spiritual q u e s t ; t h e r e is n o r e v e a l e d t r u t h , s a c r e d s c r i p t u r e ,
n o dogma a n d no savior.
T h e e s s e n c e of B u d d h a ' s teaching and the foundation of
all s u b s e q u e n t B u d d h i s t d o c t r i n e w a s e x p r e s s e d in h i s first
s e r m o n d e l i v e r e d a t S a m a t h , n e a r B e n a r e s , after h i s enlight-
e n m e n t o n t h e n i g h t o f t h e full m o o n o f J u l y . I n it h e
expounded the Four Noble Truths:

1 u b i q u i t o u s e x i s t e n c e o f s u f f e r i n g in life;
2 t h e s o u r c e o f s u f f e r i n g is t o b e f o u n d in selfish c r a v i n g
a n d a t t a c h m e n t o f all k i n d s ;
3 c e s s a t i o n , liberation, f r e e d o m f r o m suffering is possible;
4 t h e p a t h l e a d i n g f r o m s u f f e r i n g to liberation.

T h e F o u r N o b l e T r u t h s d o c t r i n e f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t e s o n this
p a t h , g e n e r a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e M i d d l e W a y b e c a u s e it is
f r e e f r o m all e x t r e m e s . It is a l s o called t h e N o b l e E i g h t f o l d
P a t h a s it s p e c i f i e s r u l e s o f b e h a v i o r , in t h o u g h t , s p e e c h
a n d action, that lead to liberation. T h e y are:
1 right understanding
2 right thought - purpose or aspiration
3 right speech
4 right action
5 right livelihood
6 right effort
7 right mindfulness, awareness, attentiveness
8 right concentration, or meditation.

T h e s e eight categories constitute the foundations of Bud-

dhist training, which w h e n properly applied a n d followed
l e a d t o a b a l a n c e d a n d h a r m o n i o u s life, b e n e f i t i n g b o t h
individual and society. T h e first two categories - right
u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d right t h o u g h t - h a v e t o d o w i t h d e v e l o p -
m e n t o f w i s d o m ; t h e n e x t t h r e e - right s p e e c h , right a c t i o n ,
a n d right l i v e l i h o o d - w i t h e t h i c a l c o n d u c t ; a n d t h e last t w o
- right m i n d f u l n e s s , a n d right c o n c e n t r a t i o n - w i t h m e n t a l
discipline.
W i s d o m , ethical c o n d u c t , a n d m e n t a l discipline are inter-
related a n d are to b e pursued simultaneously, each pro-
m o t i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e other. T h u s the philosophical,
ethical, a n d psychological c o m p o n e n t s together constitute
t h e f o u n d a t i o n for spiritual d e v e l o p m e n t . 2

F r o m this simple yet very profound exposition of the

F o u r N o b l e T r u t h s a n d t h e N o b l e Eightfold Path p r o n o u n c e d
b y S h a k y a m u n i B u d d h a , in t h e s u b s e q u e n t c e n t u r i e s a
s t a g g e r i n g a m o u n t o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t h r o u g h oral c o m -
m e n t a r i e s a n d w r i t t e n material e v o l v e d , often contradictory
a n d c o n f l i c t i n g . S o m e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h plain practical i s s u e s ,
s o m e with highly philosophical, metaphysical, and onto-
l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s , b u t t h e y all c l a i m t o d e r i v e t h e i r a u t h o r i t y
from the utterances of B u d d h a himself. And indeed they
a r e all v a r i a t i o n s o n t h e s a m e b a s i c t h e m e c o n t a i n e d in t h e
F o u r N o b l e T r u t h s , B u d d h a ' s first s e r m o n . F u r t h e r m o r e t h e
origin of t h e different a n d often controversial aspects of the
d o c t r i n e is t o b e f o u n d in t h e v e r y a p p r o a c h S h a k y a m u n i
B u d d h a u s e d in h i s t e a c h i n g s , t h e o n l y a i m o f w h i c h w a s t o
s h o w h u m a n b e i n g s t h e w a y to e m a n c i p a t i o n from suffering,
t h a t is, l i b e r a t i o n . S i n c e s u f f e r i n g is a b a s i c fact o f life t h e
g o a l is c o m m o n t o all b u t t h e r o a d s t o its e l i m i n a t i o n a r e
m a n y . T o q u o t e the view o n this issue of a contemporary
Tibetan lama:

A m a j o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f all B u d d h a ' s t e a c h i n g s is
that t h e y are d e s i g n e d to fit t h e n e e d s a n d a p t i t u d e s
o f e a c h i n d i v i d u a l . S i n c e w e all h a v e d i f f e r e n t
i n t e r e s t s , p r o b l e m s a n d w a y s of life, n o o n e m e t h o d
o f i n s t r u c t i o n c o u l d e v e r b e s u i t a b l e for e v e r y o n e .
B u d d h a h i m s e l f e x p l a i n e d t h a t for t h e p u r p o s e o f
reaching a particular disciple c o m i n g from a par-
ticular b a c k g r o u n d h e w o u l d t e a c h a particular
doctrine. T h u s there could b e certain times w h e n
it m i g h t b e n e c e s s a r y t o s a y ' y e s ' a n d o t h e r s w h e n
it w o u l d b e m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e to s a y ' n o , ' e v e n in
r e s p o n s e to the s a m e q u e s t i o n . 3

T h i s p r e c i s e l y is t h e s t r e n g t h o f B u d d h i s m , n a m e l y t h e
flexibility o f its m e t h o d s a n d p r a c t i c e , its e m p h a s i s o n e a c h
individual's experience, not intellectual, philosopical
k n o w l e d g e a l o n e , o r b l i n d faith. N o t h i n g , n o m e t h o d is
e x c l u d e d t h a t c o u l d l e a d to t h e u l t i m a t e g o a l of liberation.
T h i s e n d o w s t h e t e a c h i n g s w i t h a n e x q u i s i t e ability t o
a d a p t to t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f v a r i o u s p e o p l e , living u n d e r
different g e o g r a p h i c a l climates, different cultures, a n d hist-
orical b a c k g r o u n d s . I n this s e n s e B u d d h i s m h a s truly a u n i -
versal c h a r a c t e r , a n d a r e l e v a n c e to life t h a t h a s persisted
u n d i m i n i s h e d to t h i s d a y , for its w i s d o m is r o o t e d in t h e
depth of the h u m a n psyche.
W i t h s u c h a w i d e latitude in m a t t e r s o f instruction a n d
practice it w a s inevitable that d u r i n g t h e e n s u i n g c e n t u r i e s
a f t e r B u d d h a ' s d e a t h doctrinal d i f f e r e n c e s w o u l d e m e r g e
a n d a v a r i e t y o f traditions d e v e l o p . T w o m a j o r s y s t e m s
arose: Hinayana, or the 'Lesser Vehicle,' and Mahayana,
or the 'Greater V e h i c l e . ' T h e former, the Southern School,
s p r e a d in t h e c o u n t r i e s t o d a y k n o w n a s B u r m a , T h a i l a n d ,
a n d S r i L a n k a , w h i l e t h e latter, t h e N o r t h e r n S c h o o l , in-
c l u d e s t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a s of n o r t h e r n I n d i a , M o n g o l i a ,
Tibet, Sikkim, Bhutan, Nepal, Cambodia, Vietnam,
C h i n a , Korea, and Japan.
T h e H i n a y a n a s t r e s s e s strict m o r a l regulations, a n d a d h e r -
e n c e t o a u s t e r e r u l e s o f c o n d u c t . T h e u l t i m a t e goal is attain-
m e n t o f o n e ' s o w n salvation. T h e h i g h e s t stage of individual
d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e ideal h u m a n b e i n g , is called a n ' A r h a t . '
T h e w o r d m e a n s 'a s l a y e r o f t h e f o e , ' a n d t h e foe is u n d e r -
s t o o d to b e t h e p a s s i o n s . 4

T h e M a h a y a n a c o n t i n u e s w h e r e H i n a y a n a l e a v e s off: t h e
u l t i m a t e g o a l o f M a h a y a n i s t s is to s e e k salvation n o t for
t h e i r o w n s a k e b u t for t h e b e n e f i t o f all b e i n g s . A n d this
g o a l is n o l e s s t h a n t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f B u d d h a h o o d . W h i l e
H i n a y a n a e m p h a s i z e s austerity, self-restraint, and high
e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r , M a h a y a n a e m p h a s i z e s intuitive w i s d o m
t o r e m o v e t h e veil o f i g n o r a n c e o b s c u r i n g o u r p u r e e s s e n c e ,
t h e B u d d h a - n a t u r e d w e l l i n g in all of u s a n d w h i c h o n l y
n e e d s t o b e u n c o v e r e d . T o find o n e ' s true self, realize o n e -
s e l f , is to r e a l i z e t h e i n h e r e n t B u d d h a - n a t u r e . It h a s b e e n
s a i d t h a t ' [ H i n a y a n a ] e m p h a s i z e s the h u m a n i t y o f t h e
Buddha; Mahayana emphasizes the Buddha-nature of
humanity.' 5

T h e i d e a l o f t h e A r h a t in H i n a y a n a is r e p l a c e d in t h e
M a h a y a n a s y s t e m b y t h e ideal of t h e B o d h i s a t t v a . F r o m t h e
ideal of a purely private salvation of Arhats intent upon
r e a l i z i n g n i r v a n a , B o d h i s a t t v a s h a v e v o w e d to d e v o t e all
t h e i r p u r s u i t s t o t h e w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s a n d to w o r k for a
u n i v e r s a l d e l i v e r a n c e o f all b e i n g s . In t h e m a n y self-seeking,
e g o i s t i c a c t i o n s a n d e n d e a v o r s a r e totally a b s e n t .

Gentle and not abusive,

Without deceit and fraud,
Full o f l o v e t o w a r d s all b e i n g s -
S o is a B o d h i s a t t v a . 6

T h e word Bodhisattva has been defined as meaning

' h e r o i c b e i n g , spiritual w a r r i o r , ' o r ' i l l u m i n e d h e a r t a n d
v a l i a n t o n e / B o d h i s a t t v a s , ' g e n t l e a n d n o t a b u s i v e / react
7

spontaneously to t h e i r i m p u l s e o f c o m p a s s i o n towards
e v e r y o n e a n d all, a n d a r e fully i n v o l v e d in t h e affairs o f t h e
w o r l d ; t h e y a r e in t h e m i d s t o f it, w i t h all its s t r u g g l e s a n d
t r i b u l a t i o n s . T h e i r s is n o t a n e g a t i v e w a y o f d e n y i n g a n d
a b a n d o n i n g t h e w o r l d , b u t a p o s i t i v e w a y o f a f f i r m i n g it
a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g it, b y v i r t u e o f t h e i r g r e a t c o m p a s s i o n
a n d g r e a t w i s d o m . T h e i r life t a s k is t o s e t p e o p l e free f r o m
i g n o r a n c e , p a s s i o n , a n d evil.
B o d h i s a t t v a s h a v e m a d e t h e i n d e s t r u c t i b l e r e s o l u t i o n to
b e c o m e a B u d d h a , solely for the benefit of others; they have
t h u s single-mindedly entered and are pursuing the way of
t h e e n l i g h t e n e d b e i n g to b e c o m e fully i n t e g r a t e d , free f r o m
c o n f u s i o n a n d i n n e r conflict. T h e y h a v e d e v e l o p e d the
m e a n s to t a p t h e i n n e r t r e a s u r e o f o t h e r s , t h e latent s e e d s o f
e n l i g h t e n m e n t , w h i c h a c c o r d i n g to M a h a y a n a is t h e c o m -
m o n h e r i t a g e o f h u m a n i t y . T h e y a r e ' . . . l i k e t h e skilful
alchemist w h o by virtue of the power of his chemicals can
c h a n g e silver into gold a n d gold into silver.' 8

O n e naturally w o n d e r s and asks:

W h a t is it t h a t g i v e s t h e b o d h i s a t t v a this s t r e n g t h
b y w h i c h h e e x c e l s all t h e r e s t ? It is h i s capacity to
sustain the c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the true nature of
t h i n g s , his capacity to bear with every circumstance
d e v o i d o f f e a r a n d a n x i e t y , a n d h i s ability to m e e t
every situation with u n i m p e d e d insight and un-
bounded compassion. 9

I h a v e frequently asked myself that s a m e question while

in t h e p r e s e n c e o f T i b e t a n l a m a s , s o m e of w h o m , I h a v e n o t
t h e s l i g h t e s t d o u b t , h a v e a t t a i n e d the stage o f a Bodhisattva.
A n d I h a v e a l s o p o n d e r e d o v e r t h e e x q u i s i t e ability w i t h
w h i c h t h e y a r e c a p a b l e o f a f f e c t i n g t h e m i n d s a n d lives o f
m a n y W e s t e r n e r s w h o s e historical a n d cultural b a c k g r o u n d
a n d life s t y l e s a r e s o v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h o s e o f p e o p l e
b o r n a n d r a i s e d in T i b e t . P e r h a p s p a r t o f t h e a n s w e r lies in
the following description of the Bodhisattva:
 F r o m t h e v e r y o u t s e t h e s e e k s to realize the w i s d o m
that constitutes B u d d h a h o o d , viz., the knowledge
o f all f o r m s , t h e k n o w l e d g e o f all t h e w a y s o f all
b e i n g s . T h i s is w h a t g i v e s t h e B u d d h a s a n d t h e
a d v a n c e d b o d h i s a t t v a s t h e ability to k e e p t h e m -
s e l v e s en rapport with every situation and render
h e l p t o e a c h i n d i v i d u a l in t h e w a y s u i t e d to h i m . 1 0

TIBETAN BUDDHISM

T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m is p a r t o f t h e M a h a y a n a . W h e n it w a s
i n t r o d u c e d i n t o T i b e t f r o m India, in t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u r y A D ,
it m e t w i t h t h e n a t i v e B o n religion a n d its s h a m a n i s t i c
practices. A s B u d d h i s m spread, m a n y Indian scholars came
to T i b e t a n d translated religious texts a n d their c o m m e n t a r i e s ,
u n t i l T i b e t a n s t h e m s e l v e s b e g a n w r i t i n g their o w n c o m -
m e n t a r i e s . It h a s b e e n said that o n the Tibetan soil B u d d h i s m
m i x e d w i t h t h e local B o n cult a n d i n c o r p o r a t e d s o m e o f its
features. T h e present Dalai L a m a , however, denies any
e x t r a n e o u s i n f l u e n c e s a n d states that ' t h e B u d d h i s t teaching
t h a t s p r e a d t o T i b e t is j u s t t h e s t a i n l e s s t e a c h i n g o f India
a n d n o t h i n g e l s e . T h e T i b e t a n l a m a s n e i t h e r a l t e r e d it n o r
m i x e d it w i t h a n o t h e r r e l i g i o n . ' 1 1

I n t h e c o u r s e of t i m e four m a j o r schools arose: the Nyingma,

Kargyu, Sakya, a n d Gelug. E a c h o f t h e s e s c h o o l s traces its
lineage to different Indian scholars, and consequently pres-
e n t s v a r i a t i o n s in t h e m o d e o f i n s t r u c t i o n s , b u t T i b e t a n s
e m p h a s i z e t h a t t h e r e a r e n o f u n d a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e s in
t h e i r p h i l o s o p h y a n d spiritual p r a c t i c e s . All are in q u e s t o f
t h e s a m e g o a l : e n l i g h t e n m e n t . In fact all a d h e r e to t h e
teachings of both Hinayana and Mahayana, and also
T a n t r a y a n a (a d i v i s i o n o f M a h a y a n a ) . Yana is t h e S a n s k r i t
w o r d for v e h i c l e . A c o n t e m p o r a r y lama, in o n e of his lectures,
e q u a t e d t h i s v e h i c l e to a p a t h o r an e l e v a t o r t o lift u p o u r
c o n s c i o u s n e s s to e n l i g h t e n m e n t .
T h e r e a r e t h r e e principal a s p e c t s o f that path to e n l i g h t e n -
m e n t , t h e spiritual j o u r n e y : r e n u n c i a t i o n , t h e e n l i g h t e n e d
m o t i v e , a n d t h e c o r r e c t v i e w o f reality. ' B l e n d e d t o g e t h e r
t h e y a r e l i k e t h e f u e l p r o p e l l i n g o u r r o c k e t to t h e m o o n o f
enlightenment/ 1 2
I shall n o w try t o o u t l i n e t h e m very
briefly.
B e f o r e e n t e r i n g t h e p a t h , i n d i v i d u a l s in all t h e i r a c t i o n s
a r e m o t i v a t e d o n l y b y e g o c e n t r i c d e s i r e s to acquire w e a l t h ,
p o w e r , f a m e , etc., to have pleasure a n d escape from pain.
B u t l i t t l e d o t h e y k n o w t h a t t h e s c r a m b l e for w e a l t h , p o w e r
a n d a n y w o r l d l y d e s i r e c a n n e v e r b r i n g satisfaction. T h i s
p u r s u i t is w h a t B u d d h i s t s call t h e c o n d i t i o n o f samsara - a
S a n s k r i t t e r m w h i c h m e a n s ' c i r c l i n g / I n this life it r e f e r s t o
o u r i n g r a i n e d s t r o n g h a b i t o f g o i n g a r o u n d a n d a r o u n d in
c i r c l e s , c h a s i n g a f t e r gratification o f d e s i r e s , p l e a s u r e s o f
o n e sort or a n o t h e r w h i c h are invariably eluding us. T h e
perpetuum mobile o f m u n d a n e life, m o v i n g from o n e situation
to another, fluctuating from o n e m o o d to another, desiring
a n o b j e c t , a c q u i r i n g a n d t a s t i n g it, b e c o m i n g s a t u r a t e d ,
f r u s t r a t e d , d i s c a r d i n g it, a n d t u r n i n g a r o u n d to start t h e
v e r y s a m e process again, and again. W e never reach the
s o u g h t - a f t e r g o a l , f o r t h e v e r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of s a m s a r a is
dissatisfaction - suffering. T h e term samsara applies also to
t h e cyclic e x i s t e n c e o f c o n t i n u o u s r e b i r t h s , o u t o f w h i c h
t h e r e is n o e s c a p e , u n t i l l i b e r a t i o n , t h a t i s , n i r v a n a . In t h a t
s e n s e samsara m e a n s 'the round of existence.'
A c c o r d i n g t o B u d d h i s t t h o u g h t t h e s o u r c e o f s a m s a r a is
i g n o r a n c e , t h a t is, u n a w a r e n e s s , g o i n g a b o u t in r e s p o n s e
to t h e p r o m p t i n g s o f hedonistic impulses, an unconscious,
undisciplined, uncontrolled, scattered m i n d . 1 3

A n o t h e r k i n d o f i g n o r a n c e is o u r d e l u s i o n that p h e n o m -
e n a a r e p e r m a n e n t , w h e r e a s i m p e r m a n e n c e , c h a n g e is t h e
u b i q u i t o u s l a w of n a t u r e . W e are attached to people, objects,
p o s s e s s i o n s , s i t u a t i o n s , a n d a b o v e all t o o u r o w n b o d y a n d
life, a n d w h e n t h e y c h a n g e , o r c e a s e t o b e , w e e x p e r i e n c e
s u f f e r i n g . N u r t u r e d b y t h e d e s i r e for p e r m a n e n c e a n d n o n -
c h a n g e ' o n e ' s m i n d b e c o m e s stiff a n d f r o z e n . ' 1 4

O u r g r e a t e s t e n e m y is o u r s e l f i s h n e s s , o r a s B u d d h i s t s
s a y , e g o - g r a s p i n g , o u r s e l f - c h e r i s h i n g a t t i t u d e . All suffer-
i n g s d e r i v e f r o m it. T h e t h r e e p o i s o n s o f t h e m i n d , g r e e d ,
h a t r e d , a n d ignorance, pollute our thoughts and actions
a n d bring us confusion, restlessness, and pain. A n d as w e
s c r u t i n i z e o u r o w n e x p e r i e n c e s w e f i n d o u t that w i t h o u r
actions, conscious or unconscious, w h e t h e r motivated by
p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e t h o u g h t s , w e p l a n t s e e d s that will
ripen in t h e f u t u r e . B u d d h i s t s w o u l d s a y w e will suffer, o r
b e n e f i t , f r o m t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s in f u t u r e lives, b u t a l s o ,
a n d v e r y m u c h s o , in t h i s life, i n d e e d in o u r i m m e d i a t e
f u t u r e . T h i s is t h e s i m p l e a n d i n e x o r a b l e l a w of c a u s e a n d
e f f e c t , o r k a r m a . T h e a c t i o n s w h i c h inevitably produce
f u t u r e , if n o t i m m e d i a t e , s u f f e r i n g a n d h a r m to o u r s e l f or
o t h e r s a r e called n o n - v i r t u o u s , unskilful, or negative actions,
w h i l e t h o s e w h i c h p r o d u c e p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s are called vir-
tuous actions.
As Buddhists r e p e a t e d l y tell u s , all b e i n g s , without
e x c e p t i o n , s h a r e in c o m m o n t h e d e s i r e to a v o i d suffering
a n d achieve happiness. Yet through our thoughts and
a c t i o n s , a n d d u e to o u r d e l u d e d a n d p o l l u t e d m i n d w e
b r i n g t o o u r s e l f t h e e x a c t o p p o s i t e of w h a t w e strive for.
F o r B u d d h i s t s , ' s i n s ' are called 'non-virtuous actions.'
B y ' v i r t u e ' t h e y m e a n not only goodness and morality, but
a l s o e f f i c a c y , p o w e r , w h i c h v i r t u o u s a c t i o n s i n d e e d are
c a p a b l e o f g e n e r a t i n g . G r e e d , p r i d e , a n g e r a n d the l i k e ,
t h e n , a r e n o n - v i r t u o u s a c t i o n s w h i c h lead to m e n t a l suf-
fering and confusion. 1 5

A s h u m a n beings w e have the precious opportunity and

i n f i n i t e p o s s i b i l i t i e s to a c t i v a t e h i g h e r t e n d e n c i e s a n d p l a n t
v i r t u o u s s e e d s t h a t l e a d t o spiritual g r o w t h , a n d ultimately
l i b e r a t i o n . It all d e p e n d s o n o u r m i n d . W h e n w e h a v e 'hit
t h e b o t t o m ' a n d have b e c o m e disgusted with our misery,
o u r e n d l e s s samsaric turmoil, w e reach a renounced mind.

T h e g a t e w a y t o all spiritual p a t h , w h e t h e r l e a d i n g
t o p e r s o n a l Liberation o r S u p r e m e E n l i g h t e n m e n t ,
is t h e F u l l y R e n o u n c e d M i n d . J u s t a s a p a s s p o r t ,
 visa, v a c c i n a t i o n s a n d sufficient m o n e y a r e n e c e s s -
ary before w e can undertake a long journey, so
a l s o is t h i s s t a t e o f m i n d e s s e n t i a l if w e a r e to
follow the D h a r m a successfully....What exactly
does such a mind renounce? W e must develop
renunciation of the causes of suffering, the mental
afflictions themselves....Renunciation does not
imply that w e should give u p our enjoyments or
p o s s e s s i o n s . T h e r e h a v e b e e n m a n y h i g h l y realized
beings w h o have been kings, wealthy merchants
a n d t h e like. It is n o t o u r p o s s e s s i o n s b u t o u r
i g n o r a n t , clinging attitude t o w a r d s t h e m that m u s t
be abandoned. 1 6

It n e e d s t o b e e m p h a s i z e d that, c o n t r a r y to p o p u l a r belief,
w h a t t h e m i n d r e n o u n c e s is s u f f e r i n g , s a m s a r a , a m i s e r a b l e
a l i e n a t e d w a y o f life, t h e e x i s t e n t i a l d e s p a i r - o r t o p u t it
d i f f e r e n t l y , it r e n o u n c e s u n c o n s c i o u s n e s s , d a r k n e s s o f t h e
m i n d , t h e m i n d t h a t is n o t a w a k e n e d . W h e n t h e m i n d is
c o n s c i o u s , a w a k e n e d , t h e n s a m s a r a is n o m o r e , t h e r e is n o
dissatisfaction. Indeed the word Buddha m e a n s simply
that - the A w a k e n e d O n e .
T h e m i n d h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l t o b e a w a k e n e d , in fact it h a s
a n u r g e t o a w a k e , y e t it s l e e p s in i g n o r a n c e a n d d e l u s i o n s .
W h e n u n o b s t r u c t e d b y i g n o r a n c e it e x p e r i e n c e s p e a c e a n d
b l i s s . S o m e , if n o t m o s t p e o p l e , h a v e s u c h e x p e r i e n c e s at
l e a s t a f e w r a r e t i m e s in t h e i r l i v e s : g e n u i n e l o v e , a e s t h e t i c
experiences, encounters with extraordinary human beings,
a l t e r e d s t a t e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e s e a r e brief, fleeting
m o m e n t s w h e n w e h a v e a g l i m p s e o f a n o t h e r state o f m i n d ,
a n o t h e r l e v e l o f e x i s t e n c e , a n d a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t it is w i t h i n
o u r p o w e r t o attain it, h e r e a n d n o w . W e a l s o c o m e t o
r e a l i z e t h a t it is n o t t h e e x t e r n a l e n v i r o n m e n t , b u t o u r
m i n d , our o w n inner world, that adjudicates over our h a p -
p i n e s s o r suffering. T h i s is like finding a wish-fulfilling jewel.
B u t t h e fully r e n o u n c e d m i n d in itself is n o t sufficient t o
a c h i e v e full e n l i g h t e n m e n t , a c c o r d i n g to t h e M a h a y a n a
s c h o o l , w h i c h c o n s i s t e n t l y s t r e s s e s t h a t a n y action m u s t b e
m o t i v a t e d b y t h e i n t e n t i o n to b e n e f i t o t h e r s , a n d n o t m e r e l y
o n e s e l f . T h u s to the c o n c e p t of the r e n o u n c e d m i n d m u s t b e
a d d e d 'the m i n d of enlightenment,' the enlightened motive,
o r s o - c a l l e d bodhicitta, w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s t h e s e c o n d of t h e
t h r e e p r i n c i p a l a s p e c t s o f t h e p a t h to e n l i g h t e n m e n t .
With the awakening of the mind of enlightenment one
b e c o m e s vitally i n t e r e s t e d in t h e w e l f a r e o f o t h e r b e i n g s . In
f a c t , T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t s a l w a y s r e f e r t o all s e n t i e n t b e i n g s ,
n o t o n l y h u m a n k i n d . ' L i k e o n e s e l f , all s e n t i e n t b e i n g s a r e
afflicted b y s u f f e r i n g ; t h u s e v e n t h e s m a l l e s t insect is similar
t o o n e s e l f in n o t w a n t i n g suffering a n d w a n t i n g h a p p i n e s s . ' 17

F r o m t h e a w a r e n e s s o f t h e interior states o f m i n d , c o n s c i o u s
a n d u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d t h e l a w o f c a u s e a n d effect t h a t d e t e r -
m i n e s t h e m , o n e r e a c h e s a n e x p a n d e d a w a r e n e s s that i n -
c l u d e s o t h e r s . F r o m e g o - i n v o l v e m e n t , s e l f - c h e r i s h i n g atti-
t u d e focusing solely on o n e ' s o w n being, o n e m o v e s on to
another level w h e r e one perceives the advantages and
necessities to cherish others. H e r e too the law of cause and
e f f e c t r e i g n s s u p r e m e . F r o m c l o s e i n t e r p e r s o n a l relation-
s h i p s , t o s o c i a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s , t h e r o o t s of all
c o n f l i c t s a n d w a r s lie in t h e s e l f - c h e r i s h i n g a t t i t u d e s . V i r t u -
o u s a c t i o n s t o w a r d s o t h e r s - in b o d y , s p e e c h , a n d m i n d -
s u c h a s r e f r a i n i n g f r o m killing, s t e a l i n g , lying, u s i n g h a r s h
l a n g u a g e , a n d developing c o m p a s s i o n a n d generosity, bring
g e n u i n e a n d lasting p l e a s u r e a n d satisfaction. T h e s e actions,
f r e e f r o m e g o c e n t r i c i t y , h a v e a n e n e r g i z i n g effect o n t h e
p e r s o n w h o p e r f o r m s t h e m , a n d paradoxically b y losing
o n e ' s e g o in a s e l f l e s s activity o n e f i n d s o n e ' s S e l f . T h e
e f f e c t s c a n b e e a s i l y c h e c k e d : t h e s e a r e t h e b e s t m o m e n t s in
a n y o n e ' s l i f e . A g a i n t h e y a r e f o u n d in t h e p r e s e n c e o f
w o r k s o f a r t o f a n y k i n d - w h i c h is p r e c i s e l y t h e f u n c t i o n o f
a r t - in t r u e c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h a n o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g , in
c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y . T h e y a r e f o u n d t h o u g h e v e n in s m a l l ,
s i m p l e a c t s o f e v e r y d a y life, w h e n e v e r o n e steps out of o n e ' s
self-imposed egocentric p r i s o n . 1 8
T h e enlightened motive
m o v e s o n e , first t o b e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f
o t h e r s , a n d a s a n e x t s t e p to d e v e l o p a s t r o n g motivation to
a t t a i n e n l i g h t e n m e n t for the s a k e o f o t h e r s , that is to guide
t h e m to liberation. T h i s is t h e w a y o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a w h o
k n o w s that t h e only w a y to inspire, assist a n d guide others
t o l i b e r a t i o n is t o h a v e first f o l l o w e d t h e p a t h o n e s e l f a n d
attained e n l i g h t e n m e n t . But even before o n e has m a d e that
d e t e r m i n a t i o n , e v e r y action t h a t h a s b e e n t o u c h e d b y t h e
m i n d of enlightenment, bodhicitta, even the smallest, most
m u n d a n e a c t i o n b e c o m e s p o w e r f u l . T h u s , 'it is said t h a t
g i v i n g a h a n d f u l o f f o o d to a d o g if d o n e w i t h b o d h i c i t t a ,
b r i n g s u s m o r e b e n e f i t t h a n g i v i n g a u n i v e r s e o f j e w e l s to
e v e r y living b e i n g w i t h o u t such m o t i v a t i o n . ' 1 9
T h e enlight-
e n e d m o t i v e is like t h e art o f t h e a l c h e m i s t t h a t c h a n g e s
base metal into gold.
T h e third of the three principal aspects of the path to
e n l i g h t e n m e n t is t h e c o r r e c t v i e w o f reality, o r t h e w i s d o m
o f v o i d n e s s , sunyata. T h i s is t h e m o s t difficult c o n c e p t t o
c o m p r e h e n d , a n d it m u s t b e g r a s p e d t h r o u g h direct e x p e r i -
e n c e n o t m e r e l y t h r o u g h intellectual u n d e r s t a n d i n g . Y e t it
is a t t h e h e a r t o f all B u d d h i s t t e a c h i n g s , a n d i n s e p a r a b l e
f r o m t h e t w o o t h e r principal a s p e c t s o f t h e p a t h , d i s c u s s e d
earlier. It c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d a n d u n d e r s t o o d through
rational analysis but only through gradual development of
i n t u i t i v e w i s d o m . T h e t r a i n i n g in t h i s h i g h e r w i s d o m is
e s s e n t i a l b e c a u s e m i s c o n c e p t i o n s a b o u t reality are t h e basic
s o u r c e o f all s u f f e r i n g .

The ego's misconceptions about reality...keeps us

in b o n d a g e , w h e t h e r it b e t h e i r o n b o n d a g e o f
w o r l d l y e x i s t e n c e o r t h e g o l d e n b o n d a g e o f a spiri-
tual w a y o f life. T h e i r o n b o n d a g e is o u r c o n t i n u a l
m e n t a l a n d p h y s i c a l s u f f e r i n g in t h e cycle o f d i s -
satisfied existence k n o w n as samsara, while the
g o l d e n b o n d a g e is t h a t o f b e i n g e n s l a v e d to m i s -
c o n c e p t i o n s a n d false p h i l o s o p h i e s . . . . T h e h i g h e s t
g o a l is t o b e f r e e o f all b o n d a g e . 2 0

T h e c o n c e p t o f s u n y a t a , e m p t i n e s s , h a s g i v e n rise to
m u c h m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a n d d i s t o r t i o n . Sunya, a Sanskrit
w o r d , m e a n s ' r e l a t i n g t o t h e s w o l l e n . ' A c c o r d i n g to t h e
B u d d h i s t s c h o l a r E d w a r d C o n z e , the e t y m o l o g y o f t h e w o r d
e x p r e s s e s t h e u n i t y o f o p p o s i t e s , n a m e l y w h a t is s w o l l e n
f r o m t h e o u t s i d e is h o l l o w i n s i d e ; o u r p e r s o n a l i t y is b o t h
s w o l l e n b y t h e five skandhas 21
and empty of a s e l f . 2 2
T h e r e is
n o i n d e p e n d e n t , i n h e r e n t l y e x i s t e n t , u n r e l a t e d self, or T a s
w e h a v e b e e n a c c u s t o m e d to think. T h e nature of all p h e n o m -
e n a is e m p t i n e s s . P h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , t h i s is t h e p r i n c i p l e o f
r e l a t i v i t y o f all t h i n g s a n d c o n d i t i o n s . B u t it is a l s o t h e
p r i n c i p l e o f limitless potentiality, n o n - e x c l u s i v e n e s s : e m p t i -
n e s s c a n c o n t a i n a n d p r o d u c e e v e r y t h i n g . A s y n o n y m for
s u n y a t a is n o n - d u a l i t y . O n t h i s s u b j e c t t h e Lankavatara
Sutra says:

. . . w h a t is m e a n t b y n o n - d u a l i t y ? It m e a n s that
light a n d s h a d e , long a n d short, black and white,
are relative t e r m s . . . a n d not independent of each
o t h e r ; a s N i r v a n a a n d S a m s a r a a r e , all t h i n g s are
n o t - t w o . T h e r e is n o N i r v a n a e x c e p t w h e r e is S a m -
s a r a ; t h e r e is n o S a m s a r a e x c e p t w h e r e is N i r v a n a ;
f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n o f e x i s t e n c e is n o t o f m u t u a l l y -
exclusive character. 2 3

T h e l a c k o f a s e p a r a t e , p e r m a n e n t T d o e s n o t i m p l y its
total n o n - e x i s t e n c e , which w o u l d be nihilism, another ex-
t r e m e a n d dogmatic viewpoint, equally wrong. T h u s there
is a c o n v e n t i o n a l T , ' w h i c h w e all h a v e , t h a t e x i s t s o n t h e
r e l a t i v e l e v e l o f reality, w h i l e o n t h e u l t i m a t e , a b s o l u t e level
o f r e a l i t y it d o e s n o t e x i s t . T h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e five skandhas
is c o n v e n t i o n a l t r u t h , w h i l e t h e v o i d n a t u r e o f all p h e n o m -
e n a is a b s o l u t e t r u t h . 2 4
T h i s distinction b e t w e e n the relative,
m u n d a n e , a n d a b s o l u t e , u l t i m a t e t r u t h is central to t h e
p h i l o s o p h y o f M a d h y a m i k a ( M i d d l e W a y ) , ( w h i c h I shall
r e t u r n t o i n a later c h a p t e r ) . A c c o r d i n g to t h e p r e s e n t Dalai
L a m a it is 'a t h e o r y w h i c h r e m a i n s s u p r e m e a m o n g all t h e
theories of different Buddhist s c h o o l s . ' 2 5
A t this p o i n t it is
i m p o r t a n t to e m p h a s i z e again the Buddhist view that the
m i s c o n c e p t i o n a b o u t reality a n d t h e b e l i e f in a n i n d e p e n -
d e n t , f i x e d e x i s t e n c e o f t h e self is t h e s o u r c e o f all s u f f e r i n g ,
a n d t h a t ' r e a l i z a t i o n o f s u n y a t a is like t h e k n i f e that c u t s t h e
root of i g n o r a n c e . ' 2 6

TANTRIC BUDDHISM - VAJRAYANA

W i t h T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m o r V a j r a y a n a - t h e third v e h i c l e ,
a l t h o u g h part of the M a h a y a n a school - Tibetan Buddhism
r e a c h e s its h i g h e s t a n d m o s t m a g n i f i c e n t d e v e l o p m e n t . B y
following the short path of Tantra - also k n o w n as the
D i a m o n d V e h i c l e - t h e a d e p t m a y r e a c h e n l i g h t e n m e n t in
o n e s i n g l e l i f e t i m e , w h i l e a c c o r d i n g to B u d d h i s t t h o u g h t all
o t h e r g r a d e d paths take an extraordinarily long time, 'aeon
u p o n a e o n , ' to attain B u d d h a h o o d .
T a n t r a , ' a S a n s k r i t w o r d , relates to t h e c o n c e p t o f w e a v -
i n g , s u g g e s t i n g a c t i v i t y , c o n t i n u i t y , a n d also i n t e r d e p e n -
d e n c e a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s . T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m is b a s e d o n
t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f M a d h y a m i k a , w h i c h is e s s e n t i a l l y t h e
c o n c e p t o f t h e m i d d l e w a y , t h e view free o f the t w o e x t r e m e s ,
e t e r n a l i s m a n d n i h i l i s m . It is i n t e r e s t e d n e i t h e r i n t h e o -
r e t i c a l a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n s , n o r in t h e a s c e t i c
p r a c t i c e s o f s o m e o t h e r s e c t s . Its e m p h a s i s is o n the m e t h o d ,
o n a c t i v i t y a n d c o n t i n u i t y . T h e m e t h o d s a r e c o m p l e x , at
t i m e s b e w i l d e r i n g , s t r a n g e a n d i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e to t h e
uninitiated, suggestive of primitive superstition, and
s h a m a n i s t i c m a g i c . Y e t in t h e i r e s s e n c e t h e y are all b u t
d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s o f spiritual transformation: w a y s of t r a n s -
m u t i n g a n y a n d all a s p e c t s o f s a m s a r i c life - positive, n e g a -
t i v e , o r n e u t r a l - i n t o t r a n s c e n d e n t a l w i s d o m . All o b s t a c l e s ,
negativities, passions are harnessed a n d transmuted into
v e h i c l e s o n t h e p a t h to e n l i g h t e n m e n t . G o o d a n d evil a r e
t r a n s c e n d e d a n d f l o w b a c k into p u r e spiritual e s s e n c e w h i c h
is t h e u l t i m a t e n a t u r e o f t h e u n i v e r s e . T h i s is t h e direct,
s h o r t p a t h to l i b e r a t i o n , t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l o n e , a s it entails
a r a d i c a l r e v o l u t i o n o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , b u t it is b y n o m e a n s
a n e a s y p a t h , n o r d e v o i d o f d a n g e r s . It is far f r o m b e i n g
p r i m i t i v e (in t h e n e g a t i v e s e n s e o f t h a t t e r m ) ; q u i t e to t h e
c o n t r a r y , it i s a m o s t s o p h i s t i c a t e d m e t h o d of spiritual
g r o w t h a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . M i r c e a Eliade p o i n t s o u t that
t h e r e are parallels b e t w e e n

...tantrism and the great Western mystero-sophic

c u r r e n t t h a t , at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e C h r i s t i a n e r a ,
arose from the confluence of Gnosticism, Hermet-
i s m , G r e c o - E g y p t i a n a l c h e m y , a n d t h e traditions
of the M y s t e r i e s . 2 7

T h e g o a l is t h e s a m e a s in all o t h e r s c h o o l s o f B u d d h i s m ,
n a m e l y , e n l i g h t e n m e n t , b u t it is e n l i g h t e n m e n t h e r e a n d
n o w , a n d n o t in a n y i n c o n c e i v a b l e f u t u r e . It a i m s at t h e
p e r m a n e n t destruction of suffering - the sole concern of
B u d d h a a s e x p r e s s e d in h i s v e r y first s e r m o n , o n t h e F o u r
N o b l e T r u t h s - a n d f o l l o w s t h e c o n v i c t i o n that t h e r e is an
a l t e r n a t i v e in t h i s e x i s t e n c e to t h e m i s e r y o f m u n d a n e life.
It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e t h a t b e f o r e e n t e r i n g t h e tantric p a t h
t h e a d e p t m u s t b e familiar w i t h a n d practice at all t i m e s t h e
f u n d a m e n t a l steps of the Hinayana and Mahayana schools.
Restraint, self-awareness, training of the mind, c o m p a s -
s i o n , a n d c u l t i v a t i o n of w i s d o m a r e n e c e s s a r y f o u n d a t i o n s
b e f o r e o n e v e n t u r e s i n t o t h e d i a m o n d p a t h . In fact a T a n t r i c
m a s t e r o f t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y Atisa ' b a s e d his t e a c h i n g o n
the idea that H i n a y a n a , M a h a y a n a and Vajrayana could not
be regarded separately but must be seen as aspects of a
single p a t h . ' 2 8
L o o k i n g at t h e t h r e e y a n a s t o g e t h e r , t h e y are
a c o n s i s t e n t a n d n a t u r a l e v o l u t i o n in B u d d h i s t t h e o r y a n d
practice.
T a n t r a i m p l i e s c o n t i n u i t y - t h e c o n t i n u i t y of the m o v e -
m e n t o f o n e ' s life a n d i n n e r g r o w t h , w h e n spiritual practice
i s c o n s c i o u s l y p u r s u e d . A n d p r a c t i c e l e a d s to an u n d e r -
s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n t e r w o v e n n e s s o f all p h e n o m e n a , t h e rela-
tionship between microcosm and macrocosm, mind and
u n i v e r s e , m a t t e r a n d spirit - a n idea that b e a r s a striking
s i m i l a r i t y to t h e f i n d i n g s o f m o d e r n s c i e n c e .
 It c o u l d b e s a i d t h a t t h e a i m o f B u d d h i s t T a n t r a is t o
p e n e t r a t e into, h a r n e s s , a n d transform the dynamic forces
of the universe, w h i c h are n o different from the psycho-
logical forces and archetypal constellations of our o w n
p s y c h e . B u t this c a n n o t b e d o n e through the exercise of
discursive thought or application of abstract theories, but
o n l y b y b e i n g d e e p l y i m m e r s e d in a c t u a l p r a c t i c e s . D u e t o
the e n o r m o u s wealth of those practices, 2 9
Tantra has given
r i s e t o m u c h m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d m i s c o n c e p t i o n s . In t h e
W e s t e r n w o r l d it h a s o f t e n b e e n e q u a t e d w i t h m a g i c a n d
exotic sexual practices.
A s t o t h e o r i g i n s o f t h e T a n t r a , a s w e l l a s t h e similarity o r
d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n H i n d u a n d B u d d h i s t T a n t r a s , t h e r e is
m u c h controversy, a n d n o definitive a g r e e m e n t o n these
i s s u e s . A c c o r d i n g t o o n e a u t h o r , t h e r e w a s n o o n e particular
p e r s o n w h o i n t r o d u c e d T a n t r a into B u d d h i s m at a n y p a r -
ticular t i m e , b u t rather that it h a s b e e n gradually incorporated
in t h e c o u r s e o f c e n t u r i e s . 3 0
T h e s a m e author maintains that
there are n o fundamental differences between Hindu and
Buddhist Tantras. 3 1

O t h e r scholars, b y contrast, such as Lama Govinda and

B e n o y t a s h B h a t t a c h a r y m a i n t a i n that T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m is
n o t an offspring of Tantric Hinduism, as claimed by some;
it w a s crystallized i n t o a definitive f o r m b y t h e third c e n t u r y
A D . B o t h scholars affirm that despite outward appearances
o f similarity b e t w e e n t h e t w o s y s t e m s , t h e r e are f u n d a m e n t a l
differences. The main difference, according to Lama
G o v i n d a l i e s in t h e c o n c e p t o f sakti, t h e active p o w e r , a n d
t h e c r e a t i v e f e m i n i n e a s p e c t o f Siva, the highest god. This
aspect does not enter into the system of Tantric Buddhism.
I n t h e l a t t e r t h e c e n t r a l i d e a is n o t sakti - p o w e r , b u t prajna -
k n o w l e d g e , intuitive w i s d o m . 3 2
It w o u l d b e h a r d t h o u g h t o
differentiate wisdom and power in the context of
V a j r a y a n a . W i s d o m ultimately is p o w e r , albeit n o t t h e p o w e r
of t h e s w o r d , but t h e force capable of affecting transform-
a t i o n , a n d B u d d h i s t s r e p e a t e d l y talk a b o u t t h e p o w e r of t h e
mind.
 T h e s e i s s u e s m a y n o t b e o f m a j o r s i g n i f i c a n c e a s far a s
t h e p r a c t i c e o f V a j r a y a n a is c o n c e r n e d . H o w e v e r , since
t h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n f u s i o n o n this p o i n t , it is i m p o r t a n t
t o b e a w a r e o f t h e m , a n d to r e c o g n i z e t h e p r o p e r d i s t i n c -
tions as well as the equivalents between the two Tantric
systems.
T h e p o l a r i t y o f m a l e a n d f e m a l e p r i n c i p l e s is a b a s i c
V a j r a y a n a c o n c e p t , a n d t h e i r u n i o n is t h e goal o f all T a n t r i c
p r a c t i c e s . T h r o u g h this u n i o n o f o p p o s i t e s all duality is
t r a n s c e n d e d i n t o a n a b s o l u t e u n i t y . T h i s is t h e h i g h e s t
s p i r i t u a l r e a l i t y in t h e p a t h t o e n l i g h t e n m e n t - in fact it is
e n l i g h t e n m e n t itself.
I n B u d d h i s t i c o n o g r a p h y t h e p r i n c i p l e o f u n i o n is r e p -
r e s e n t e d b y d e i t i e s a n d t h e i r c o n s o r t s in ecstatic e m b r a c e ,
e n j o y i n g great bliss.

A c c o r d i n g to all s c h o o l s o f T a n t r a , bliss is t h e
n a t u r e o f t h e A b s o l u t e . . . . T h e A b s o l u t e is realised
b y u s w h e n w e r e a l i s e o u r self a s p e r f e c t b l i s s . In
all o u r o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e s o f p l e a s u r e w e h a v e
b u t a m o m e n t a r y g l i m p s e o f t h e s a m e bliss a s
c o n s t i t u t e s t h e u l t i m a t e n a t u r e o f o u r self. B u t
t h e s e experiences of pleasure, b e c a u s e of their
e x t r e m e l y l i m i t e d a n d d e f i l e d n a t u r e , b i n d u s to a
l o w e r p l a n e o f life, i n s t e a d o f c o n t r i b u t i n g to o u r
advancement towards self-realisation. 33

B l i s s , n i r v a n a , e n l i g h t e n m e n t b e c o m e s y n o n y m o u s in
T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m - t h e total i m m e r s i o n o f t h e u l t i m a t e
n a t u r e o f t h e self a n d t h e n o t - s e l f in t h e o n e n e s s o f t h e
perfect b l i s s . 3 4
T h e s e x o - y o g i c spiritual practices - the erotic
m y s t i c i s m , s o m u c h m i s u n d e r s t o o d in t h e W e s t - a r e b a s e d
o n that principle, w h e n sexual bliss b e c o m e s divine bliss
a n d t h e i n s t r u m e n t f o r h i g h e s t spiritual a t t a i n m e n t .
B u d d h i s t T a n t r a h o l d s t h a t t h e h u m a n b o d y is t h e m i c r o -
c o s m that e m b o d i e s the truth of the macrocosm. Absolute
r e a l i t y c o n t a i n s all d u a l i t i e s a n d p o l a r i t i e s : n o u m e n o n a n d
p h e n o m e n o n , potentiality a n d manifestation, nirvana and
s a m s a r a , prajna ( w i s d o m - f e m a l e principle) a n d upaya
( m e t h o d t o a t t a i n w i s d o m - m a l e p r i n c i p l e ) , sunya (void)
a n d karuna ( c o m p a s s i o n ) . Within their o w n bodies Tantric
d i s c i p l e s a c h i e v e t h e r e u n i o n o f t h e t w o polar p r i n c i p l e s ,
that is the primordial unity w h i c h excludes all dismirtination
and includes all d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s . Or, in o t h e r words,
t h r o u g h t h e m e d i u m o f their b o d i e s t h e y t r a n s c e n d t h e
m u n d a n e , p h e n o m e n a l world and experience non-duality,
t h e c o m p l e t e n e s s p r e c e d i n g all c r e a t i o n , t h e G r e a t Bliss. All
T a n t r i c p r a c t i c e s , rituals a n d m e d i t a t i o n s - t h e s o - c a l l e d
sadhanas - have as their aim this realization.
This is t h e d i a l e c t i c o f o p p o s i t e s , t h e t h e m e of the
M a d h y a m i k a p h i l o s o p h y , the M i d d l e W a y , that e n c o m p a s -
s e s a n d e m b r a c e s all. B u t T a n t r i c d i s c i p l e s are m o r e c o n -
c e r n e d w i t h d i r e c t k n o w l e d g e o f t h a t s t a t e , a c h i e v e d in t h e
actuality of their practice.

R i g h t in t h a t m o m e n t w h e n t h e G r e a t C o m p a s s i o n
arises
E m e r g e s n a k e d l y a n d vividly t h e G r e a t V o i d n e s s .
L e t m e a l w a y s f i n d this u n m i s t a k a b l e T w o - i n - O n e
Path
A n d p r a c t i c e it d a y a n d n i g h t . 3 5

T h e T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t s y m b o l o f t h e T w o - i n - O n e is yab-
yum, t h e f a t h e r - m o t h e r d i v i n e c o u p l e in e m b r a c e , seen
r e p e a t e d l y in T i b e t a n s a c r e d art, a n d w h i c h b o t h i n s p i r e s
a n d e x p r e s s e s visually the experiences a n d visions of medita-
tion. L a m a G o v i n d a s t a t e s that in t h e s e s y m b o l s t h e r e is n o
a s s o c i a t i o n w h a t e v e r w i t h p h y s i c a l s e x u a l i t y . T h e y portray
o n l y the union of male a n d female principles - the eternal
female qualities, as those of the 'Divine Mother,' or Tran-
s c e n d e n t a l W i s d o m . '...Instead of seeking union with a
w o m a n o u t s i d e o u r s e l v e s , w e h a v e t o s e e k it within our-
selves...by t h e u n i o n o f o u r m a l e a n d f e m a l e n a t u r e in t h e
process of meditation.' 3 6
Lama G o v i n d a holds the view that
s e x u a l p o l a r i t y h a s to b e r e c o g n i z e d a s a m e r e i n c i d e n t of
u n i v e r s a l p o l a r i t y a n d h a s to b e o v e r c o m e . 3 7
 O n l y if w e a r e a b l e to s e e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f b o d y
a n d m i n d , o f p h y s i c a l a n d spiritual i n t e r a c t i o n in
a u n i v e r s a l p e r s p e c t i v e , a n d if in this w a y w e
o v e r c o m e t h e T a n d ' m i n e ' a n d t h e w h o l e structure
of egocentric feelings, opinions, and prejudices,
w h i c h p r o d u c e t h e illusion o f o u r s e p a r a t e i n d i -
v i d u a l i t y , t h e n o n l y c a n w e rise i n t o t h e s p h e r e o f
Buddhahood. 3 8

N e v e r t h e l e s s c o n j u g a l i n t e r c o u r s e (maithuna) has been

p r a c t i c e d b y T a n t r i c B u d d h i s t s a s a s a c r e d ritual, b a s e d o n
t h e s a m e c o n c e p t o f t h e u n i o n o f m a l e a n d f e m a l e principles.
S . B . D a s g u p t a e x a m i n e s t h e a r g u m e n t of t h e T a n t r i c B u d -
d h i s t s i n d e f e n c e of their unconventional practice of maithuna.
T h e y e m p h a s i z e that everything d e p e n d s o n the purity of
the m i n d : actions motivated by and d o n e with wisdom and
compassion, with a pure mind, cannot but be pure. But
t h e y a l s o w a r n t h a t it is a v e r y d a n g e r o u s p a t h for t h e
u n i n i t i a t e d . ' T h a t w h i c h d r a g s t h e u n i n i t i a t e d fool to t h e
h e l l o f d e b a u c h e r y m a y h e l p t h e initiated y o g i n t o attain
enlightenment/ 3 9
T h e vital p o i n t is t h e a d h e r e n c e of t h e
y o g i a n d y o g i n i to t h e i r v o w t o p e r f o r m a n y a c t i o n w i t h a
c o m p a s s i o n a t e m i n d a n d w i t h w i s d o m , t h a t is, t h e k n o w -
l e d g e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e v o i d n a t u r e o f all p h e n o m -
e n a . S o it is s a i d t h a t :

A s s o m e m e d i c i n e is s w e e t t o taste a n d at t h e s a m e
t i m e c u r e s d i s e a s e , s o a l s o is t h e b l i s s c o m i n g o u t
of the combination of Prajna (wisdom) and Upaya
(compassion) - it d e s t r o y s t h e afflictions easily
a n d s m o o t h l y . . . . A g a i n , w h a t to o n e is a r o p e for
h a n g i n g o n e s e l f , is t h e r e m o v e r o f b o n d a g e to t h e
other. 4 0

A n o t h e r s c h o l a r , H e r b e r t G u e n t h e r , similarly a r g u e s in
f a v o r o f p l e a s u r e a s b e i n g a l i f e - e n h a n c i n g state. ' W e m a y
u s e s u c h p h r a s e s a s ' e c s t a t i c b l i s s ' o r ' g r e a t b l i s s ' t o refer to
the sense of freedom from the impoverishment brought
about by ego-centredness.' H e r e is h o w s o m e o f t h e
4 1

T a n t r i c texts speak on the subject of bliss.

T h e A l l - B u d d h a - A w a r e n e s s w h i c h is e x p e r i e n c e d
within ourselves
Is c a l l e d G r e a t Bliss b e c a u s e it is t h e m o s t e x c e l l e n t
p l e a s u r e o f all p l e a s u r e s .

W i t h o u t bliss t h e r e is n o e n l i g h t e n m e n t , for e n -
l i g h t e n m e n t is b l i s s itself.

J u s t a s in d e e p d a r k n e s s t h e m o o n - s t o n e s p r e a d s
its light,
S o this s u p r e m e G r e a t Bliss in a m o m e n t dissipates
all m i s e r y . 4 2

H o w e v e r , t h i s is b y n o m e a n s h e d o n i s m ; q u i t e to t h e
c o n t r a r y it r e q u i r e s e x t r a o r d i n a r y d i s c i p l i n e , a n d it is o n l y
t h r o u g h c o n s i s t e n t discipline that true freedom is acquired.
O n t h e p a t h t o w a r d s f r e e d o m a n y p a s s i o n a n d desire m u s t
b e utilized a n d t r a n s f o r m e d into w i s d o m . T h i s is t h e very
b a s i c p r i n c i p l e o f a n y T a n t r i c practice. In this respect it is
s i m i l a r t o h o m e o p a t h y , w o r k i n g o n t h e p r i n c i p l e that like
c u r e s l i k e . T h e v e r y s a m e e l e m e n t that c a u s e s a d i s e a s e if
a p p l i e d in a p r o p e r d o s e m a y act a s a n a n t i d o t e a n d c u r e t h e
same disease.

T h e V a j r a y a n i s t will a l s o s a y t h a t t h e v e r y action
w h i c h b i n d s a m a n d o w n to t h e w o r l d o f infinite
m i s e r y m a y h e l p h i m t o attain liberation, if t a k e n
f r o m a d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e , i . e . , if t a k e n w i t h t h e
k n o w l e d g e of the Prajna and the U p a y a . 4 3

A s in h o m e o p a t h i c m e d i c i n e , s y m p t o m s a r e n o t s u p -
p r e s s e d b u t r a t h e r c a u s e d to e x a c e r b a t e t e m p o r a r i l y a s a
n e c e s s a r y step towards their complete elimination. T h u s
a n g e r is c u r e d w i t h a n g e r , d e s i r e w i t h d e s i r e , a n d s o o n ,
w h e n t r a n s m u t e d into w i s d o m . But w e are dealing here
w i t h a d o u b l e - e d g e d s w o r d : the w a y m a y lead to Ulumination
or p a t h o l o g y . For this reason the path cannot be followed
w i t h o u t the g u i d a n c e of a qualified compassionate teacher
w h o h i m s e l f h a s a t t a i n e d w i s d o m . T h i s is also t h e r e a s o n
w h y t h e t e a c h i n g s a n d actual practices have b e e n kept
s e c r e t : t o a c h i e v e t h e d e s i r e d effect a n d v a l u e , t h e y c a n b e
t r a n s m i t t e d only through a highly developed teacher, and
u n d e r p r o p e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s . B u t i n fact t h e y are b o u n d to
remain secret to the u n i n i t i a t e d for, like any esoteric
t e a c h i n g s , t h e y c a n b e c o m m u n i c a t e d o n l y gradually a n d
t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t o n e i s r e a d y to r e c e i v e t h e m , o r r a t h e r to
d i s c o v e r t h e m for oneself.
I n t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a n d t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of
h i g h e r s t a t e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s n u m e r o u s a i d s are u s e d a n d
a g r e a t v a r i e t y o f w o r s h i p s a n d r i t u a l s p r a c t i c e d . T h e y are
all d e s i g n e d to i n v o l v e totally t h e t h r e e a s p e c t s of o u r
b e i n g , t h a t i s , b o d y , s p e e c h , a n d m i n d . T h e i r p u r p o s e is to
a c t i v a t e a n d c o n j u r e u p p o w e r f u l b u t d o r m a n t forces from
t h e d e e p l e v e l s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s ; it is a c o n f r o n t a t i o n
w i t h o u r i n n e r m o s t n a t u r e to a w a k e n u s .
T h e t h r e e b a s i c a n d p r e v a l e n t m e t h o d s are: recitation of
m a n t r a s - sacred w o r d s - involving the speech; performance
o f ritual g e s t u r e s - m u d r a s - involving t h e b o d y ; meditation,
e s p e c i a l l y v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f a n d identification w i t h deities -
involving the mind.
I s h a l l r e t u r n to t h e s e m e t h o d s in a s u b s e q u e n t c h a p t e r ,
a n d d i s c u s s t h e m a n d t h e i r m e a n i n g in m o r e detail, a s well
a s t h e s y m b o l i s m a n d f u n c t i o n o f m a n d a l a s . A t t h i s p o i n t it
m a y suffice to state that:

T h e a i m o f all t h e T a n t r a s is t o t e a c h t h e w a y s
w h e r e b y w e m a y s e t f r e e t h e d i v i n e light w h i c h is
m y s t e r i o u s l y p r e s e n t a n d s h i n i n g in e a c h o n e o f
u s , a l t h o u g h it is e n v e l o p e d in a n i n s i d i o u s w e b o f
the psyche's w e a v i n g . 4 4
2 C. G. Jung

TWO AND A h a l f m i l l e n i a a f t e r B u d d h a a n d a b o u t a c e n t u r y
a g o , o n t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e g l o b e f r o m I n d i a , Carl G u s t a v
J u n g w a s b o r n . H e w a s b o r n a n d lived h i s e n t i r e life in
S w i t z e r l a n d , in t h a t l o v e l y , p e a c e f u l c o u n t r y in t h e h e a r t o f
Europe and the Western World, the country which has
k n o w n n o w a r s for m a n y , m a n y years. His parents a n d
a n c e s t o r s o n b o t h s i d e s w e r e traditional p e o p l e , d e e p l y
r o o t e d in t h e S w i s s soil a n d c u s t o m s w h i c h e n d u r e a n d
t o l e r a t e n o c h a n g e . H e l o v e d h i s c o u n t r y , b u t s i n c e early
a g e h e felt t h a t its b e a u t y b e l o n g e d to a s p a c e a n d a t i m e
t h a t far t r a n s c e n d e d t h e n a r r o w b o u n d a r i e s o f that tiny
n a t i o n a n d its i m m o v a b l e s o c i e t y . H i s v e r y first m e m o r i e s -
first i n t i m a t i o n o f s o m e t h i n g larger t h a n h i m s e l f - were
m e m o r i e s o f w o n d e r a s h e s t o o d in a w e s o m e c o n t e m p l a t i o n
of the blue waters of Lake Constance, and the white, snow-
c o v e r e d peaks of the majestic Alps. Already then he had a
s e n s e that this w a s the center of the universe - but not the
u n i v e r s e o f h i s p a r e n t s a n d t h e f e w million S w i s s - b u t o f a
v e r y p r i v a t e u n i v e r s e w i t h i n h i m s e l f w h i c h h e s a w mirrored
in t h e q u i e t w a t e r s o f t h e l a k e , a n d e x t e n d i n g to t h e p e a k s o f
t h e A l p s , a n d b e y o n d i n t o infinity. H e g r e w u p a s a s h y
s e n s i t i v e b o y , o f t e n at o d d s w i t h his p a r e n t s ' beliefs a n d
h i s t e a c h e r s ' d e m a n d s . H e felt b o t h v e r y special a n d at
t i m e s i n a d e q u a t e in s c h o o l in c o m p a r i s o n to his c l a s s m a t e s .
H e w a s e a s i l y h u r t a n d w a s p r o n e to o u t b u r s t s o f r a g e w h e n
i n j u s t i c e w a s d o n e t o h i m - w h e n , for e x a m p l e , his t e a c h e r
a c c u s e d h i m o f c h e a t i n g . B u t it w a s in s u c h m o m e n t s that
h e s o u g h t a n d f o u n d r e f u g e in his p e r s o n a l i t y N u m b e r
T w o , a s h e u s e d to call it. T h i s personality w a s his true
a u t h e n t i c self, reaching d e e p i n t o t h e r o o t s of m a n k i n d
itself, p e r h a p s e v e n b e f o r e m a n k i n d w a s .

S o m e w h e r e d e e p in t h e b a c k g r o u n d I a l w a y s k n e w
that I w a s two persons. O n e was the son of my
p a r e n t s , w h o w e n t to s c h o o l a n d w a s less intelli-
g e n t , a t t e n t i v e , h a r d - w o r k i n g , d e c e n t , a n d clean
than m a n y other boys. The other was grown up -
o l d , in fact - s k e p t i c a l , m i s t r u s t f u l , r e m o t e f r o m
t h e w o r l d o f m e n , b u t c l o s e to n a t u r e , t h e e a r t h ,
t h e s u n , t h e m o o n , t h e w e a t h e r , all living creatures,
a n d a b o v e all c l o s e to t h e n i g h t , to d r e a m s , a n d to
w h a t e v e r ' G o d ' w o r k e d directly in h i m . 4 5

T h i s ' o t h e r ' w a s a fragile, frail p e r s o n a l i t y that o f t e n

e l u d e d h i m , a n d s o h e h a d to p u s h f o r w a r d w i t h his s o -
c a l l e d p e r s o n a l i t y N u m b e r O n e , a s h a m , a g a m e , that g r a d u -
a l l y m o r e a n d m o r e s a t i s f i e d all a r o u n d h i m , e x c e p t his o w n
s e l f . S o h e c o n t i n u e d his p a t h , g o i n g f r o m o n e s u c c e s s to
a n o t h e r ; w h a t e v e r h e w o r k e d at h e a c c o m p l i s h e d with flying
c o l o r s . B u t t h e t u r m o i l i n s i d e n e v e r left h i m , a n d w a s a
c o n s t a n t p r o d d e r t h a t led h i m a s t r a y f r o m w h e r e e v e r y o n e
a r o u n d h i m e x p e c t e d h i m to g o : w h i l e his personality N u m -
b e r O n e w a s brilliant, h i s p e r s o n a l i t y N u m b e r T w o w a s
a c h i n g w i t h p a i n , t h e p a i n o f unfulfilled w h o l e n e s s . H e
s e a r c h e d f o r t h a t w h o l e n e s s all his life.
H e h e a r d o f a p r o f e s s o r in V i e n n a . H e w e n t t o s e e t h e
p r o f e s s o r , a n d p a i d h i s r e s p e c t t o h i m a s h e m i s t o o k h i m for
a genius w h o was not understood by others. They became
close friends a n d associates. Jung's personality Number
T w o , h o w e v e r , r e b e l l e d at t h e v e r y i n s t a n c e of their first
e n c o u n t e r . B u t h e r e f u s e d t o h e e d his p e r s o n a l i t y N u m b e r
T w o w h i c h w a s still w e a k a n d s u b m e r g e d at that t i m e . T h e
p r o f e s s o r in V i e n n a b e c a m e f a m o u s , a n d a s his f a m e g r e w
t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p d w i n d l e d . O n l y later J u n g u n d e r s t o o d : it
w a s n o t t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p t h a t d w i n d l e d , it w a s his p e r s o n -
a l i t y N u m b e r T w o t h a t b e c a m e a n individual in h i s o w n
right. T h e professor from Vienna and Jung parted. This was
t h e g r e a t e s t s h o c k in h i s life. It t h r e w h i m into d a r k n e s s
s u c h a s h e h a d n e v e r k n o w n b e f o r e . B u t o u t o f all o f it his
entire work emerged.
H e h a d left b e h i n d n o t o n l y h i s f r i e n d f r o m V i e n n a , t o
w h o m h e n e v e r t h e l e s s a l w a y s r e m a i n e d grateful, b u t also
his personality N u m b e r O n e . From then on Jung devoted
h i m s e l f fully t o h i s p e r s o n a l i t y N u m b e r T w o . M a n y p e o p l e
f r o m all t h e c o r n e r s o f t h e w o r l d c a m e to s e e h i m a n d
i n s p i r e h i m , a s h e i n s p i r e d t h e m . A l o n e in his s t o n e t o w e r
h e w a s in d e e p a n d i n t i m a t e contact w i t h e v e r y t h i n g a n d
e v e r y o n e t h a t w a s at that t i m e , that p r e c e d e d h i m , a n d
w o u l d follow h i m . O n a s t o r m y d a y in late spring, at the a g e
o f e i g h t y - f i v e , h i s l o n g a n d rich life c a m e to an e n d . H i s
p e r s o n a l i t y N u m b e r O n e finally left h i m for g o o d . B u t his
p e r s o n a l i t y N u m b e r T w o g o e s on living, for there w a s n o time
w h e n it w a s n o t a n d t h e r e can b e n o time it will cease to b e . . . .
' M y life h a s b e e n in a s e n s e t h e q u i n t e s s e n c e o f w h a t I
have written,' 4 6
s a y s C . G . J u n g in t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n to h i s
a u t o b i o g r a p h y . S o his entire life, his m y t h , should b e viewed
as a n indivisible w h o l e , that proceeded as a gradual and
c o n t i n o u s u n f o l d m e n t o u t o f its o w n u n i q u e s e e d . N o e v e n t ,
n o a s p e c t o f h i s o u t e r o r i n n e r life a r e u n i m p o r t a n t o r
irrelevant to his w o r k .

M y life is w h a t I h a v e d o n e , m y scientific w o r k ; t h e
o n e is i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e o t h e r . T h e w o r k is t h e
e x p r e s s i o n o f m y i n n e r d e v e l o p m e n t ; for c o m m i t -
m e n t to t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s f o r m s the
m a n a n d produces his transformations. M y works
c a n b e r e g a r d e d a s s t a t i o n s a l o n g m y life's w a y . 4 7

T h e r e w a s a p a r t i c u l a r l y p r e g n a n t t i m e in J u n g ' s life
w h e n n e w i d e a s w e r e g e r m i n a t i n g a n d w h i c h w e r e later to
o c c u p y h i m for t h e r e s t o f his life. T h i s w a s t h e p e r i o d
f o l l o w i n g h i s b r e a k w i t h F r e u d , w h e n for a w h i l e h e lost h i s
b e a r i n g s . It w a s a t i m e o f c o n f u s i o n , t u r m o i l , isolation,
loneliness - of i n n e r chaos. J u n g w a s assailed with con-
fusing d r e a m s , images, visions, a surge of unconscious
m a t e r i a l t h a t at t i m e s m a d e h i m d o u b t h i s o w n s a n i t y . A n d
i n d e e d , in a s e n s e it w a s n o t u n l i k e a p s y c h o t i c b r e a k . B u t it
w a s a l s o a c r u c i a l i n t e r s e c t i o n , a m o s t c r e a t i v e station a l o n g
h i s life's w a y . T h e s e w e r e the years of J u n g ' s confrontation
with his unconscious.
H e r e the vision of the y o u n g Siddhartha Gautama comes
b a c k to o u r m i n d . T h e well protected innocent prince sud-
d e n l y s h o c k e d b y t h e s i g h t s o f t h e tragic s i d e o f life -
s i c k n e s s , o l d a g e , a n d d e a t h - h i s d e t e r m i n a t i o n to find
a n s w e r s t o t h e riddle o f life, first u n s u c c e s s f u l l y from l e a r n e d
m e n , a n d finally f r o m w i t h i n h i m s e l f , in d e e p m e d i t a t i o n
u n d e r t h e b o d h i t r e e . Similarly, J u n g c o u l d n o t find a n s w e r s
to his q u e s t i o n s either from Freud or a n y o n e else, or any
b o o k s a n d t h e o r i e s , a n d s o like S i d d h a r t h a , h e left b e h i n d
all o f t h e m , t o l o o k f o r a n s w e r s w i t h i n h i s o w n p s y c h e . In
h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y J u n g tells u s h e h a d to u n d e r g o t h e
o r i g i n a l e x p e r i e n c e h i m s e l f . O n e d a y h e sat at h i s d e s k , let
h i m s e l f d r o p , a n d plunged into the depths of his psyche,
s u b m i t t i n g t o the s p o n t a n e o u s i m p u l s e s o f his u n c o n s c i o u s . 48

T h i s w a s t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f a n e x p e r i m e n t w h i c h lasted
f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s a n d p r o d u c e d a w e a l t h o f m a t e r i a l , later to
b e c o m e part of J u n g ' s m o s t important works, his most
creative contributions. T h r o u g h o u t that time h e not only
o b s e r v e d c a r e f u l l y b u t w r o t e d o w n , a n d e m b e l l i s h e d with
d r a w i n g s , h i s d r e a m s , f a n t a s i e s a n d v i s i o n s , a n d t h e y all
b e c a m e p a r t o f h i s f a m o u s R e d B o o k . B u t b e i n g t r a i n e d as a
s c i e n t i s t , h e felt t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g
o f all t h a t m a t e r i a l . 'I h a d to d r a w c o n c r e t e c o n c l u s i o n s from
t h e i n s i g h t t h e u n c o n s c i o u s h a d g i v e n m e - a n d t h a t task
w a s to b e c o m e a life's w o r k . ' 4 9
H e h a d to s h o w that his very
p e r s o n a l , subjective e x p e r i e n c e s w e r e potential experiences
o f all h u m a n k i n d f o r t h e y w e r e a n i n h e r e n t p a r t o f the
nature of the p s y c h e . 5 0
It w a s , t h o u g h , a r e v o l u t i o n a r y w a y
i n s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d o l o g y , 'a n e w w a y o f s e e i n g t h i n g s . ' 5 1

A b o v e all J u n g h a d t o p r o v e t h a t h i s o w n e x p e r i e n c e s w e r e
r e a l , w h i c h o t h e r s c o u l d h a v e t o o : that the u n c o n s c i o u s
w a s a d e m o n s t r a b l e p s y c h i c reality, b u t w h i c h h a d its o w n
s t y l e a n d s p o k e its o w n l a n g u a g e , n a m e l y t h e u n i v e r s a l
language of images and symbols. Furthermore Jung became
a w a r e that the insights gained from the unconscious must
b e translated into an ethical obligation.

N o t t o d o s o is t o fall p r e y to t h e p o w e r p r i n c i p l e ,
a n d this produces dangerous effects which are
d e s t r u c t i v e n o t o n l y t o o t h e r s b u t e v e n to t h e
k n o w e r . T h e images of the unconscious place a
g r e a t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y u p o n a m a n . F a i l u r e to u n d e r -
s t a n d t h e m , o r a shirking of ethical responsibility,
deprives him of his wholeness and imposes a painful
fragmentariness on his life.52

T h i s t h o u g h t is r e m i n i s c e n t of B u d d h i s t e t h i c s , as e n u n -
c i a t e d in t h e ' E i g h t f o l d P a t h , ' t h a t is, r i g h t action a n d right
meditation. Personal suffering cannot be eliminated, and
i n d i v i d u a l w h o l e n e s s a c h i e v e d , w h e n ethical c o n d u c t is
n o t o b s e r v e d . J u n g understood, as B u d d h a pointed out
l o n g a g o , t h a t m e r e e g o - c e n t e r e d p u r s u i t s in d i s r e g a r d o f
o t h e r s l e a d t o c o n f u s i o n . T h u s k n o w l e d g e acquired t h r o u g h
contact with the unconscious - through 'right meditation' -
in o r d e r t o h a v e a n y s i g n i f i c a n c e , m u s t b e c o m e a n integral
p a r t o f o n e ' s life; it m u s t b e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o 'right a c t i o n . '
A f t e r a b o u t six y e a r s o f a fierce s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e d a r k n e s s
o f h i s u n c o n s c i o u s , J u n g b e g a n t o h a v e t h e first i n k l i n g s o f
light. The dawn appeared when h e started sketching
mandalas - one n e w mandala every day. A mandala, which
is t h e S a n s k r i t w o r d f o r circle, is t h e circular p a t t e r n f o r m
f o u n d in all e l e m e n t s o f n a t u r e , a n d in t h e arts a n d d a n c e s
o f all p e o p l e , t h r o u g h o u t history. It is also a n i m a g e residing
in the depths of h u m a n psyche which spontaneously
e m e r g e s a n d a s s u m e s m a n y d i f f e r e n t f o r m s . It u s u a l l y t a k e s
s h a p e in t i m e s o f d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d i n n e r c h a o s , a n d it is
n a t u r e ' s w a y o f restoring balance a n d order. J u n g discovered,
t h r o u g h his o w n experience, that each single mandala h e
d r e w w a s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f h i s i n n e r s t a t e o f b e i n g at that
p a r t i c u l a r t i m e . A s his p s y c h i c state c h a n g e d s o did t h e
m a n d a l a h e w o u l d s p o n t a n e o u s l y s k e t c h . H e c a m e to t h e
conclusion that the mandala represented 'Formation, Trans-
formation, Eternal Mind's eternal recreation.' 53
At the same
t i m e he realized that the efforts he pursued consciously,
p r o m p t e d s o t o s p e a k b y his p e r s o n a l i t y N u m b e r O n e ,
w e r e u n d e r m i n e d b y a s t r o n g e r force w h i c h c o m p e l l e d h i m
t o t a k e a d i f f e r e n t p a t h . In o t h e r w o r d s , h e c o u l d n o t c h o o s e
a g o a l , r a t h e r it c h o s e h i m .

I h a d to let m y s e l f b e c a r r i e d a l o n g b y t h e c u r r e n t ,
w i t h o u t a n o t i o n o f w h e r e it w o u l d lead m e . W h e n
I began drawing the mandalas, however, I saw
t h a t e v e r y t h i n g , all t h e p a t h s I h a d b e e n following,
all t h e s t e p s I h a d t a k e n , w e r e l e a d i n g b a c k to a
s i n g l e p o i n t - n a m e l y , to the mid-point. It b e c a m e
i n c r e a s i n g l y p l a i n t o m e t h a t t h e m a n d a l a is the
c e n t e r . It is t h e e x p o n e n t o f all p a t h s . It is the p a t h
to t h e c e n t e r , to i n d i v i d u a t i o n . 54

T h u s t h e f o r c e f u l a n d p e r s i s t e n t q u e s t i o n in h i s m i n d
w a s a n s w e r e d - t h e q u e s t i o n a s to w h a t this p r o c e s s is all
a b o u t , a n d w h a t its d e s t i n a t i o n is. T h e g o a l w a s t h e Self,
t h e a l p h a a n d o m e g a o f p s y c h i c d e v e l o p m e n t , for t h e S e l f is
t h e proto-image out of which the person emerges and the
culmination of his growth.
A n d t h e n J u n g h a d a d r e a m t h a t w a s b o t h s y m b o l i c of h i s
s i t u a t i o n a t t h e t i m e ( d a r k n e s s a n d isolation, b u t also
e m e r g i n g v i s i o n o f light a n d f l o w e r i n g o f n e w life), a n d
t h r o u g h its e l a b o r a t e i m a g e r y u n m i s t a k a b l y p o i n t e d to t h e
center, the Self, as the goal.

T h r o u g h t h i s d r e a m I u n d e r s t o o d that t h e S e l f is
the principle a n d archetype of orientation and
m e a n i n g . T h e r e i n lies its h e a l i n g f u n c t i o n . For
m e , t h i s i n s i g h t signified an a p p r o a c h to t h e c e n t e r
 a n d therefore to the goal. O u t of this e m e r g e d a
first i n k l i n g o f m y p e r s o n a l m y t h . 5 5

T h i s w a s an event of tremendous importance, a turning

p o i n t in J u n g ' s life a n d h i s w o r k . It w a s t h e c l i m a x o f h i s
c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , h i s six y e a r s o f solitary
battle with the dark depths of his psyche. Jung describes
these years as

t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t in m y life - in t h e m e v e r y t h i n g
e s s e n t i a l w a s d e c i d e d . It all b e g a n t h e n ; t h e later
d e t a i l s a r e o n l y s u p p l e m e n t s a n d clarifications o f
t h e m a t e r i a l t h a t b u r s t forth f r o m t h e u n c o n s c i o u s ,
a n d a t first s w a m p e d m e . It w a s t h e prima materia
for a lifetime's w o r k . 5 6

It w a s d u r i n g t h o s e y e a r s t h a t h e m a d e t h e d i s c o v e r y o f
the collective unconscious a n d developed the concepts of
t h e a r c h e t y p e s a n d t h e S e l f . B u t m u c h w o r k still lay a h e a d o f
h i m : all t h e f a n t a s i e s a n d m a t e r i a l t h a t h a d f l o o d e d h i m
f r o m t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a n d t h e i n s i g h t s h e g a i n e d n e e d e d to
b e b u i l t o n a solid f o u n d a t i o n o f scientific t h e o r y . T h a t
w o r k gradually unfolded as J u n g encountered alchemy.
I n a l c h e m y h e d i s c o v e r e d t h a t , u n l i k e in C h r i s t i a n i t y , t h e
f e m i n i n e p r i n c i p l e is a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h e m a s c u l i n e . T h e
s y m b o l s in a l c h e m y , 'those old acquaintances' of Jung,
fascinated h i m . 5 7
B u t h e b e g a n really to u n d e r s t a n d it after
r e a d i n g a C h i n e s e a l c h e m i c a l text, The Secret of the Golden
Flower. 58
T h i s w a s a l s o p r o b a b l y t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s inter-
e s t i n O r i e n t a l p h i l o s o p h i e s a n d spiritual t r a d i t i o n s . T o
J u n g 'the secret of the alchemy was in...the transformation
of personality through the blending a n d fusion of the noble
with the base components...of the conscious with the
unconscious.' 5 9
I n a l c h e m y h e f o u n d a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e to
h i s p s y c h o l o g y , w h i c h g a v e h i s w o r k a c o n f i r m a t i o n of its
v a l i d i t y . It w a s n o t h o w e v e r t h e e n d p r o d u c t of J u n g ' s
c r e a t i v e j o u r n e y , for h e did not stop with psychology: he
w e n t b e y o n d it.
COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS

J u n g ' s g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o p s y c h o l o g y w a s his t h e o r y of
t h e collective u n c o n s c i o u s . H e a r g u e d that this c o n c e p t w a s
n o t a s p e c u l a t i v e idea o r a p h i l o s o p h i c a l postulate, b u t there
w a s a n e m p i r i c a l p r o o f for i t . 6 0
H e d e f i n e s the collective
u n c o n s c i o u s a s the p a r t o f t h e p s y c h e that o w e s its existence
exclusively t o heredity, a n d n o t t o personal experiences which
h a d b e e n c o n s c i o u s at o n e t i m e a n d t h e n d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m
c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e latter is t h e layer o f t h e p s y c h e w h i c h h e
c a l l s t h e p e r s o n a l u n c o n s c i o u s a n d w h i c h c o n t a i n s all t h e
material that the individual has merely forgotten or repres-
s e d , either deliberately or unintentionally. 61
Thus Jung
m a k e s the distinction between the personal unconscious,
t h e subjective psyche, and the objective psyche which he
c a l l s t h e i m p e r s o n a l , t r a n s p e r s o n a l , o r collective u n c o n -
s c i o u s . H e discovered the collective unconscious through
his o w n d r e a m s a n d visions, as well as those of his patients,
i n c l u d i n g f a n t a s i e s o f s c h i z o p h r e n i c s . H e o b s e r v e d that all
this material often contained mythological motifs and re-
l i g i o u s s y m b o l s . J u n g t h e n c a m e to t h e following c o n c l u s i o n :

In a d d i t i o n to o u r i m m e d i a t e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , w h i c h
is o f a t h o r o u g h l y p e r s o n a l n a t u r e a n d w h i c h w e
b e l i e v e t o b e t h e o n l y e m p i r i c a l p s y c h e ( e v e n if w e
tack o n the personal unconscious as an appendix),
t h e r e e x i s t s a s e c o n d p s y c h i c s y s t e m o f a collective,
u n i v e r s a l , a n d i m p e r s o n a l n a t u r e w h i c h is identical
in all i n d i v i d u a l s . T h i s collective u n c o n s c i o u s d o e s
n o t d e v e l o p i n d i v i d u a l l y b u t is i n h e r i t e d . It c o n -
sists o f pre-existent forms, the archetypes, which
can only b e c o m e conscious secondarily and which
g i v e d e f i n i t e f o r m to c e r t a i n p s y c h i c c o n t e n t s . 6 2

ARCHETYPES

A c c o r d i n g t o J u n g , a r c h e t y p e s - t h e c o n t e n t s of the collective
u n c o n s c i o u s - are a n a l o g o u s t o instincts. Both are f u n d a -
m e n t a l d y n a m i c f o r c e s in t h e h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y w h i c h
p u r s u e their i n h e r e n t goals, in t h e p s y c h i c or physiological
o r g a n i s m s r e s p e c t i v e l y . J u n g a l s o r e f e r s to a r c h e t y p e s a s
primordial images, 'the most ancient and the most univer-
sal t h o u g h t - f o r m o f h u m a n i t y . T h e y a r e a s m u c h feelings a s
thoughts.' 6 3
B u t it s h o u l d b e s t r e s s e d that a r c h e t y p e s a r e n o t
i n h e r i t e d i d e a s ; t h e y a r e m e r e l y p r o p e n s i t i e s in t h e h u m a n
p s y c h e w h i c h c a n e x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s in specific f o r m s a n d
m e a n i n g w h e n activated.

T h e r e a r e a s m a n y a r c h e t y p e s a s t h e r e a r e typical
s i t u a t i o n s in life. E n d l e s s r e p e t i t i o n h a s e n g r a v e d
these experiences into our psychic constitution,
n o t in t h e f o r m o f i m a g e s filled w i t h c o n t e n t , b u t at
first o n l y a s forms without content, representing
m e r e l y t h e possibility o f a certain type of perception
a n d action. W h e n a situation occurs which corre-
s p o n d s t o a g i v e n archetype, that archetype b e c o m e s
activated and a compulsiveness appears, which,
like a n i n s t i n c t u a l d r i v e , g a i n s its w a y a g a i n s t all
reason and w i l l . . . . 6 4

I n d e v e l o p i n g t h e c o n c e p t of a r c h e t y p e s a n d t h e i r d y n a -
m i s m J u n g q u o t e s a r e m a r k a b l e e x a m p l e : t h e g e n e s i s of t h e
i d e a o f c o n s e r v a t i o n o f e n e r g y , c r e d i t e d t o R o b e r t M a y e r in
t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e latter w a s n o t a p h y s i c i s t w h o
m i g h t b e naturally preoccupied with such a concept, but a
p h y s i c i a n , a n d t h e i d e a c a m e to h i m in a m o s t extraordinary
w a y , d u r i n g a v o y a g e in t h e t r o p i c s . H e r e is w h a t M a y e r
wrote about his experience and discovery:

I ' m f a r f r o m h a v i n g h a t c h e d o u t t h e t h e o r y at m y
writing d e s k . [ H e t h e n reports certain physiological
o b s e r v a t i o n s h e h a d m a d e . . . a s ship's doctor]. N o w ,
if o n e w a n t s to b e c l e a r o n m a t t e r s o f p h y s i o l o g y ,
s o m e k n o w l e d g e o f physical p r o c e s s e s is essential,
u n l e s s o n e p r e f e r s to w o r k at t h i n g s f r o m t h e m e t a -
p h y s i c a l s i d e , w h i c h I f i n d infinitely d i s g u s t i n g . I
t h e r e f o r e h e l d f a s t to p h y s i c s a n d s t u c k to t h e
subject with such f o n d n e s s that, although m a n y
 m a y l a u g h at m e f o r t h i s , I p a i d b u t little a t t e n t i o n
t o t h a t r e m o t e q u a r t e r o f t h e g l o b e in w h i c h w e
w e r e , preferring to remain o n board w h e r e I could
work without intermission, and where I passed
m a n y a n h o u r a s t h o u g h inspired, t h e like of w h i c h
I c a n n o t r e m e m b e r either before or since. S o m e
f l a s h e s o f t h o u g h t t h a t p a s s e d t h r o u g h m e w h i l e in
t h e r o a d s o f S u r a b a y a w e r e at o n c e a s s i d u o u s l y
f o l l o w e d u p , a n d in t h e i r t u r n led t o f r e s h s u b j e c t s .
T h o s e t i m e s h a v e p a s s e d , b u t the quiet examination
o f t h a t w h i c h t h e n c a m e t o t h e s u r f a c e in m e h a s
t a u g h t m e t h a t it is a t r u t h , w h i c h c a n n o t o n l y b e
s u b j e c t i v e l y felt, b u t objectively p r o v e d . It r e m a i n s
to b e s e e n w h e t h e r this can be accomplished by a
m a n s o little v e r s e d in p h y s i c s a s I a m . 6 5

T h e q u e s t i o n t h a t J u n g a s k e d h i m s e l f is: w h e r e did t h i s
n e w i d e a c o m e f r o m a n d i m p o s e itself u p o n c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
a n d w h a t is t h e force b e h i n d it that o v e r w h e l m e d t h e person-
a l i t y ? A n d t h e a n s w e r c a n b e f o u n d o n l y in a p p l y i n g h i s
t h e o r y o f a r c h e t y p e s , t h a t i s , t h a t ' t h e i d e a o f e n e r g y a n d its
conservation m u s t b e a primordial image that was dormant
in the collective u n c o n s c i o u s . ' 6 6
J u n g t h e n p r o c e e d s to
d e m o n s t r a t e that s u c h a primordial image indeed existed
s i n c e m o s t p r i m i t i v e t i m e s , e x p r e s s e d in m a n y d i f f e r e n t
f o r m s , as for e x a m p l e the idea of d a e m o n i s m , magic power,
soul's immortality, a n d m a n y others. T h e notion of energy,
its p r e s e r v a t i o n o r r a t h e r t r a n s m u t a t i o n , is t h e c e n t r a l c o n -
c e p t in all T a n t r a s .

THE SELF

A s already stated, there are countless archetypes, but the

o n e t h a t e n c o m p a s s e s all o t h e r s , t h e q u i n t e s s e n t i a l a r c h e -
t y p e is t h e S e l f . It is t h e o r g a n i z i n g , g u i d i n g a n d u n i t i n g
p r i n c i p l e w h i c h g i v e s t h e p e r s o n a l i t y direction a n d m e a n i n g
in life. It is t h e b e g i n n i n g , t h e s o u r c e o f t h e personality a n d
its u l t i m a t e g o a l , t h e c u l m i n a t i o n o f o n e ' s g r o w t h , that is,
s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n . T h e S e l f i s t h e homo totus, the timeless
m a n , that not only expresses his u n i q u e individuality and
w h o l e n e s s b u t is the s y m b o l of m a n ' s divinity, w h e n h e
touches the cosmos, his microcosm reflecting the
macrocosm.

Intellectually t h e S e l f is n o m o r e than a psychological

c o n c e p t , a c o n s t r u c t t h a t s e r v e s to e x p r e s s a n u n -
k n o w a b l e e s s e n c e which w e cannot grasp as such,
s i n c e b y d e f i n i t i o n it t r a n s c e n d s o u r p o w e r s o f
c o m p r e h e n s i o n . It m i g h t e q u a l l y w e l l b e called t h e
' G o d within u s . ' T h e beginnings of our whole
p s y c h i c life s e e m to b e inextricably r o o t e d in this
p o i n t , a n d all o u r h i g h e s t a n d u l t i m a t e p u r p o s e s
s e e m to b e striving towards i t . 6 7

J u n g a l s o r e f e r s to t h e S e l f a s b e i n g b o t h u n i t e m p o r a l a n d
u n i q u e , a n d u n i v e r s a l a n d e t e r n a l , the o n e e x p r e s s i n g m a n ' s
e s s e n c e , a n d t h e o t h e r b e i n g a G o d - i m a g e , an a r c h e t y p a l
symbol. 6 8

INDIVIDUATION

B e t w e e n t h e s t a g e s o f t h e self a s a s o u r c e in t h e b e g i n n i n g ,
a n d t h e s e l f a s a g o a l , in its u l t i m a t e d e s t i n a t i o n , t h e r e is a n
o n g o i n g c o n t i n u i t y o f d e v e l o p m e n t , w h i c h J u n g h a s called
t h e p r o c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n . It is t h e p r o c e s s of i n t e g r a t i o n
o f t h e personality. T h i s archetypal, universal psychic process
is a u t o n o m o u s a n d u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d it h a s r u n its c o u r s e
since immemorial t i m e . It reflects p s y c h e ' s striving to
h a r m o n i z e its c o n s c i o u s a n d u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t s , a n d it
is t h e n a t u r a l a n d s p o n t a n e o u s u r g e for self-realization,
w h o l e n e s s , a n d t h e q u e s t for m e a n i n g . Collectively it h a s
b e e n e x p r e s s e d in t h e m u l t i t u d e s o f m y t h s a n d s y m b o l s in
w h i c h m a n k i n d h a s g i v e n o u t w a r d f o r m to its i n n e r e x p e r i -
e n c e s . O n a n i n d i v i d u a l level, a l t h o u g h t h e p r o c e s s a l w a y s
g o e s o n s i n c e t h e p s y c h e n e v e r r e s t s , it m a y r e m a i n p u r e l y
u n c o n s c i o u s , o r m a y b e c o m e a c o n s c i o u s task. W h e t h e r it
will l e a d in o n e d i r e c t i o n o r t h e o t h e r d e p e n d s o n t h e i n t e r -
v e n t i o n of consciousness. T h e difference between the two
r o a d s is t r e m e n d o u s , a n d t h e i r o u t c o m e far r e a c h i n g . In
o n e i n s t a n c e w h e n c o n s c i o u s n e s s is n o t i n v o l v e d , ' t h e e n d
r e m a i n s a s d a r k as t h e b e g i n n i n g . ' In t h e o t h e r instance ' t h e
p e r s o n a l i t y is p e r m e a t e d w i t h light' a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s is
further extended and e n h a n c e d . 6 9

T h r o u g h a l c h e m y a n d its s y m b o l i s m J u n g b e c a m e a w a r e
t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y t a k e s p l a c e in t h e
i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e e g o a n d t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , o u t of
w h i c h a n e w u n i f i e d b e i n g e m e r g e s . It is a n e w b e i n g , y e t
n o t e n t i r e l y n e w for it w a s a l w a y s t h e r e , b u t d o r m a n t a n d
hidden in t h e c h a o s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . T h e process
requires an o p e n communication between the conscious
m i n d a n d its u n c o n s c i o u s c o u n t e r p a r t , a sensitivity to t h e
s i g n a l s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s w h i c h s p e a k s in t h e l a n g u a g e o f
s y m b o l s . It is t h e c o n s t a n t d i a l o g u e b e t w e e n the o u t e r a n d
t h e i n n e r , t h e m u n d a n e life a n d its s y m b o l i c d i m e n s i o n s -
d r e a m s , fantasies, visions.
T h e a r d u o u s task o f c o n s c i o u s c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e
u n c o n s c i o u s has the effect of expanding consciousness, of
d i m i n i s h i n g t h e s o v e r e i g n p o w e r s of t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d
bringing about the renewal and transformation of person-
a l i t y . T h i s c h a n g e , w h i c h is t h e central o b j e c t o f a l c h e m y ,
a n d of J u n g ' s psychotherapy, comes about through the
principle w h i c h J u n g called the transcendent f u n c t i o n . 7 0

I n d e e d it is m o r e t h a n a n a r d u o u s a n d o f t e n painful task,
a s J u n g e x p e r i e n c e d h i m s e l f . It is a battle b e t w e e n t w o
o p p o s i n g f o r c e s , e a c h c o n t e n d i n g for its o w n rights, t h e
b a t t l e b e t w e e n r e a s o n a n d rationality v e r s u s c h a o s a n d
i r r a t i o n a l i t y . A t t h e s a m e t i m e it h a s to b e a collaboration
b e t w e e n the conscious a n d unconscious attitudes of the
p s y c h e : c o n s c i o u s n e s s m u s t h e e d its u n c o n s c i o u s c o u n t e r -
p a r t , m u s t l i s t e n to t h e i n n e r v o i c e s , s o t h a t t h e latter c a n
c o - o p e r a t e w i t h c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n s t e a d o f d i s t u r b i n g it.

T h e confrontation of the two positions generates a

t e n s i o n c h a r g e d w i t h e n e r g y a n d c r e a t e s a living,
 t h i r d t h i n g - n o t a logical s t i l l b i r t h . . . b u t a m o v e -
m e n t out of the suspension between opposites, a
l i v i n g b i r t h t h a t l e a d s to a n e w level o f b e i n g . . . 7 1

S i n c e t h e p r o c e s s a i m s at the total transformation of person-

a l i t y , n o t h i n g t h a t b e l o n g s to it, n o a s p e c t of it, m u s t b e
excluded. 7 2
A n d t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n o f this u n i o n of o p -
p o s i t e s , in o r d e r to c r e a t e n e w life - n o t a logical stillbirth -
m u s t b e a t t e n d e d n o t o n l y b y L o g o s , t h e rational principle,
but b y Eros too, the principle of r e l a t e d n e s s . 7 3

S o , individuation leads from o n e n e s s , emptiness, the

undifferentiated state of unconsciousness, participation
mystique, 74
to ever-increasing differentiation, the supremacy
o f t h e e g o , t o o n e n e s s , e m p t i n e s s a g a i n , that h a s b e c o m e
f u l l n e s s - t o t h e S e l f , t h e m a n d a l a . T h e e n d h a s r e j o i n e d its
b e g i n n i n g , a n d t h e u l t i m a t e goal its original s o u r c e .

ALCHEMY

T h e e v o l u t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i t y , or a s J u n g called it the individ-

u a t i o n p r o c e s s , h a s b e e n e x p r e s s e d in different t e r m s b y
t h e s y m b o l i s m o f a l c h e m y . E v e n t h o u g h t h e a l c h e m i s t s set
t h e m s e l v e s the task of revealing the secrets of matter and
c h e m i c a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , t h e i r l a b o r primarily reflected a
parallel p s y c h i c p r o c e s s , w h i c h m e t w i t h a strong r e s o n a n c e
in J u n g ' s m i n d a n d h a d a n e n o r m o u s i m p a c t o n h i s w o r k .
T o J u n g the chemical experiments of the alchemists, the
w h o l e a l c h e m i c a l opus, w a s of a psychic nature rather than
t h e s e a r c h for t h e s e c r e t o f g o l d - m a k i n g . T h e a l c h e m i s t s
t h e m s e l v e s p r o c l a i m e d t h a t 'Aurum nostrum non est aurum
vulgi/ 75
W h i l e w o r k i n g in h i s l a b o r a t o r y t h e a l c h e m i s t h a d
c e r t a i n p s y c h i c e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t h e a t t r i b u t e d to t h e p r o -
p e r t i e s o f t h e m a t t e r ; J u n g b e l i e v e d t h a t in fact h e w a s
e x p e r i e n c i n g h i s o w n u n c o n s c i o u s . 'In s e e k i n g to e x p l o r e it
[the matter] h e projected the unconscious into the darkness
o f m a t t e r in o r d e r to i l l u m i n a t e i t . ' 7 6

It h a s b e e n g e n e r a l l y u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e p u r p o s e o f
alchemy w a s to p r o d u c e a m i r a c u l o u s s u b s t a n c e , gold,
p a n a c e a , elixir o f life. B u t in actuality, a b o v e a n d b e y o n d
t h a t , t h e v e r y e s s e n c e o f all alchemical w o r k w a s a spiritual
e x e r c i s e w h o s e goal w a s n o n e o t h e r t h a n spiritual trans-
f o r m a t i o n , liberation o f G o d from the d a r k n e s s of m a t t e r . 7 7

T h e b e w i l d e r i n g p r o f u s i o n o f c o m p l i c a t e d a n d often g r o -
t e s q u e a l c h e m i c a l s y m b o l i s m describes pictorially the p r o -
c e s s o f c h a n g e f r o m p s y c h i c sleep to a w a k e n i n g , a n d the
s t a g e s a l o n g that j o u r n e y . J u n g f o u n d in this s y m b o l i s m a n
illustration o f w h a t h e h a d called the p r o c e s s of individ-
u a t i o n : o n e ' s g r a d u a l u n f o l d m e n t from a n u n c o n s c i o u s to a
c o n s c i o u s s t a t e , a n d t h e healing p r o c e s s underlying i t . 7 7

In m e d i e v a l E u r o p e a n a l c h e m y , w h i c h h e d i s c o v e r e d b y
w a y o f C h i n e s e a l c h e m y , J u n g f o u n d t h e spiritual roots of a
W e s t e r n t r a d i t i o n t h a t a d d r e s s e d itself to t h e s a m e i s s u e s
w h i c h p r e o c c u p i e d h i m all h i s life. T h u s a l c h e m y p r o v i d e d
h i m w i t h a h i s t o r i c a l f o u n d a t i o n as w e l l as v a l i d a t i o n for
his o w n findings.
A s in J u n g ' s p s y c h o l o g y , o p p o s i t e s a n d their u n i o n play
a m a j o r r o l e in a l c h e m i c a l p r o c e d u r e . T h e u n i o n is the
m o t i v a t i n g f o r c e a n d t h e g o a l of t h e p r o c e s s . B u t at the
b e g i n n i n g of the process the opposites form a dualism,
c o n c e i v e d in n u m e r o u s t e r m s s u c h a s : u p p e r a n d l o w e r ,
c o l d a n d w a r m , spirit (soul) a n d b o d y , h e a v e n a n d earth,
bright a n d dark, active and passive, precious and cheap,
g o o d a n d e v i l , o p e n a n d h i d d e n , i n n e r a n d o u t e r , East a n d
West, god and goddess, masculine and feminine. 7 8

T h e p r i m a l o p p o s i t e s are c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d u n c o n s c i o u s -
n e s s w h o s e symbols are Sol a n d Luna - sun and moon - the
o n e r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e d i u r n a l a n d the o t h e r t h e n o c t u r n a l
s i d e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e m a l e a n d f e m a l e principles. T h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g a l c h e m i c a l s u b s t a n c e s a r e s u l p h u r a n d salt.
S u l p h u r , b e c a u s e o f its a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e s u n , is the
m a s c u l i n e p r i n c i p l e e x p r e s s i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s . In alchemical
t e x t s it is r e f e r r e d to a s ' t h e m a l e a n d u n i v e r s a l s e e d , ' the
' s p i r i t o f g e n e r a t i v e p o w e r , ' t h e ' s o u r c e o f illumination a n d
all k n o w l e d g e . ' It h a s a d o u b l e n a t u r e : in its initial c r u d e
f o r m it is b u r n i n g a n d c o r r o s i v e , a n d h a s a n o f f e n s i v e o d o r ,
b u t w h e n t r a n s m u t e d , ' c l e a n s e d o f all i m p u r i t i e s , it is the
matter of our s t o n e . ' 7 9
S a l t , b e c a u s e o f its a s s o c i a t i o n with
t h e m o o n , is t h e f e m i n i n e principle a n d e x p r e s s e s v a r i o u s
a s p e c t s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . Like its c o u n t e r p a r t s u l p h u r ,
s a l t c o n t a i n s a d o u b l e n a t u r e : in its u n r e f i n e d f o r m , c o m i n g
f r o m t h e s e a , it is b i t t e r a n d h a r s h , like tears a n d s o r r o w , yet
at t h e s a m e time it is the m o t h e r of w i s d o m w h e n transmuted.
A s t h e p r i n c i p l e o f E r o s , it c o n n e c t s e v e r y t h i n g . Salt is also
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e a r t h , a n d a s s u c h r e p r e s e n t s the G r e a t
M o t h e r a n d the archetype of the feminine deity.
S t a r t i n g w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l s u b s t a n c e , t h e prima materia
w h i c h c o n t a i n s t h e o p p o s i t e s , t h e a l c h e m i s t ' s task is to
h a r m o n i z e t h e m , to b r i n g t h e m into unity w h i c h culminates
in t h e ' c h y m i c a l m a r r i a g e , ' t h e c o n s u m m a t i o n of his w o r k .
J u n g p o s t u l a t e s t h a t o n a p s y c h o l o g i c a l level the u n i o n of
o p p o s i t e s cannot be achieved by the conscious ego alone -
by reason, analysis - that separates and divides; nor even
b y t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a l o n e - that u n i t e s ; it n e e d s a third
e l e m e n t , t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t f u n c t i o n . In t h e s a m e w a y , for
t h e c o n j u n c t i o n t o t a k e p l a c e , t h e a l c h e m i s t n e e d e d a third
factor, a m e d i u m , w h i c h w a s Mercurius (mercury). Thus
t h e r e i s s u l p h u r , t h e m a s c u l i n e p r i n c i p l e , salt, its f e m i n i n e
c o u n t e r p a r t , a n d m e r c u r y , t h e s u b s t a n c e t h a t is b o t h l i q u i d
a n d s o l i d . B y n a t u r e M e r c u r i u s is a n d r o g e n o u s a n d p a r -
t a k e s of b o t h the m a s c u l i n e and f e m i n i n e elements; in
h i m s e l f h e u n i t e s the spiritual a n d physical, the highest
and lowest.
A l c h e m y is full o f p a r a d o x e s - a s J u n g ' s w o r k is - s i n c e
p a r a d o x e s a r e t h e o n l y w a y r e m o t e l y to e x p r e s s t h e in-
e x p r e s s i b l e , t h e p h e n o m e n a o f t h e p s y c h e that c a n b e a p -
p r e h e n d e d o n l y t h r o u g h direct e x p e r i e n c e . 81
T h e mysterious
M e r c u r i u s is t h e p a r a d o x par excellence. T h e fertile i m a g i n -
ation o f the alchemists gave countless s y n o n y m s to Mercurius,
a n d t h e m o s t fantastic d e s c r i p t i o n s of h i s attributes. Here is
o n e e x a m p l e , t a k e n f r o m a n a l c h e m i c a l t r e a t i s e , in w h i c h the
alchemist asks nature to tell him about her son Mercurius, and
she responds:

K n o w that I have only o n e such son; h e is o n e of

s e v e n , a n d the first a m o n g them; a n d though h e is
 n o w all t h i n g s , h e w a s at first o n l y o n e . In h i m a r e
t h e f o u r e l e m e n t s , y e t h e is n o t a n e l e m e n t . H e is a
spirit, yet h e h a s a b o d y ; a m a n , yet h e performs a
w o m a n ' s part; a b o y , yet h e bears a m a n ' s w e a p o n s ;
a b e a s t , y e t h e h a s t h e w i n g s o f a b i r d . H e is
p o i s o n , y e t h e c u r e s l e p r o s y ; life, y e t h e kills all
things; a King, yet another occupies his throne; he
f l e e s f r o m t h e fire, y e t fire is t a k e n f r o m h i m ; h e is
w a t e r , y e t d o e s n o t w e t t h e h a n d s ; h e is e a r t h , y e t
is s o w n ; h e is air a n d lives b y w a t e r . 8 2

J u n g r e c o g n i z e d in t h e m u l t i p l e a n d paradoxical a s p e c t s
o f M e r c u r i u s a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e self w h i c h is a
complexio oppositorum, a n d m u s t n e c e s s a r i l y b e s u c h if it is
t o s y m b o l i z e m a n ' s totality. T o J u n g , M e r c u r i u s represented
n o t o n l y t h e self but the individuation process as well, and
b e c a u s e o f t h e l i m i t l e s s n u m b e r o f his n a m e s , a l s o t h e
collective u n c o n s c i o u s . 8 2

T h e first p h a s e o f t h e a l c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s w a s t h e black
stage, nigredo, characterized by confusion, frustration,
d e p r e s s i o n , 'the dark night of the soul' of St. John of the
C r o s s , in w h i c h n e v e r t h e l e s s all potentialities a n d t h e s e e d s
o f f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t a r e c o n t a i n e d . T h e n a s t h e fire o f t h e
a l c h e m i c a l r e t o r t , t h e p s y c h i c fire, p u r g e s t h e e l e m e n t s , t h e
s e c o n d w h i t e p h a s e , albedo, is b r o u g h t a b o u t . It is t h e s t a g e
o f clarification a n d intensification o f life a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
T h e f i n a l p h a s e is t h e r e d s t a g e , w h e n t h e d r a m a r e a c h e s its
c o n c l u s i o n : t h e c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s o f coniunctio, the appear-
a n c e o f t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s ' s t o n e , a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e t h e
c o m p l e t i o n o f p s y c h i c s y n t h e s i s - t h e e m e r g e n c e of t h e S e l f .
W h a t is t h e p h i l o s o p h e r s ' s t o n e , t h e lapis? It w a s said
t h a t it h e a l s a n d b e s t o w s i m m o r t a l i t y . T o J u n g ' t h e lapis is a
fabulous entity of cosmic dimensions which surpasses
h u m a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . ' L i k e ' m a n ' s totality, t h e Self, [it] is
b y definition b e y o n d the b o u n d s of k n o w l e d g e . ' 8 4

H o w e v e r t o t h e a l c h e m i s t G e r h a r d D o r n , t h e lapis w a s
n o t t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e art. T h e final a n d h i g h e s t c o n -
j u n c t i o n w a s the union of the whole h u m a n being with
unus mundus, t h e o n e w o r l d . T h i s is w h e n t h e individual
p s y c h e t o u c h e s e t e r n i t y , t h e identity o f t h e p e r s o n a l w i t h
t h e t r a n s p e r s o n a l . It is t h e n u m i n o u s e v e n t , t h e m y s t e r y of
t h e unio mystica, o r in t h e O r i e n t a l t r a d i t i o n s , the e x p e r i -
e n c e s o f tao, samadhi, or satori 85

J u n g c o n c l u d e d that the phases of the alchemical pro-

c e d u r e s , t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f c o n f l i c t i n g o p p o s i t e s into a
unity, paralleled the stages of the individuation p r o c e s s . 8 6

In h i s d r e a m s , a s w e l l a s t h o s e o f h i s p a t i e n t s , h e c o u l d at
times discern a portrayal of the mandala, symbolizing the
multiplicity of the p h e n o m e n a l world within an underlying
u n i t y . T h e m a n d a l a s y m b o l i s m r e p r e s e n t s the psychological
e q u i v a l e n t o f unus mundus, w h i l e its parapsychological
e q u i v a l e n t is J u n g ' s c o n c e p t o f s y n c h r o n i c i t y .

SYNCHRONICITY

All o f J u n g ' s d i s c o v e r i e s w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y d r e a m s or
s y n c h r o n i s t i c e v e n t s t h a t e i t h e r p o i n t e d t h e w a y or g a v e
him confirmation t h a t h e w a s p r o c e e d i n g in t h e right
d i r e c t i o n . A t t h e t i m e w h e n h e w a s diligently d r a w i n g
m a n d a l a s , h e p r o d u c e d a p a i n t i n g of a g o l d e n c a s t l e . T h e
p a i n t i n g w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t r i g u i n g b e c a u s e o f its C h i n e s e
q u a l i t y , a n d h e w a s p u z z l e d b y it. S h o r t l y a f t e r w a r d s h e
r e c e i v e d f r o m t h e s i n o l o g i s t R i c h a r d W i l h e l m a c o p y of The
Secret of the Golden Flower, a n o l d C h i n e s e a l c h e m i c a l text,
which marked the beginning of his fascination with
a l c h e m y . T h e event of receiving from Richard Wilhelm the
C h i n e s e m a n u s c r i p t w a s a synchronistic o n e , and further-
m o r e it w a s c o n n e c t e d w i t h a m a n d a l a p a i n t i n g of J u n g ' s .
T h i s s t r i k i n g c o i n c i d e n c e , this single e v e n t , c o n t a i n e d in
i t s e l f b o t h t h e m a n d a l a s y m b o l i s m a n d t h e principle o f
synchronicity, namely, the double expression of unus
mundus - psychological and parapsychological. And indeed
J u n g felt t h e p o w e r f u l e f f e c t o n e e x p e r i e n c e s in m o m e n t s of
e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e unus mundus. T h i s e v e n t o c c u r r e d at t h e
t i m e w h e n t h e c y c l e o f his a l i e n a t i o n w a s d r a w i n g to a
c l o s e . In h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y J u n g r e m e m b e r s : T h a t w a s t h e
first e v e n t w h i c h b r o k e m y isolation. I b e c a m e a w a r e o f a n
a f f i n i t y : I c o u l d e s t a b l i s h ties w i t h s o m e t h i n g a n d s o m e -
one.' 8 7
P e r h a p s it is n o t a m e r e c o i n c i d e n c e that J u n g for t h e
first t i m e a n n o u n c e d to t h e w o r l d his c o n c e p t o f s y n c h r o n i -
c i t y in a m e m o r i a l a d d r e s s to h i s friend R i c h a r d W i l h e l m ,
t h e m a n w h o p l a y e d s u c h a significant p a r t at a crucial
p e r i o d in J u n g ' s life.
S y n c h r o n i c i t y is t h e m o s t a b s t r a c t a n d m o s t e l u s i v e o f
J u n g ' s c o n c e p t s . J u n g d e s c r i b e s s y n c h r o n i c i t y as 'a meaning-
ful coincidence of two or more events, where something
o t h e r t h a n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f c h a n c e is i n v o l v e d . " 8 8
The
c o n n e c t i o n s o f e v e n t s a r e n o t t h e result o f t h e principle o f
c a u s e a n d e f f e c t , b u t o f s o m e t h i n g e l s e w h i c h J u n g called a n
a c a u s a l c o n n e c t i n g principle. T h e critical factor is the m e a n -
i n g , t h e s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e that c o m e s to t h e p e r s o n :
e v e n t s a r e c o n n e c t e d in a m e a n i n g f u l w a y , t h a t is, e v e n t s o f
t h e i n n e r a n d o u t e r w o r l d , t h e invisible a n d t h e tangible,
the m i n d a n d the physical universe. This coming together
at the right m o m e n t can h a p p e n only without the conscious
i n t e r v e n t i o n o f t h e e g o . I n s t e a d it is p r e p a r e d in t h e u n c o n -
s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e p s y c h e , a n d it is as t h o u g h t h e p s y c h e h a d
its o w n s e c r e t d e s i g n , irrespective of e g o ' s c o n s c i o u s w i s h e s .
S u c h s y n c h r o n i s t i c e v e n t s , o f s m a l l e r o r larger p r o p o r t i o n s ,
o c c u r t o m o s t p e o p l e in daily life, b u t a s w i t h d r e a m s , if w e
d o n o t r e c o g n i z e t h e m a n d p a y a t t e n t i o n to t h e m , t h e y
r e m a i n insignificant.
J u n g g i v e s e x a m p l e s f r o m h i s practice w h e n p a t i e n t s h e
w a s t r e a t i n g h a d u n c a n n y c o i n c i d e n c e s t h a t p u t t h e m in
t o u c h w i t h a d e e p e r t h a n c o n s c i o u s level o f e x p e r i e n c e , a n d
c o n v i n c e d t h e m in a d r a m a t i c , u n e q u i v o c a l w a y of t h e
r e a l i t y a n d l i m i t l e s s n e s s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . O f particular
i n t e r e s t is t h e c a s e o f t h e y o u n g , w e l l e d u c a t e d w o m a n ,
w h o , w i t h h e r v e r y o n e - s i d e d logical m i n d , w a s stubbornly
u n r e s p o n s i v e t o J u n g ' s e f f o r t s to s o f t e n h e r rationalism.
O n e d a y a s s h e w a s telling h e r d r e a m o f t h e n i g h t b e f o r e ,
i n v o l v i n g a g o l d e n s c a r a b t h a t w a s g i v e n to h e r , a flying
i n s e c t p e r s i s t e n t l y k n o c k e d at t h e w i n d o w o b v i o u s l y a t -
t e m p t i n g t o e n t e r t h e r o o m . J u n g o p e n e d t h e w i n d o w , let
t h e i n s e c t i n a n d c a u g h t it. T h e i n s e c t t u r n e d o u t to b e a
golden-green beetle, very m u c h resembling the scarab
from the dream.

I h a n d e d the beetle to m y patient with the words,

' H e r e is y o u r s c a r a b . ' T h i s experience punctured
t h e d e s i r e d h o l e in h e r r a t i o n a l i s m a n d b r o k e t h e
ice o f h e r i n t e l l e c t u a l r e s i s t a n c e . T h e t r e a t m e n t
c o u l d n o w b e c o n t i n u e d w i t h satisfactory r e s u l t s . 89

I n d e v e l o p i n g h i s c o n c e p t o f s y n c h r o n i c i t y , J u n g related
it t o t h e d i s c o v e r i e s o f m o d e r n t h e o r e t i c a l p h y s i c s , f r o m
w h i c h w e h a d l e a r n e d t h a t c a u s a l i t y a n d prediction are n o
l o n g e r v a l i d in t h e m i c r o p h y s i c a l w o r l d . 9 0
He concluded
t h a t t h e r e is a c o m m o n b a c k g r o u n d b e t w e e n m i c r o p h y s i c s
a n d his depth p s y c h o l o g y . 9 1
At the s a m e time J u n g w e n t
b a c k to a n c i e n t C h i n e s e p h i l o s o p h y a n d r e c o g n i z e d a c o r -
r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n s y n c h r o n i c i t y a n d t h e ineffable idea
o f tao. I n f a c t it w a s t h e / Ching, t h e C h i n e s e Book of
Changes, a n d its m e t h o d w i t h w h i c h J u n g h a d p e r s o n a l
e x p e r i e n c e t h a t w a s t o h i m a m a j o r inspiration in d e v e l o p i n g
the concept of synchronicity. T h e two seemingly opposite
f r a m e w o r k s , t h e r a t i o n a l scientific a n d t h e intuitive p h i l o -
s o p h i c a l , a r e b y n o m e a n s c o n t r a d i c t o r y . In h i s b o o k , The
Tao of Physics, F r i t j o f C a p r a a d d r e s s e s h i m s e l f to t h i s v e r y
p o i n t , a n d a r g u e s t h a t t h e r e a r e c l o s e parallels b e t w e e n
basic concepts of m o d e r n physics a n d Eastern mystical
t e a c h i n g s . T h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e o r e t i c a l p h y s i c s reveal a u n i -
v e r s e t h a t is a h a r m o n i o u s , u n i f i e d p r o c e s s , a d y n a m i c w e b
o f i n t e r r e l a t e d e l e m e n t s . T n i s is p r e c i s e l y t h e f u n d a m e n t a l
t h o u g h t in B u d d h i s t a n d T a o i s t p h i l o s o p h i e s . A n d to J u n g
s y n c h r o n i s t i c e v e n t s p o i n t to 'a p r o f o u n d h a r m o n y b e t w e e n
all f o r m s o f e x i s t e n c e . ' 9 2
W h e n e x p e r i e n c e d a s s u c h , it b e -
c o m e s a t r e m e n d o u s l y p o w e r f u l o c c u r r e n c e that g i v e s t h e
individual a sense of transcending time and space.
3 Methods in Jung's
Psychology and
Tibetan Buddhism

THE CURE OF SOULS

T h e ' c u r e o f s o u l s , ' J u n g s a y s in his Memories, Dreams,

Reflections, is h i s t a s k . 9 3
Unlike most conventional psycho-
t h e r a p i e s w h o s e g o a l s a r e basically p e r s o n a l i t y a d j u s t m e n t
a n d c u r e o f s y m p t o m s , a n d to w h i c h e n d m a n i p u l a t i v e
therapeutic techniques are applied, Jung's psychotherapy
a i m s at t h e healing of t h e soul, the approach to the n u m i n o u s .
T h e g o a l is n o t o n l y t h e h e a l i n g o f p a t h o l o g y , b u t a b o v e all,
t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l w h o l e n e s s o r self-realization.
T h e r e is h i d d e n in t h e d e p t h o f e a c h h u m a n b e i n g a s e e d of
all f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t , t h a t in its u l t i m a t e m e a n i n g is a
s e e d o f d i v i n i t y , a n d t h e p r o f o u n d task o f J u n g ' s p s y c h o -
t h e r a p y is t o h e l p t h a t s e e d u n f o l d a n d m a t u r e to its fullest
p o t e n t i a l . W h a t a r e t h e m e t h o d s that J u n g d e v e l o p e d to
a c h i e v e t h i s g o a l ? J u n g tells u s that in t h e natural p r o c e s s of
i n d i v i d u a t i o n h e f o u n d a m o d e l , a n d a g u i d i n g principle
for his m e t h o d of t r e a t m e n t . 9 4
T h e p r o c e s s of individuation
is essentially a n u n c o n s c i o u s , a u t o n o m o u s process, in which
t h e p s y c h e in its natural a n d s p o n t a n o u s u r g e for w h o l e n e s s
is s t r i v i n g to h a r m o n i z e its c o n s c i o u s a n d unconscious
c o n t e n t s . T h u s t h e therapist, s a y s J u n g , ' m u s t follow nature
a s a g u i d e , ' a n d h i s o r h e r i n t e r v e n t i o n is ' l e s s a q u e s t i o n o f
t r e a t m e n t t h a n o f d e v e l o p i n g the creative possibilities latent
in t h e p a t i e n t h i m s e l f . ' 9 5

J u n g o b s e r v e d t h a t t h o s e o f his p a t i e n t s w h o s u c c e e d e d
in s e t t i n g t h e m s e l v e s free f r o m t h e b o n d a g e o f their life
p r o b l e m s a n d a c h i e v e d h i g h e r levels o f p s y c h i c d e v e l o p -
m e n t a n d i n t e g r a t i o n , in e s s e n c e did n o t h i n g b u t s i m p l y
a l l o w t h i n g s to h a p p e n . T h e y a l l o w e d their u n c o n s c i o u s to
s p e a k t o t h e m in s i l e n c e , a n d t h e y l i s t e n e d to its m e s s a g e s
p a t i e n t l y a n d g a v e t h e m t h e full a n d m o s t s e r i o u s a t t e n t i o n .
In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e y e s t a b l i s h e d a c o n s c i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p
with their unconscious processes.

T h e a r t o f l e t t i n g t h i n g s h a p p e n , action t h r o u g h
i n a c t i o n , l e t t i n g g o o f o n e s e l f a s told b y M e i s t e r
E c k h a r t , b e c a m e for m e t h e k e y that o p e n s the
d o o r to t h e w a y . W e m u s t b e a b l e to let t h i n g s
h a p p e n in t h e p s y c h e . F o r u s , this is a n art of
which most people k n o w nothing. Consciousness
is f o r e v e r i n t e r f e r i n g , h e l p i n g , c o r r e c t i n g , a n d n e -
g a t i n g , n e v e r l e a v i n g t h e p s y c h i c p r o c e s s to g r o w
in p e a c e . 9 6

W h e n t h e p s y c h i c p r o c e s s is a l l o w e d to g r o w in p e a c e ,
t h e u n c o n s c i o u s fertilizes t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d c o n s c i o u s -
n e s s i l l u m i n a t e s t h e u n c o n s c i o u s ; t h e interfusion a n d u n i o n
o f t h e t w o o p p o s i t e s r e s u l t in i n c r e a s e d a w a r e n e s s a n d a
b r o a d e n i n g o f p e r s o n a l i t y . J u n g p o s t u l a t e s that this c a n b e
b e s t a c c o m p l i s h e d w h e n t h e p r o c e s s is n o t r e g u l a t e d from
t h e o u t s i d e a n d t h e t h e r a p i s t d o e s n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h the
o p e r a t i o n of n a t u r e . A s the w i d e r personality is being created,
consciousness increases, becomes transformed and a new
c e n t e r of personality e m e r g e s - the Self - while ego tend-
e n c i e s a r e d i m i n i s h e d . T h e n e w c e n t e r , like a m a g n e t ,
a t t r a c t s to it all t h a t g e n u i n e l y a n d a u t h e n t i c a l l y b e l o n g to
t h e u n i q u e n e s s o f p e r s o n a l i t y . T h e integrity a n d u n i t y of
t h e i n d i v i d u a l g r a d u a l l y e s t a b l i s h e s itself o u t o f its original
g r o u n d p l a n , a n d all that is u n e s s e n t i a l , s u p e r f l u o u s , s u p e r -
i m p o s e d , d r o p s a w a y . T h e e g o that h a s d e v e l o p e d in r e -
s p o n s e to t h e p r e s s u r e s a n d dictates o f t h e o u t e r w o r l d , a n d
t h e c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t , at this p o i n t b o w s a n d gives w a y
to t h e p r e s s u r e s a n d u r g e s o f the i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n n e r w o r l d ,
his i n n e r being, his soul, the Self. T h u s the ego has been
s a c r i f i c e d to t h e S e l f ; t h e m u n d a n e e x i s t e n c e h a s a c q u i r e d a
meaning, the individual has come in touch with the
numinous. His initial unconscious condition has been
t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o h i g h e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d the r o u n d i n g
o f p e r s o n a l i t y , w h o s e s y m b o l is t h e m a n d a l a , h a s b e e n
accomplished.
H o w the harmonizing of conscious and unconscious con-
t e n t s h a p p e n s , n o o n e k n o w s , for it is a n irrational life
p r o c e s s . In J u n g ' s p s y c h o t h e r a p y there are n o fixed m e t h o d s
of t r e a t m e n t ; the m e t h o d s naturally develop as the work
p r o g r e s s e s , a n d in r e s p o n s e to t h e n e e d s o f t h e particular
i n d i v i d u a l . E v e r y i n d i v i d u a l is u n i q u e a n d u n p r e d i c t a b l e ,
a n d t h e r e f o r e J u n g e n j o i n s t h e r a p i s t s to free t h e m s e l v e s
f r o m all p r e c o n c e p t i o n s a n d t h e o r e t i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s , a n d
a b a n d o n all m e t h o d s a n d t e c h n i q u e s . 9 7
J u n g tells u s h e is
deliberately unsystematic, and only individual under-
s t a n d i n g is t h e m e t h o d , s o to s p e a k . ' W e n e e d a different
l a n g u a g e for every p a t i e n t . ' 9 8

H o w e v e r , two basic m e t h o d s were consistently used

b y J u n g i n h i s p r a c t i c e : w o r k w i t h d r e a m s a n d active
imagination. While dream interpretation has a long
h i s t o r y g o i n g far b a c k i n t o a n t i q u i t y , active i m a g i n a t i o n is
the original product of J u n g ' s artwork. Jung views the
p r o c e s s o f active i m a g i n a t i o n as equivalent to the alchemical
o p e r a t i o n . In e s s e n c e it i n v o l v e s a n o n g o i n g d i a l o g u e b e -
t w e e n t w o o p p o s i t e s , that is, c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d the u n c o n -
s c i o u s , in t h e c o u r s e o f w h i c h all a s p e c t s of o n e ' s being are
g r a d u a l l y i n t e g r a t e d . It is t h e w o r k o f reconciliation a n d
u n i o n o f o p p o s i t e s l e a d i n g to psychological transformation.
T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l s t e p s in t h e p r o c e s s . Initially t h e task is
to i n d u c e a c a l m s t a t e o f m i n d , free f r o m t h o u g h t s , a n d
m e r e l y t o o b s e r v e in a n e u t r a l w a y , w i t h o u t j u d g m e n t , j u s t
to b e h o l d the s p o n t a n e o u s e m e r g e n c e a n d unfoldment of
u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t s , f r a g m e n t s o f f a n t a s y . T h i s part is
v e r y similar to basic meditation practices. T h e experience
is t h e n r e c o r d e d e i t h e r in a w r i t t e n f o r m , o r g i v e n s o m e
o t h e r tangible s h a p e , such as a drawing, a painting, a
s c u l p t u r e , a d a n c e , o r a n y o t h e r variety o f s y m b o l i c e x p r e s -
sions. 9 9
In t h e n e x t s t a g e , t h e c o n s c i o u s m i n d b e g i n s to
p a r t i c i p a t e a c t i v e l y a n d d e l i b e r a t e l y in a c o n f r o n t a t i o n with
the u n c o n s c i o u s . T h e meaning of the unconscious product
a n d its m e s s a g e h a s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a n d r e c o n c i l e d w i t h
the position a n d d e m a n d s of the conscious mind. As Jung
states:

It is e x a c t l y a s if a d i a l o g u e w e r e t a k i n g place
between t w o h u m a n b e i n g s w i t h e q u a l rights,
e a c h o f w h o m g i v e s t h e o t h e r credit for a valid
a r g u m e n t a n d c o n s i d e r s it w o r t h w h i l e to m o d i f y
the conflicting standpoints by m e a n s of thorough
c o m p a r i s o n a n d d i s c u s s i o n o r e l s e to d i s t i n g u i s h
t h e m clearly f r o m o n e a n o t h e r . 1 0 0

F i n a l l y , o n c e t h e e g o a n d t h e u n c o n s c i o u s h a v e c o m e to
t e r m s w i t h e a c h o t h e r a n d o n e n o w h a s t h e capacity to live
c o n s c i o u s l y , a n ethical attitude a n d obligation h a s to follow:
o n e n o l o n g e r c a n c o n d u c t o n e ' s life a s t h o u g h u n a w a r e o f
the hidden workings of the u n c o n s c i o u s . 1 0 1

It m u s t b e s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e principles o f J u n g ' s p s y c h o l o g y
are n o t applied as a m e t h o d of medical treatment but rather
of self-education. Psychotherapy, says Jung,

. . . t r a n s c e n d s its m e d i c a l o r i g i n s a n d c e a s e s to b e
m e r e l y a m e t h o d for treating t h e sick. It n o w treats
t h e h e a l t h y o r s u c h a s h a v e a m o r a l right to p s y c h i c
h e a l t h , w h o s e s i c k n e s s is at m o s t t h e suffering
t h a t t o r m e n t s u s all. F o r this r e a s o n , analytical
psychology can claim to serve the common
weal.... 1 0 2

In h i s p s y c h o t h e r a p y J u n g a i m s to b r i n g a b o u t in h i s
p a t i e n t s a s t a t e o f fluidity in w h i c h t h e y e x p e r i e n c e c h a n g e
a n d g r o w t h w i t h o u t b e i n g a t t a c h e d to a n y fixed c o n d i t i o n .
A t t h e s a m e t i m e h e e n d e a v o r s to a r o u s e in t h e m a s e n s e o f
t h e i r s u p r a p e r s o n a l c o n n e c t i o n s , to e n l a r g e their capacities
of awareness beyond personal c o n s c i o u s n e s s . 1 0 3
T h i s is
p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t for m o d e r n m a n w h o s e rational
a t t i t u d e h a s t h w a r t e d a n d r e p r e s s e d the spiritual d i m e n s i o n
o f life. J u n g s t r e s s e s t h a t t h e spiritual o r religious r e a l m o f
e x p e r i e n c e d o e s n o t r e f e r to a n y c r e e d , d o g m a , o r m e t a -
p h y s i c a l c a t e g o r y b u t is a f u n d a m e n t a l p s y c h i c f u n c t i o n o f
tremendous significance. 1 0 4
H e r e c o g n i z e s that t h e r e is n o
p e r s o n a l h e a l i n g w i t h o u t r e g a i n i n g a religious o u t l o o k o n
life. 1 0 5

O f c e n t r a l i m p o r t a n c e in t h e r a p y is t h e role o f t h e p s y c h o -
t h e r a p i s t , a n d t h e c l o s e r a p p o r t b e t w e e n t h e latter a n d t h e
p a t i e n t . T h e r a p y to J u n g is a dialectical p r o c e s s in w h i c h
t w o p s y c h i c realities c o n f r o n t e a c h o t h e r , a n d b o t h m u s t b e
a f f e c t e d a n d c h a n g e d in t h e e n c o u n t e r . 1 0 6
T h e therapist, n o
l e s s t h a n t h e patient, c a n n o t b e i m m u m e from the experi-
e n c e if t h e r a p y is to b e e f f e c t i v e . C o n c e p t s are i n s t r u m e n t s
o f p r o t e c t i o n f r o m e x p e r i e n c e , t h a n k s to w h i c h t h e therapist
c a n m a i n t a i n a c o n v e n i e n t d i s t a n c e , a n d b e s i d e s , t h e r e is
n o o b l i g a t i o n to c o n c e p t s . B u t , a s J u n g s a y s , ' t h e spirit d o e s
n o t d w e l l in c o n c e p t s / 1 0 7
Therapists equally should not
s h i e l d t h e m s e l v e s b e h i n d t h e s c r e e n of p r o f e s s i o n a l a u -
t h o r i t y , f o r b y t h i s a t t i t u d e t h e y d e p r i v e t h e m s e l v e s of
i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n g a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e c h a n n e l of t h e i r
unconscious. 1 0 8
A t t h e s a m e t i m e , J u n g is v e r y e a g e r to
a l l o w h i s p a t i e n t s t o b e c o m e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y m a t u r e , self-
reliant and independent from the therapist. Like the
a l c h e m i s t ' s a p p r e n t i c e , p a t i e n t s c a n learn 'all the tricks of
t h e l a b o r a t o r y ' b u t u l t i m a t e l y m u s t e n g a g e in the opus
t h e m s e l v e s f o r ' n o b o d y e l s e c a n d o it for [ t h e m ] ' 1 0 9
S o , the
e n d l e s s p r o c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n h a s to g o o n long after
f o r m a l t h e r a p y h a s e n d e d . A n d s p e a k i n g f r o m the s t a n d -
p o i n t o f a p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t , J u n g tells u s t h e e n c o u n t e r s w i t h
t h e m a n y k i n d s o f p e o p l e h e m e t in h i s t h e r a p e u t i c w o r k
c o n s t i t u t e d for h i m invaluable learning experiences, and
t h e finest a n d m o s t significant interactions in his l i f e . 1 1 0

It is i m p o r t a n t to u n d e r l i n e t h a t i n d i v i d u a t i o n l e a d s n o t
o n l y t o a w i d e n i n g o f p e r s o n a l i t y , b u t a l s o to a b r o a d e n i n g
o f c o l l e c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . C o n t r a r y to t h e belief of s o m e ,
i n d i v i d u a t i o n is n o t t a n t a m o u n t to isolation a n d abdication
o f social a n d ethical responsibilities; rather, personal con-
s c i o u s n e s s a n d collective a w a r e n e s s are e n h a n c e d concur-
r e n t l y in a n a t u r a l , s p o n t a n e o u s p r o g r e s s i o n . T h e p r o c e s s
of individuation, says Jung,
 . . . b r i n g s to b i r t h a c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f h u m a n c o m -
m u n i t y p r e c i s e l y b e c a u s e it m a k e s u s a w a r e o f t h e
u n c o n s c i o u s , w h i c h u n i t e s a n d is c o m m o n to all
m a n k i n d . I n d i v i d u a t i o n is a n a t - o n e - m e n t w i t h
o n e s e l f a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e w i t h h u m a n i t y , s i n c e
o n e s e l f is a p a r t o f h u m a n i t y . 1 1 1

H e r e w e m e e t o n t h e s a m e g r o u n d t h e B u d d h i s t idea o f
compassion, w h i c h is b u t t h e o t h e r a s p e c t o f w i s d o m :
w i s d o m a n d c o m p a s s i o n are the two sides of the s a m e coin,
one representing personal and the other transpersonal
consciousness, and both equally indispensable for the
attainment of enlightenment.
F i n a l l y , it m u s t b e n o t e d t h a t J u n g ' s w o r k is o f s u c h
t i m e l e s s n a t u r e a n d limitless proportion that it is impossible,
e v e n r e m o t e l y , t o c o n v e y its full flavor a n d m e a n i n g , a n d its
potential impact o n an individual psyche. Furthermore, his
w o r k , a l o n g w i t h h i s life, h a s g o n e t h r o u g h successive
s t a g e s o f u n f o l d i n g a n d d o e s n o t easily r e v e a l itself to casual
s t u d y o r t h r o u g h f o c u s o n o n l y o n e a s p e c t o f it, a n d least o f
all b y a n a l y z i n g h i s m e t h o d s . It a s k s to b e a p p r o a c h e d in its
t o t a l i t y , a n d e v e n t h e n it is n o e a s y task t o u n d e r s t a n d it.
H e r e is a n i n t e r e s t i n g c o m m e n t o n t h i s i s s u e , b y o n e o f
J u n g ' s d i s c i p l e s , Ira P r o g o f f :

...I had observed...that wherever his [Jung's]

t h e o r i e s a n d p r a c t i c e w e r e t a u g h t a s a specifically
Jungian psychology, the structure of thought with
its s y s t e m o f t e r m s a n d c o n c e p t s w a s e m p h a s i z e d .
I r e c o g n i z e d t h a t o n e r e a s o n for t h i s w a s that at
least t h e terms w e r e teachable w h e r e a s the power-
ful direct awareness which Jung had reached was
not t e a c h a b l e . . . . 1 1 2

P r o g o f f , in t h e c o u r s e o f h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h J u n g , told
h i m about these thoughts. After a lengthy discussion of the
i s s u e , P r o g o f f still r e s t l e s s , p o s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n to
Jung:

' S u p p o s e , ' I a s k e d h i m , ' t h a t y o u w e r e free f r o m all

 t h e p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d in m a k i n g a n intellectually
valid f o r m u l a t i o n o f y o u r m e t h o d s ; s u p p o s e that
y o u c o u l d s t a t e it w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o h o w o t h e r s
w o u l d m i s u n d e r s t a n d o r m i s u s e it. S u p p o s e t h a t
y o u c o u l d s t a t e it in a w a y t h a t w o u l d fit y o u r o w n
t r u e s t feelings o f it, t h e n w h a t w o u l d it b e ? . . . ' A c h ' ,
h e s a i d . . . 'It w o u l d b e t o o f u n n y . It w o u l d b e a Z e n
touch.' 1 1 3

P r o g o f f i n t e r p r e t s J u n g ' s r e f e r e n c e to a Z e n t o u c h a s
m e a n i n g that his w o r k has to b e cut to the essentials, and
t h a t it h a s t o b e a c h i e v e d b e y o n d r a t i o n a l i t y . 1 1 4

P e r s o n a l l y , I b e l i e v e t h a t J u n g ' s r e f e r e n c e to Z e n , in all its

s t a r k s i m p l i c i t y , r e v e a l s m o r e strikingly t h a n a n y o t h e r
e l a b o r a t e c o m m e n t s w h a t h i s d y n a m i c m e t h o d is all a b o u t .

EMANCIPATION FROM SUFFERING

J u s t a s t h e ' c u r e o f s o u l s ' w a s J u n g ' s t a s k a n d role, suffering

a n d e m a n c i p a t i o n f r o m s u f f e r i n g , o r liberation, is t h e ulti-
m a t e goal of Buddhism. Even before the emergence of
B u d d h i s m , this w a s the essential problem of Indian philos-
o p h y , b u t it w a s t h e m e t h o d t h a t b e c a m e the m a i n a n d
u n i q u e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f B u d d h i s m to I n d i a n p h i l o s o p h y .
T h e B u d d h a recognized, through his o w n experience, and
repeatedly stressed, that philosophical and metaphysical
speculations a n d abstract thinking alone have no impact on
t h e life o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . O n l y k n o w l e d g e g a i n e d t h r o u g h
direct e x p e r i e n c e h a s life-giving value. For this reason
B u d d h a maintained the 'noble silence' w h e n asked meta-
p h y s i c a l q u e s t i o n s o n t h e n a t u r e o f the A b s o l u t e , ' t h e eternal
t r u t h s . ' I n s t e a d h e p o i n t e d o u t t h e w a y a n d i n s i s t e d that
e a c h o n e o f u s i n d i v i d u a l l y m u s t find t h e s o l u t i o n s to o u r
f u n d a m e n t a l e x i s t e n t i a l p r o b l e m s , n o t t h r o u g h o u r intellect
a n d logical t h i n k i n g , b u t t h r o u g h d e v e l o p m e n t o f a h i g h e r
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , bodhi: the Absolute, the Infinite, the numi-
n o u s , is n o t t o b e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d b u t r e a l i z e d w i t h i n o n e ' s
self. B u d d h a ' s visions and insights, the transformation of
 Emancipation from Suffering 49

h i s o w n c o n s c i o u s n e s s in t h e c o u r s e o f m e d i t a t i o n u n d e r
t h e b o d h i t r e e , c o u l d n o t b e c o n v e y e d w i t h w o r d s . H e could
o n l y s h o w t h e w a y , t h e m e t h o d . In its v e r y e s s e n c e t h e w a y
is s i m p l e , a s it is n o t to b e l o o k e d for in h i d d e n , f a r a w a y
p l a c e s , in b o o k s o r s a c r e d s c r i p t u r e s , b u t in t h e v e r y d e p t h
of one's own self. 1 1 5
T h i s is n o d i f f e r e n t t h a n t h e w o r k o f t h e
alchemist's apprentice, or of Jung's patient.
W h e n t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s is realized
within the depth of the individual's psyche, then the meta-
p h y s i c a l c e a s e s to b e m e t a p h y s i c a l , a n d is e x p e r i e n c e d a s
intuitive, absolute k n o w l e d g e - illumination.
A s L a m a Govinda states:

. . . w h a t m a k e s m a n b l e s s e d is n o t b e l i e f (in t h e
s e n s e of the acceptance of a definite dogma), but
t h e b e c o m i n g c o n s c i o u s o f reality, w h i c h latter is
m e t a p h y s i c s t o u s o n l y for a s l o n g a s w e h a v e n o t
e x p e r i e n c e d it... v i e w e d f r o m w i t h o u t (as a s y s t e m )
B u d d h i s m is m e t a p h y s i c s ; v i e w e d f r o m w i t h i n (as
a f o r m o f reality) it is e m p i r i c i s m . In s o far a s ' t h e
m e t a p h y s i c a l ' is d i s c l o s e d u p o n t h e p a t h o f i n n e r
e x p e r i e n c e , it w a s n o t r e j e c t e d b y t h e B u d d h a , it
w a s o n l y r e j e c t e d w h e n it w a s t h o u g h t o u t u p o n
t h e p a t h o f s p e c u l a t i o n . M e t a p h y s i c s is a n e n t i r e l y
relative concept, w h o s e boundaries d e p e n d u p o n
the respective plane of experience, upon the re-
s p e c t i v e f o r m a n d e x t e n t of c o n s c i o u s n e s s . B u d d h a
o v e r c a m e m e t a p h y s i c s a n d its p r o b l e m s , n o t b y
m e r e l y i g n o r i n g t h e m , b u t in a n a b s o l u t e p o s i t i v e
m a n n e r , in t h a t , t h r o u g h t r a i n i n g a n d e x t e n s i o n o f
c o n s c i o u s n e s s h e p u s h e d back the boundary lines
o f t h e latter, s o t h a t t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l b e c a m e t h e
empirical. 1 1 6

H e r e I a m r e m i n d e d o f J u n g ' s s t a t e m e n t s that h i s w o r k is
b a s e d o n empirical facts, a n d on the other hand, the ac-
cusation b y s o m e - w h o misread his w o r k , or rather lacked
t h e e x p e r i e n c e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e reality o f it - that h e w a s
but a fuzzy mystic. M u c h of his work which was considered
' m y s t i c a l ' h a s b e e n v a l i d a t e d b y d i s c o v e r i e s of m o d e r n
s c i e n c e , a n d thus the metaphysical has b e c o m e empirical.
T h e r e a r e m a n y w a y s , m a n y p a t h s , l e a d i n g to liberation,
t h e g o a l o f all s c h o o l s of B u d d h i s m . In its b a r e e s s e n c e a n y
p a t h is t a n t a m o u n t to a radical t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of c o n s c i o u s -
n e s s , a s y m b o l i c d e a t h a n d rebirth f r o m a p r o f a n e to a
s p i r i t u a l m o d e o f b e i n g . ( O r , in t e r m s o f J u n g ' s p s y c h o l o g y ,
it w o u l d b e t h e sacrifice o f t h e e g o for t h e e m e r g e n c e of t h e
Self.)
In o r d e r to r e s p o n d to t h e d i f f e r e n t n e e d s a n d t e m p e r a -
m e n t s of different invididuals many methods have been
d e v e l o p e d . In T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m especially, t h e r e is a multi-
t u d e o f m o d e s a n d t e c h n i q u e s . T h e y a r e all d e s i g n e d to
affect the three aspects of a h u m a n being: body, speech,
and mind.
T h e c e n t r a l m e t h o d , a n d the o n e that w a s u s e d b y B u d d h a
h i m s e l f in h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s , is m e d i t a t i o n . In the
T a n t r i c p a t h , o r V a j r a y a n a , i n t h e b e g i n n i n g , as preliminary
p r a c t i c e s , t h e v a r i o u s m e t h o d s o f m e d i t a t i o n are f o l l o w e d
to calm, t a m e a n d discipline the mind, achieve one-pointed
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , cultivate mindfulness and awareness. O n
t h i s f o u n d a t i o n a m o r e c o m p l e x m e t h o d is practiced w h i c h
is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e V a j r a y a n a v e h i c l e , n a m e l y visual-
ization. In t h e act o f visualization m e d i t a t o r s c o n s t r u c t
m e n t a l images, of various degrees of complexity, repre-
s e n t i n g p e a c e f u l , b e a u t i f u l a n d w r a t h f u l , terrifying T a n t r i c
deities with w h o m they identify and w h o guide them
through the process.
E a c h d e i t y c o r r e s p o n d s to a vital force within the d e p t h of
t h e i n d i v i d u a l , a n d b y uniting with various deities, the
m e d i t a t o r m a k e s c o n t a c t w i t h t h o s e forces - positive or n e g a -
tive - a n d utilizes o r rather t r a n s m u t e s t h e m , to achieve
h i g h e r s t a t e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e m e t h o d is b a s e d o n
a s s u m p t i o n s that are irrational a n d can o n l y b e grasped in the
w a y o n e can u n d e r s t a n d the irrational processess of life m e n -
t i o n e d earlier in discussing J u n g ' s m e t h o d of psychotherapy.
M e d i t a t o r s a r e g i v e n a d e i t y , c h o s e n a c c o r d i n g to their
s p e c i f i c n e e d s a n d spiritual c a p a c i t i e s . T h e y are i n s t r u c t e d
t o d e v o t e t h e i r fullest a t t e n t i o n to t h e f o r m o f t h e deity that
t h e y a r e t o c r e a t e in t h e i r m i n d . All t h e m i n u t e details o f the
i m a g e , in all its c o m p l e x i t y a n d c o l o r , a r e v i s u a l i z e d to t h e
p o i n t t h a t it b e c o m e s j u s t a s real a s t h e p r a c t i t i o n e r s t h e m -
s e l v e s . Indeed they not only contemplate the deity, they
i d e n t i f y t h e m s e l v e s as t h e d e i t y . F o r a m o m e n t t h e y h a v e
b e e n t r a n s f i g u r e d i n t o t h e divinity: t h e a r c h e t y p a l e s s e n c e
o f it h a s b e e n t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o t h e m . D u r i n g that t i m e of
identification with the deity they generate the so-called
' d i v i n e p r i d e , ' p r i d e t h a t o n e is B u d d h a . 1 1 7

T h e c o r e o f v i s u a l i z a t i o n c o n s i s t s in this u n i o n w i t h the
d e i t y . It is a d y n a m i c p r o c e s s in w h i c h t h e m e d i t a t o r s ' e g o ,
t h e i r o r d i n a r y c o n s c i o u s n e s s , is a b a n d o n e d a n d substituted
with the higher consciousness of the deity. O n e could say,
to u s e J u n g ' s l a n g u a g e , t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s e g o h a s b e e n
s a c r i f i c e d for t h e S e l f .
T h e p r o c e s s o f v i s u a l i z a t i o n is n o t a m a t t e r o r r e p r e s s i n g
the irrepressible parts of our psyche, the archetypal forms
t h a t u n i t e u s w i t h all o f h u m a n i t y o f all t i m e s , b u t r a t h e r to
m a k e contact with t h e m and gradually transform them so as
to a c h i e v e a h i g h e r s t a t e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e v a r i o u s
deities are s y m b o l s of the forces, positive and negative,
g o o d a n d evil, t h a t w a g e a battle in o u r p s y c h e . N o n e o f
t h e s e f o r c e s , t h e s e e n e r g i e s , is lost: e a c h is h a r n e s s e d a n d
t r a n s m u t e d i n t o p u r e a w a r e n e s s , p u r e spiritual e s s e n c e .
O r , t o u s e t h e a l c h e m i c a l l a n g u a g e , lead is t r a n s f o r m e d into
gold.
L e t u s l o o k at t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f o n e o f t h e deities:

Mahavajrabhairava must have a body of very deep

blue colour, nine faces, thirty-four arms and
s i x t e e n f e e t . T h e l e g s o n t h e left side a r e a d v a n c e d
a n d t h o s e o n t h e r i g h t d r a w n b a c k . H e is able to
s w a l l o w t h e t h r e e w o r l d s . H e s n e e r s a n d roars.
H i s t o n g u e is a r c h e d . H e g n a s h e s h i s t e e t h a n d h i s
eyebrows are wrinkled. His eyes and his
 e y e b r o w s flame like t h e c o s m i c fire at t h e t i m e o f
t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e u n i v e r s e . H i s h a i r is y e l l o w
a n d s t a n d s o n e n d . H e m e n a c e s t h e G o d s of t h e
material a n d the n o n - m a t e r i a l s p h e r e s . H e frightens
e v e n the terrifying deities. H e roars out the word
p'ain w i t h a v o i c e like t h e r u m b l e o f t h u n d e r . H e
d e v o u r s f l e s h , m a r r o w a n d h u m a n fat a n d d r i n k s
b l o o d . H e is c r o w n e d w i t h five awe-inspiring skulls
a n d is a d o r n e d w i t h a garland m a d e of fifteen freshly
s e v e r e d h e a d s . H i s sacrificial c o r d is a black s e r -
p e n t . T h e o r n a m e n t s in h i s e a r s e t c . a r e o f h u m a n
b o n e s . H i s b e l l y is h u g e , h i s b o d y n a k e d a n d h i s
p e n i s e r e c t . H i s e y e b r o w s , eyelids, b e a r d a n d b o d y
h a i r f l a m e like t h e c o s m i c fire at t h e e n d of t h e
a g e s . H i s m i d d l e face is t h a t o f a b u f f a l o . It is
h o r n e d a n d e x p r e s s e s v i o l e n t a n g e r . A b o v e it, a n d
b e t w e e n the horns, projects a yellow f a c e . 1 1 8

A s a c o n t r a s t , let u s c o n t e m p l a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g i m a g e :

O n t h e d i s c o f t h e a u t u m n m o o n , clear a n d p u r e ,
y o u p l a c e a s e e d s y l l a b l e . T h e cool b l u e r a y s o f t h e
s e e d syllable e m a n a t e i m m e n s e cooling compassion
t h a t r a d i a t e s b e y o n d t h e limits o f s k y o r s p a c e . It
fulfills t h e n e e d s a n d d e s i r e s of s e n t i e n t b e i n g s ,
b r i n g i n g b a s i c w a r m t h s o that c o n f u s i o n s m a y b e
c l a r i f i e d . T h e n f r o m t h e s e e d syllable y o u c r e a t e a
M a h a v a i r o c a n a B u d d h a , w h i t e in color, w i t h t h e
f e a t u r e s o f a n aristocrat - an eight-year-old child
w i t h a beautiful, i n n o c e n t , pure, powerful, royal
g a z e . H e is d r e s s e d in the c o s t u m e of a medieval
k i n g of India. H e w e a r s a glittering gold crown
inlaid w i t h wish-fulfilling jewels. Part of his long
black hair floats o v e r his shoulders a n d back; the rest
is m a d e into a t o p k n o t s u r m o u n t e d b y a glittering
b l u e d i a m o n d . H e is seated crosslegged o n the lunar
disc w i t h his h a n d s in t h e meditation m u d r a hold-
i n g a vajra carved from p u r e w h i t e c r y s t a l . 119
 A n d n o w let u s c o n t e m p l a t e a v i s u a l i z a t i o n , s u g g e s t e d
b y a c o n t e m p o r a r y T a n t r i c t e a c h e r , for t h e b e n e f i t o f t h o s e
d e v o t e d t o J e s u s C h r i s t . It is a purification p r a c t i c e of b o d y ,
speech and mind.

S i t , o r k n e e l if y o u like, in a c o m f o r t a b l e p o s i t i o n ,
r e l a x e d b u t w i t h y o u r b a c k straight. In y o u r m i n d ' s
e y e , v i s u a l i z e J e s u s b e f o r e y o u . H i s face h a s a
t r a n q u i l , p e a c e f u l a n d loving e x p r e s s i o n . A picture
of the resurrected Christ or of Jesus teaching may
b e u s e d as a m o d e l for this visualization.
T h e n visualize from the crown of his head m u c h
r a d i a n t , w h i t e light c o m i n g to y o u r o w n c r o w n .
T h i s w h i t e light is in t h e n a t u r e o f blissful e n e r g y
a n d a s it e n t e r s y o u r b o d y it purifies t h e p h y s i c a l
contamination, or sin, accumulated over countless
l i f e t i m e s . T h i s b l i s s f u l , w h i t e e n e r g y p u r i f i e s all
d i s e a s e s o f t h e b o d y , i n c l u d i n g c a n c e r s , a n d acti-
vates a n d r e n e w s the functioning of your entire
nervous system.
I n a s i m i l a r m a n n e r , a r e d light is v i s u a l i z e d ,
r a d i a t i n g forth f r o m J e s u s ' t h r o a t a n d e n t e r i n g
y o u r o w n , c o m p l e t e l y p e r v a d i n g y o u r vocal c e n t r e
w i t h t h e s e n s a t i o n o f b l i s s . If y o u h a v e a n y dif-
ficulties w i t h y o u r s p e e c h , a l w a y s telling lies, b e i n g
u n c o n t r o l l e d in w h a t y o u s a y , e n g a g i n g in slander,
u s i n g h a r s h l a n g u a g e o r t h e like - this blissful r e d
e n e r g y p u r i f i e s y o u o f all t h e s e n e g a t i v i t i e s . A s a
r e s u l t y o u d i s c o v e r t h e d i v i n e qualities o f s p e e c h .
T h e n f r o m J e s u s ' h e a r t infinite r a d i a n t b l u e light
c o m e s t o sink i n t o y o u r h e a r t , purifying y o u r m i n d
o f all its w r o n g c o n c e p t i o n s . Y o u r s e l f i s h a n d p e t t y
e g o , w h i c h is like t h e c h i e f o r p r e s i d e n t o f t h e
d e l u s i o n s , a n d t h e t h r e e p o i s o n s of g r e e d , h a t r e d
a n d i g n o r a n c e , w h i c h a r e like t h e e g o ' s m i n i s t e r s ,
a r e all p u r i f i e d in t h i s b l i s s f u l , b l u e r a d i a n c e . T h e
i n d e c i s i v e m i n d , w h i c h is s p e c i a l l y d o u b t f u l a n d
 c a u g h t b e t w e e n ' m a y b e t h i s ' a n d ' m a y b e t h a t , ' is
c l a r i f i e d . A l s o p u r i f i e d is t h e n a r r o w m i n d , w h i c h
c a n n o t s e e totality b e c a u s e its f o c u s is t o o tight. A s
t h e light e n e r g y fills y o u r m i n d , y o u r heart b e c o m e s
like t h e b l u e s k y , e m b r a c i n g u n i v e r s a l reality a n d
all o f s p a c e . 1 2 0

W i t h persistent practice, a n d as higher stages of con-

s c i o u s n e s s d e v e l o p , the mentally created deities a s s u m e a
d y n a m i c reality c a p a b l e o f a f f e c t i n g t h e m e d i t a t o r in a.
p o w e r f u l w a y . I n t e r m s o f J u n g ' s p s y c h o l o g y t h e s e deities
in t h e m e d i t a t o r ' s m i n d b e c o m e i n c a r n a t e d a r c h e t y p e s . A s
t o t h e i r ' r e a l i t y ' a n d t h e r e a s o n for t h e i r efficacy, w e c a n
a g a i n t u r n to J u n g a n d h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f ' i l l u s i o n . '

By w h a t criterion do w e judge something to be an

i l l u s i o n ? D o e s a n y t h i n g exist for t h e p s y c h e that
w e a r e e n t i t l e d t o call illusion? W h a t w e are pleased
t o call illusion m a y b e for t h e p s y c h e a n e x t r e m e l y
i m p o r t a n t life-factor, something as indispensable
a s o x y g e n for t h e b o d y - a p s y c h i c actuality o f
overwhelming significance. Presumably the
p s y c h e d o e s n o t t r o u b l e itself a b o u t o u r c a t e g o r i e s
of reality; for it, everything that works is
r e a l . . . . N o t h i n g is m o r e p r o b a b l e t h a n t h a t w h a t
w e call i l l u s i o n is v e r y real for t h e p s y c h e - for this
reason we cannot take psychic reality to be
commensurable with conscious r e a l i t y . 1 2 1

O f c o u r s e , it s h o u l d b e k e p t in m i n d t h a t in t e r m s of
B u d d h i s t p h i l o s o p h y this statement w o u l d b e true on the
r e l a t i v e l e v e l o f reality o n l y . O n t h e u l t i m a t e level o f reality
e v e r y t h i n g is i n t r i n s i c a l l y v o i d .
I n t h e T a n t r i c sadhanas (spiritual e x e r c i s e s ) t h e m e n t a l
activity of meditation is a c c o m p a n i e d b y mantras and
mudras in w h i c h s p e e c h a n d b o d y t a k e p a r t .
M a n t r a s a r e s a c r e d s o u n d s , a u d i t o r y s y m b o l s , that h a v e
n o c o n c r e t e m e a n i n g , b u t like t h e s o u n d a n d r h y t h m o f
m u s i c a n d poetry h a v e the power of evoking profound
feelings a n d states of consciousness that transcend thought
a n d o r d i n a r y s p e e c h . T o the initiated the mantra speaks in
a v e r y d i r e c t , i m m e d i a t e w a y a n d h a s t h e capacity to call
f o r t h t h e d o r m a n t f o r c e s w i t h i n t h e m . T o o t h e r s it r e m a i n s
a secret. T h e m e r e recitation of a mantra without adequate
p r e p a r a t i o n a n d t h e p r o p e r m e n t a l a t t i t u d e is u s e l e s s , for
t h e s o u n d o f t h e m a n t r a is n o t m e r e l y p h y s i c a l b u t a b o v e all
is s p i r i t u a l . It h a s to b e p r o d u c e d b y t h e m i n d a n d h e a r d b y
the h e a r t . 1 2 2

M u d r a s a r e s y m b o l i c p o s t u r e s a n d g e s t u r e s in w h i c h
h a n d s a n d e a c h f i n g e r p a r t i c i p a t e in a m o s t r e f i n e d , e l e g a n t
a n d expressive manner, reminiscent of the movements of
Balinese dancers. T h e y are physical, outward expressions
of i n n e r states of b e i n g a n d , like the mantras w h e n used in
t h e p r o p e r c o n t e x t , a r e a n aid to m e d i t a t i o n , h e l p i n g t o
i n c i t e h i g h e r states o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . W h e n all t h r e e a s p e c t s
o f o n e ' s b e i n g - b o d y , s p e e c h , a n d m i n d - are simultaneously
i n v o l v e d a n d h a r m o n i o u s l y c o - o r d i n a t e d - in t h e p e r f o r -
m a n c e of m u d r a s , recitation of mantras, a n d d e e p medita-
t i o n - p r i m e v a l , u n i v e r s a l f o r c e s a r e a r o u s e d , a n d t h e effect
is t h u n d e r o u s . O n e e n t e r s a n o t h e r reality.
R i t u a l s a n d c e r e m o n i e s p l a y a s i g n i f i c a n t role in T a n t r i c
practice. Prostrations, offerings of incense and flowers,
c h a n t i n g , puja (ritual w o r s h i p ) , initiation rites, all o f t h e m
h a v e to b e regarded as forms of meditation and understood
f o r t h e i r s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g . T o h a v e t h e i r full e f f e c t , t h e y
h a v e to b e a p p r o a c h e d with a correct mental attitude and
with reverence.
A t y p i c a l c e r e m o n y h a s all t h e d r a m a t i c qualities o f i n -
c a n t a t i o n a n d m a g i c : it i s a f e a s t for all t h e s e n s e s a n d it
s t r i k e s at t h e d e e p e s t l e v e l s o f o n e ' s b e i n g . T h e r e is t h e blast
o f t h e h o r n s a n d T i b e t a n l o n g t r u m p e t s , t h e rattle of t h e
c l a p p e r - d r u m s , t h e s o u n d o f t h e b e l l s , t h e c h a n t i n g , recita-
t i o n o f m a n t r a s a n d s a c r e d t e x t s , t h e p r a y e r flags, t h e color-
ful r o b e s o f t h e l a m a s w h o s e p o s t u r e s , g e s t u r e s , a n d facial
e x p r e s s i o n s often m i r r o r t h o s e o f the deities in the sur-
r o u n d i n g thangkas (sacred i m a g e s ) ; t h e fragrance of i n c e n s e ,
f l o w e r s , c e r e m o n i a l u t e n s i l s , b o w l s w i t h sanctified w a t e r ,
t e a , fruit a n d o t h e r delicacies. It is a spectacle a n d e x p e r i e n c e
t h a t c a n n o t b e d e s c r i b e d , b u t n e i t h e r c a n it e v e r b e for-
gotten.

THE SPIRITUAL FRIEND AND THE ANALYST

S i n c e l i b e r a t i o n c a n n o t b e a t t a i n e d b y w a y of b o o k s o r
abstract knowledge but only through experience, the need
f o r a h u m a n g u r u , o r spiritual t e a c h e r , is o f t r e m e n d o u s
i m p o r t a n c e . O n l y w i t h t h e h e l p a n d g u i d a n c e of a n o t h e r
h u m a n being can one's consciousness be awakened and
real p r o g r e s s m a d e . But this other h u m a n being must be a
t e a c h e r w h o is q u a l i f i e d a n d w h o h i m o r h e r s e l f is far a l o n g
t h e p a t h . H i s c o n d u c t , his k n o w l e d g e , t h e clarity o f his
m i n d , h i s w i s d o m a n d c o m p a s s i o n m u s t b e s u c h that h e
c a n s e r v e n o t o n l y a s a t e a c h e r , b u t a s a living e x a m p l e o f
the enlightened attitude. Gurus cannot transfer their
w i s d o m to the disciples, but their words, which resonate
b e y o n d the m e a n i n g of the ordinary words, can touch and
m o v e t h e d i s c i p l e s w h e n t h e y a r e r e a d y for t h e t e a c h i n g .
W h e n t h a t h a p p e n s it is a s if a k e y h a s o p e n e d t h e d o o r o f
p e r c e p t i o n in t h e i n n e r m o s t b e i n g o f t h e d i s c i p l e s , a n d
g r a d u a l l y t h e i r h o r i z o n s a r e w i d e n e d . It feels literally t h a t
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e light, is e x p a n d i n g at e a c h c o n t a c t w i t h
t h e g u r u . T h e h u m a n guru, being the model of a complete
p e r s o n , is b u t t h e a r c h e t y p a l s y m b o l o f t h e S u p r e m e G u r u ,
or the principle of B u d d h a h o o d , and so the process goes on
i n t h e m i n d s o f t h e d i s c i p l e s till t h e i m a g e o f t h e g u r u h a s
b e e n i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s . T h e disciple realizes
t h a t t h e t e a c h e r is n o t o u t s i d e b u t i n s i d e h i s p s y c h e , a n d is
n o n e o t h e r than his o w n Self.
T h e f u n c t i o n o f g u r u s , w h o a r e s o m e t i m e s a l s o called
s p i r i t u a l f r i e n d s , h a s m a n y a s p e c t s . L e t u s l o o k at t h e i m -
aginative text of the eleventh century Tibetan teacher and
philosopher Gampopa, d e s c r i b i n g t h e role o f spiritual
friends.

T h e s i m i l e s a r e t h a t spiritual f r i e n d s a r e like a
g u i d e w h e n w e travel in u n k n o w n territory, a n
escort w h e n w e pass through dangerous regions
a n d a f e r r y m a n w h e n w e c r o s s a g r e a t river.
A s t o t h e first, w h e n w e travel g u i d e l e s s in a n
u n k n o w n t e r r i t o r y t h e r e is t h e d a n g e r of g o i n g
a s t r a y a n d g e t t i n g lost. B u t if w e g o w i t h a g u i d e
t h e n t h e r e is n o s u c h d a n g e r , a n d w i t h o u t m i s s i n g
a single step w e reach the desired place....
In t h e s e c o n d simile dangerous regions are
h a u n t e d by thieves a n d robbers, wild beasts a n d
other noxious animals. W h e n w e go there without
a n e s c o r t , t h e r e is a d a n g e r o f l o s i n g o u r b o d y , life
o r property; but w h e n w e have a strong escort w e
reach the desired place without a loss....
F i n a l l y in t h e t h i r d simile w h e n w e c r o s s t h e
g r e a t r i v e r , if w e h a v e b o a r d e d a b o a t w i t h o u t a
b o a t m a n , w e a r e e i t h e r d r o w n e d o r carried a w a y
b y the current a n d d o not reach the other shore;
b u t if t h e r e is a b o a t m a n w e l a n d safely b y his
efforts. 1 2 3

J u n g k n e w w e l l o f t h e d a n g e r s o f t h e 'wild b e a s t s a n d
o t h e r n o x i o u s a n i m a l s , ' a n d t h e terror w h e n p l u n g i n g i n t o
the dark regions of one's unconscious, as he experimented
w i t h himself. A n d so did the alchemists before him. They
w e r e a l s o fully a w a r e o f t h e p o t e n t i a l p s y c h i c e x p l o s i o n
i n h e r e n t in t h e i r opus. N o doubt, both the alchemists and
J u n g w o u l d b e in full a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e w a r n i n g s o f t h e
Tibetan teacher.
F o l l o w i n g in t h e f o o t s t e p s o f S h a k y a m u n i B u d d h a n e v e r
t o i m p o s e h i s t e a c h i n g s o n o t h e r s , it is p a r t of t h e T i b e t a n
t r a d i t i o n t h a t i n s t r u c t i o n s h o u l d b e g i v e n o n l y in r e s p o n s e
to a sincere request and serious intent. Tibetan teachers
b e l i e v e t h a t t h e v e r y act o f s e e k i n g a n d r e q u e s t i n g h e l p
c r e a t e s t h e p r o p e r e n e r g y t h a t is c o n d u c i v e to receiving it,
a n d listening not only with ears but with the heart as
well. 1 2 4

The analyst plays essentially the same role as the

s p i r i t u a l f r i e n d ; y e t t h e r e is a n i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n . A s
stated earlier, Jung postulates that in the course of
psychological treatment the therapist must be equally
a f f e c t e d b y t h e t h e r a p e u t i c e n c o u n t e r . T h i s m a y b e c o m e an
e x p e r i e n c e of r e n e w a l for the therapist, b u t on the other
hand may also result in psychological contamination,
t h r e a t e n i n g the therapist's o w n emotional balance. The
g u r u b y c o n t r a s t , o n e i s t o l d , h a v i n g a t t a i n e d h i g h spiritual
r e a l i z a t i o n i s i m m u n e to s u c h c o n t a m i n a t i o n a n d c a n n o t
b e a f f e c t e d b y h i s s t u d e n t s ' n e g a t i v i t i e s . In fact s o m e
meditation practices in Tibetan Buddhism include a
m e n t a l o f f e r i n g to t h e g u r u c o n s i s t i n g o f all o b j e c t s of o n e ' s
g r e e d a n d h a t r e d , i n b r i e f , all n e g a t i v i t i e s . A t t h e s a m e
t i m e I h a v e b e e n t o l d b y t h e L a m a s t h a t t h e r e s p o n s e s of
t h e i r s t u d e n t s - a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e r e c o g n i t i o n that t h e y
h e l p e d c l e a r c o n f u s i o n a n d r e d u c e s u f f e r i n g - d o affect
t h e m a n d a d d to the store of their energies.
4 Archetypal
Symbols -
Tantra and Jung

AS DISCUSSED IN t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , visualization is o n e
o f t h e m a i n m e d i t a t i o n m e t h o d s in t h e V a j r a y a n a . The
d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f d e i t i e s v i s u a l i z e d in p e r s o n i f i e d f o r m a r e
e x p r e s s e d o u t w a r d l y in Tantric i c o n o g r a p h y , while inwardly
t h e y c o r r e s p o n d to different psychological states. By identify-
i n g w i t h t h e various deities o f the Tibetan B u d d h i s t p a n t h e o n
t h e p r o f a n e c o n s c i o u s n e s s is t r a n s c e n d e d into t h e k n o w -
l e d g e of the holy, a n d thus images b e c o m e symbols of
transformation. T h e anthropomorphic Tantric images are
r e g a r d e d a s a r c h e t y p e s , y e t b e c o m e real to t h e m e d i t a t o r .
A c c o r d i n g t o J u n g , a r c h e t y p e s come to life w h e n t h e y a r e
m e a n i n g f u l to an i n d i v i d u a l . 1 2 6
L i k e all p o w e r f u l s y m b o l s ,
T a n t r i c i m a g e s w h e n infused with emotion, gain n u m i n o s -
ity a n d s u p p l y m e d i t a t o r s w i t h e n e r g y t h a t carry t h e m a
s t e p forward into a n o t h e r psychological realm - the trans-
personal, spiritual
W h a t is t h e r o l e o f i m a g e s in t h e p r a c t i c e o f B u d d h i s m
w h o s e philosophical a n d metaphysical foundations are based
on the concept of emptiness?
In the w o r d s of Lama Govinda:

T h e abstractness of philosophical concepts and

c o n c l u s i o n s r e q u i r e s to b e c o n s t a n t l y c o r r e c t e d b y
direct experience, b y the practice of meditation
a n d t h e c o n t i n g e n c i e s o f daily life. T h e a n t h r o p o -
m o r p h i c e l e m e n t in t h e V a j r a y a n a is t h e r e f o r e n o t
 b o r n f r o m a lack o f i n t e l l e c t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g (as
in t h e c a s e o f p r i m i t i v e m a n ) , b u t , o n t h e c o n t r a r y ,
f r o m t h e c o n s c i o u s d e s i r e to p e n e t r a t e from a m e r e -
ly i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l a t t i t u d e t o t h e direct
a w a r e n e s s o f reality. T h i s c a n n o t b e achieved
t h r o u g h building u p convictions, ideals, and aims
based on reasoning, but only through conscious
penetration of those layers of our mind which
c a n n o t b e r e a c h e d o r i n f l u e n c e d b y logical a r g u -
m e n t s a n d discursive thought.
S u c h p e n e t r a t i o n a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is o n l y p o s -
sible t h r o u g h t h e compelling p o w e r of inner vision,
w h o s e primordial images or 'archetypes' are the
formative principles of o u r mind. Like seeds they
s i n k i n t o t h e fertile soil o f o u r s u b c o n s c i o u s n e s s in
o r d e r t o g e r m i n a t e , to g r o w a n d t o u n f o l d t h e i r
potentialities....
T h e s u b j e c t i v i t y o f i n n e r vision d o e s n o t d i m -
i n i s h its r e a l i t y - v a l u e . S u c h v i s i o n s a r e n o t h a l -
l u c i n a t i o n s , b e c a u s e t h e i r reality is that of t h e
h u m a n p s y c h e . T h e y a r e s y m b o l s , in w h i c h t h e
highest k n o w l e d g e and the noblest endeavour of
t h e h u m a n m i n d a r e e m b o d i e d . T h e i r visualization
is t h e creative process o f spiritual projection,
t h r o u g h w h i c h i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e is t r a n s l a t e d i n t o
v i s i b l e f o r m , c o m p a r a b l e to t h e c r e a t i v e act of a n
artist, w h o s e s u b j e c t i v e i d e a , e m o t i o n , o r v i s i o n ,
is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a n o b j e c t i v e w o r k o f art, w h i c h
n o w t a k e s o n a reality o f its o w n , i n d e p e n d e n t o f
its c r e a t o r . 1 2 7

S i m i l a r l y J u n g tells u s t h a t a r c h e t y p e s initially a r e e m p t y
f o r m s b u t contain the possibility of certain perception and
a c t i o n , a n d w h e n a c t i v a t e d t h e y b e c o m e a p o w e r f u l force in
t h e life a n d b e h a v i o r o f a n i n d i v i d u a l . 1 2 8
Indeed, the arche-
t y p e m a y t a k e a n a u t o n o m o u s reality o f its o w n a n d t a k e
c o n t r o l o v e r t h e e n t i r e p e r s o n a l i t y . T h e vision m a y lead t o
a r t i s t i c c r e a t i o n s o r scientific d i s c o v e r i e s , like the f a m o u s
c a s e of Kekule's discovery of the b e n z e n e ring. 129
But the
v i s i o n s c a n a l s o l e a d t o i n s a n i t y if t h e y a r e n o t i n t e g r a t e d
i n t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e d i v i d i n g line b e t w e e n t h e t w o
r o a d s is f r e q u e n t l y v e r y t h i n .
Tibetan Buddhists, as well as Jung, are aware of the
d a n g e r s i n v o l v e d , a n d t h e r e f o r e u r g e that p r o p e r safeguards
b e t a k e n . T a n t r i c visualization, or t h e s o m e w h a t c o m p a r a b l e
J u n g ' s active i m a g i n a t i o n t e c h n i q u e , b o t h require g u i d a n c e
o f a q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r , o r a n a l y s t . F u r t h e r m o r e , in V a j r a y a n a
p r a c t i c e e v e r y visualization is p r e c e d e d a n d t e r m i n a t e d b y
meditation o n e m p t i n e s s a n d dissolution of images which
a c t s a s a p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t c o n t i n u e d identification w i t h
t h e s y m b o l s : t h e m e d i t a t o r is m a d e a w a r e that t h e deities
are products of imagination.
O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d in T i b e t t h e m o s t p o p u l a r
d e i t y i s T a r a . S h e is t h e f e m i n i n e a s p e c t o f t h e B u d d h a .
I n T i b e t s h e is r e v e r e d a s t h e m o t h e r o f all B u d d h a s .
T a r a , in h e r e s s e n c e , s y m b o l i z e s t h e totally d e v e l o p e d w i s -
d o m t h a t t r a n s c e n d s r e a s o n . S h e is t h e B u d d h a o f e n l i g h t -
e n e d activity, the liberator w h o , by releasing o n e from the
b o n d a g e of egocentric passions, leads from the shores of
p r o f a n e w o r l d l y i n v o l v e m e n t ( s a m s a r a ) to t h e o t h e r s h o r e
o f illumination (nirvana). Tara appears in a variety of aspects:
the green Tara, red Tara, white Tara, etc., twenty-one of
t h e m , a n d e a c h c o r r e s p o n d i n g to slightly different archetypal
i m a g e s in t h e p s y c h e . I n J u n g i a n t e r m i n o l o g y s h e r e p r e s e n t s
t h e M o t h e r a r c h e t y p e . H o w e v e r , s h e is t h e i m a g e o f t h e
m o t h e r w h o h a s i n t e g r a t e d in h e r s e l f all t h e o p p o s i t e s ,
p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e . T h u s t o E r i c N e w m a n n (a d i s c i p l e o f
J u n g ) , Tara s y m b o l i z e s the highest form, the culmination
o f t h e f e m i n i n e a r c h e t y p e . S h e is ' t h e G r e a t G o d d e s s w h o ,
in the totality of h e r unfolding, fills t h e w o r l d from
its lowest elementary phase to its s u p r e m e spiritual
transformation.' 1 3 0

B e s i d e s peaceful a n d wrathful deities, another category

o f " b e i n g s " p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t role i n T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m .
T h e y a r e t h e s o - c a l l e d dakinis w h o h a v e d i v i n e or d e m o n i c
q u a l i t i e s , a n d c a n r e p r e s e n t t h e h u m a n inspirational i m -
p u l s e . T h e y are female e m b o d i m e n t s of knowledge and
m a g i c p o w e r s , a n d are described as 'genii of meditation
a n d spiritual helpers,' capable of awakening the dormant
f o r c e s h i d d e n in t h e d a r k n e s s o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s .
T h e w o r d dakini, o r i n T i b e t a n , khadoma, means "space"
a n d " e t h e r , " referring to that w h i c h m a k e s m o v e m e n t pos-
sible. 1 3 1
O n e g e t s t h e f e e l i n g o f t h e f l u i d n a t u r e of a dakini;
s h e m o v e s t h e p s y c h e a n d c a u s e s it to liquidify all that is rigid
a n d c o n c r e t e , e n c a p s u l a t e d in c o n c e p t u a l t h o u g h t s a n d d o g -
m a s , a n y f i x e d f o r m u l a t i o n . In t h a t s e n s e s h e s y m b o l i z e s
t h e p r i n c i p l e o f m o t i o n a n d reflects t h e d y n a m i c f o r c e s that
a r e t h e s a m e in t h e c o s m o s a s in t h e p s y c h e o f t h e individual.
T h e dakini o f t h e h i g h e s t r a n k is V a j r a Y o g i n i . S h e is t h e
d i v i n e f i g u r e o f t h e i n s p i r i n g m u s e w h o ' r e d e e m s t h e trea-
s u r e s o f a e o n s o f e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h lie d o r m a n t in t h e s u b -
conscious, and raises them into the realm of higher
c o n s c i o u s n e s s , b e y o n d that of our i n t e l l e c t . ' 1 3 2
Tibetan
B u d d h i s t s say that Vajra Yogini has always existed deep
w i t h i n o u r s e l v e s , in o u r u n c o n s c i o u s , b u t is s u f f o c a t e d b y
t h e e g o . W h e n t h e c o n c e p t o f t h e e g o is p i e r c e d w e allow
Vajra Yogini to appear. ( W h e n I think of Vajra Yogini I a m
always reminded of the Sleeping Beauty.)
In the context of J u n g ' s psychology, Vajra Yogini would
b e a p r i m o r d i a l i m a g e , a n d a s s u c h c a n act a s a m e d i a t o r ,
' p r o v i n g its r e d e e m i n g p o w e r , a p o w e r it h a s a l w a y s p o s -
sessed-in various r e l i g i o n s . ' 1 3 3

V a j r a Y o g i n i in T i b e t a n i c o n o g r a p h y is d e p i c t e d w i t h a
c u r i o u s e x p r e s s i o n t h a t is s i m u l t a n e o u s l y l o v i n g a n d s m i l -
ing, b u t also wrathful, thus revealing the essential ambiv-
alence of every archetype.
T h e T a n t r i c s y m b o l o f dakini has been sometimes com-
p a r e d in t h e W e s t w i t h J u n g ' s c o n c e p t o f o n e o f t h e m a j o r
archetypes, namely, the a n i m a . 1 3 4
T h e latter is usually refer-
red to as the female aspect of the male psyche. The anima
a p p e a r s in m a n y d i f f e r e n t f o r m s a n d h a s b o t h b e n e v o l e n t
a n d d e m o n i c aspects. S h e can be a guide and mediator,
l e a d i n g a m a n to h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n - or to his d o o m .
B u t t h e n o t i o n o f a n i m a is m u c h m o r e c o m p l e x . First o f
all, a n i m a d o e s n o t a p p l y e x c l u s i v e l y to a m a n ' s p s y c h e : a s
a n a r c h e t y p a l f i g u r e s h e c a n f u n c t i o n in t h e p s y c h e o f e i t h e r
g e n d e r . In t h e m a l e - o r i e n t e d W e s t e r n w o r l d , t h e c o n c e p t o f
a n i m a , a s t h e f e m i n i n e c o u n t e r p a r t o f the m a s c u l i n e p s y c h e ,
a n d t h e p r o p e r i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e t w o a s p e c t s , is crucial to
t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a l a n c e of the individual and the culture.
In t h e E a s t e r n w o r l d , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , the f e m i n i n e
q u a l i t y , t h e yin a s w e l l a s t h e yang, the masculine quality,
t h e g o d d e s s a s w e l l a s t h e g o d , h a v e b e e n integral parts o f
the culture. There could b e no god without a goddess; one
is u n t h i n k a b l e without the other. The most prevalent
i m a g e i n T a n t r i c i c o n o g r a p h y is t h e s y m b o l of yab-yum,
the god and goddess, father and mother, in ecstatic
e m b r a c e , s y m b o l i z i n g the perfect u n i o n of the masculine
a n d f e m i n i n e e l e m e n t s , t h e u n i o n o f o p p o s i t e s w h i c h is
the fundamental inner experience.
J u n g is r i g h t w h e n h e s a y s that t h e c o n c e p t o f a n i m a as h e
s t a t e d it is l a c k i n g in t h e E a s t e r n v i e w . 1 3 4
It s h o u l d b e
a d d e d , t h a t it is t h e n o t i o n o f a n i m a a s h e f o r m u l a t e d it in
h i s e a r l i e r w r i t i n g s , a n d a s it is m o s t c o m m o n l y u n d e r -
stood. In t h e E a s t t h a t c o n c e p t w o u l d b e s u p e r f l u o u s .
A n i m a , h o w e v e r , c a n b e t h e b r i d g e to t h e S e l f . A s s u c h , s h e
h a s a d e f i n i t e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e to t h e dakini, the e t h e r e a l
b e i n g w h o is b o t h t h e e s s e n c e a n d t h e carrier o f w i s d o m . In
t h a t s e n s e dakinis, a n d a c t u a l l y all T a n t r i c d e i t i e s , p e a c e f u l
a n d w r a t h f u l , d i v i n e a n d d e m o n i c , c a n b e l o o k e d at a s
m e s s e n g e r s a n d p e r s o n i f i c a t i o n s of s u p r e m e w i s d o m , a n d
t h e r e f o r e t h e y f u n c t i o n a s c a t a l y s t s in t h e p r o c e s s o f i n t e -
g r a t i o n . O r , to p u t it differently, t h e y are n u m i n o u s person-
alities, embodiments of a r c h e t y p e s , e x p r e s s i n g different
attributes of the Self.
A dakini m a y at t i m e s h a v e a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e to the a r c h e -
t y p e o f t h e a n i m a , b u t m a y also just a s well b e the equivalent
o f t h e a r c h e t y p e o f t h e ' w i s e old m a n ' w h o r e p r e s e n t s
superior insight. A n d just as the image of Philemon, the
'wise o l d m a n ' a p p e a r e d t o J u n g a n d s e e m e d q u i t e real to
h i m , s i m i l a r l y a d e i t y a p p e a r s real to t h e m e d i t a t o r . T h e
d i f f e r e n c e is, h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e dakini, o r d e i t y , is n o t a
s p o n t a n e o u s a p p e a r a n c e , a s J u n g ' s vision of P h i l e m o n w a s .
It is i n s t e a d a d e i t y t h a t t h e g u r u b e s t o w s o n the s t u d e n t
d u r i n g i n i t i a t i o n to facilitate his o r h e r p r o g r e s s , a n d it is
c h o s e n in a c c o r d a n c e with the individual's specific needs,
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d c a p a c i t i e s . S u c h a d e i t y is called yidam,
a n d b e c o m e s the student's guardian and mentor - the 'wise
o l d m a n . ' It h a s b e e n s a i d t h a t a dakini 'provides hidden
intimations from deeper layers of one's b e i n g . ' 1 3 6
H e r e the
dakini w o u l d reflect t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e a n i m a , w h i c h J u n g
d e s c r i b e s as a personification of the u n c o n s c i o u s , 1 3 7
and
h a v i n g the connective qualities of E r o s . 1 3 8

B u t o n c e a g a i n , it s h o u l d b e e m p h a s i z e d that all these

a n t h r o p o m o r p h i c i m a g e s of the Tantric pantheon - deities,
dakinis, yidams - a r e n o t i d e n t i f i e d as external b e i n g s , b u t
a r e n o n e o t h e r t h a n t h e r e f l e c t i o n s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s m i n d ,
a n d a r e r e v e a l e d in i n w a r d e x p e r i e n c e s . T h e r e f o r e , the
v a r i o u s a r c h e t y p a l figures c a n a p p e a r in o n e form or a n o t h e r
at different times a n d u n d e r different circumstances. T h e
g o a l is t o m a k e c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s e p s y c h i c realities a n d
b r i n g t h e m t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s - or, a s J u n g w o u l d s a y , to
b r i n g t h e m i n t o o u r o w n s o u l s . J u n g r e c o g n i z e d that reli-
g i o u s f u n c t i o n is n o t a m a t t e r o f faith a n d o u t w a r d form
w h i c h l e a v e s t h e s o u l u t t e r l y b a r r e n ; it is r o o t e d in t h e
h u m a n p s y c h e a n d y e a r n s for e x p r e s s i o n , b u t c a n b e d i s -
c o v e r e d o n l y t h r o u g h o n e ' s o w n direct e x p e r i e n c e . T h u s
J u n g states:

W i t h a t r u l y tragic d e l u s i o n . . . t h e o l o g i a n s fail to
s e e t h a t it is n o t a m a t t e r o f p r o v i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e
of the light, but of blind people w h o do not k n o w
t h a t t h e i r e y e s c o u l d s e e . It is h i g h t i m e w e realize
t h a t it is p o i n t l e s s to p r a i s e t h e light a n d p r e a c h it
if n o b o d y c a n s e e it. It is m u c h m o r e n e e d f u l to
t e a c h p e o p l e t h e art o f s e e i n g . F o r it is o b v i o u s t h a t
far t o o m a n y p e o p l e a r e i n c a p a b l e o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a
 c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s a c r e d f i g u r e s a n d their
o w n p s y c h e ; t h e y c a n n o t s e e to w h a t e x t e n t t h e
e q u i v a l e n t i m a g e s a r e lying d o r m a n t in their o w n
unconscious. 1 3 9

T o J u n g it is e v i d e n t t h a t t h e s o l u t i o n to this p r o b l e m ,
t h a t i s , to d e v e l o p t h e c a p a c i t y for i n n e r vision a n d e x p e r i -
e n c e t h e mysterium magnum, t h e c o s m i c reality, c a n b e
a c h i e v e d o n l y b y m a k i n g c o n t a c t w i t h t h e p s y c h e . In o t h e r
w o r d s , the p s y c h e , or the m i n d as Tibetan Buddhists would
s a y , is t h e v e h i c l e o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
T h e sacred images - w h e t h e r those of the Tibetan pan-
t h e o n , o r t h e m o d e r n w o r l d , or of a n y m y t h o l o g y o f a n y
time a n d place - are the c o m m o n heritage of humanity and
a r e p r e s e n t in e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l . A n d J u n g f o u n d o u t in his
t h e r a p e u t i c p r a c t i c e t h a t c o n t e m p o r a r y m e n a n d w o m e n in
t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d s p o n t a n e o u s l y p r o d u c e d , f r o m their
u n c o n s c i o u s , images that w e r e part of mythologies of re-
m o t e places a n d ancient times, and that these images could
h a v e a p r o f o u n d a n d p o w e r f u l effect o n t h e individual. In
the act of vision, of contact with the symbol, they could be
r e n e w e d a n d their p s y c h i c e n e r g y transformed, a fact Tibetan
B u d d h i s t s h a v e k n o w n for c e n t u r i e s .
A s m e n t i o n e d earlier, J u n g ' s particular approach to p s y c h o -
t h e r a p y w e n t b e y o n d g o a l s a n d m e t h o d s a s traditionally
u n d e r s t o o d a n d p r a c t i c e d ; t o h i m p s y c h o t h e r a p y is ulti-
m a t e l y a n a p p r o a c h t o t h e n u m i n o u s . It is o n this g r o u n d
that J u n g a n d Tantra meet; they penetrate and transform
t h e s a m e p s y c h i c realities.
T h e process of individuation, or psychological develop-
m e n t , l e a d s p r o g r e s s i v e l y f u r t h e r a w a y f r o m t h e e g o to t h e
S e l f , f r o m t h e u n c o n s c i o u s to c o n s c i o u s n e s s , f r o m t h e p e r -
s o n a l t o t h e t r a n s p e r s o n a l , t h e h o l y , t h e realization that t h e
m a c r o c o s m is being mirrored in the microcosm of the h u m a n
psyche.
T h e task is the r e d e m p t i o n of the Self, the psychic totality,
t h e lapis, ' t h e great treasure that lies h i d d e n in the cave of
the unconscious,' 1 4 0
p e r s o n i f i e d in t h e B u d d h a , in V a j r a -
Yogini, t h e Sleeping Beauty, suffocated by the ego. A n d the
t a s k c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d a c c o r d i n g to J u n g , w h e n the
a r c h e t y p a l s y m b o l , t h e S e l f , is m a d e c o n s c i o u s a n d is d i s -
e n g a g e d f r o m t h e u n c o n s c i o u s identification w i t h t h e e g o .
In o t h e r w o r d s , the Self, G o d , the Buddha, Vajra Yogini has
t o b e r e d e e m e d b y h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h i s is t h e ulti-
m a t e g o a l o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e f r a m e w o r k
of Jung's psychotherapy.
T h e n o t i o n t h a t m a t t e r , s y m b o l i z i n g t h e t e m p o r a l reality
o f t h e e g o , is h i d i n g G o d w a s part o f a G n o s t i c m y t h , a n d
a l s o t h e u n d e r l i n i n g t h e m e in a l c h e m y . 1 4 1
T h e alchemical,
in c o n t r a s t t o t h e C h r i s t i a n w o r k o f r e d e m p t i o n , is a n active
e n d e a v o r w h i c h is r e m a r k a b l y similar t o t h e B u d d h i s t atti-
t u d e . In a l c h e m y , s a y s J u n g , ' m a n t a k e s u p o n h i m s e l f t h e
d u t y o f c a r r y i n g o u t t h e r e d e e m i n g opus, a n d attributes the
s t a t e o f s u f f e r i n g a n d c o n s e q u e n t n e e d o f r e d e m p t i o n to t h e
anima mundi i m p r i s o n e d in m a t t e r . ' 1 4 2

B u t t h e w o r k o f r e d e m p t i o n , w h e t h e r in a l c h e m y , in
T a n t r a o r J u n g , c a n n o t b e left to n a t u r e ; it requires c o n s c i o u s
e f f o r t . A b o v e all it m u s t b e a living e x p e r i e n c e , it m u s t take
p l a c e in t h e m i d s t o f life. T h e a l c h e m i s t s b e l i e v e d that ' t h e
s u b s t a n c e that h a r b o r s t h e divine secret is e v e r y w h e r e . . . e v e n
in the m o s t loathsome filth.'143
T a n t r i c B u d d h i s t s similarly
b e l i e v e t h a t e v e r y e v e n t a n d situation, g o o d o r evil, c a n
b e c o m e a v e h i c l e o f spiritual t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . N o t h i n g is to
be rejected. A n d J u n g ' s psychology too welcomes every
a s p e c t o f t h e p s y c h e , r e j e c t s n o p a r t of it, a n d s e e k s it in t h e
d e p t h a n d t h e h e i g h t , d a r k n e s s a n d light, a n d in s i m p l e
o u t e r a n d i n n e r e v e n t s o f e v e r y d a y life.

THE TIBETAN BOOK OF THE DEAD

I n h i s ' P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o m m e n t a r y o n The Tibetan Book of

the Dead' o r Bardo Thodol, J u n g s t a t e s t h a t this w o r k h a s
b e e n ' m y c o n s t a n t c o m p a n i o n , a n d to it I o w e n o t o n l y
 The Tibetan Book of the Dead 67

m a n y s t i m u l a t i n g i d e a s a n d d i s c o v e r i e s , b u t also m a n y
fundamental insights.' 1 4 4
The Tibetan Book of the Dead is
o s t e n s i b l y a b o u t d e a t h a n d d y i n g , w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s to t h e
s o u l o f t h e d e p a r t e d d u r i n g f o r t y - n i n e d a y s of peregrination
till n e w b i r t h .
I n a m o d e r n c o m m e n t a r y , basically a d d r e s s e d to the W e s t -
e r n w o r l d , C h o g y a m T r u n g p a R i n p o c h e calls it ' T h e Tibetan
B o o k o f B i r t h , ' t h e r e b y m a k i n g t h e p o i n t that birth a n d
d e a t h a r e f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e s that r e c u r c o n s t a n t l y in
this l i f e . 1 4 5
T h e m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d bardo is d e r i v e d f r o m
bar w h i c h m e a n s 'in b e t w e e n , ' a n d do w h i c h m e a n s ' i s l a n d '
o r ' m a r k . ' It is t h e r e f o r e 'a sort o f l a n d m a r k w h i c h s t a n d s
between two t h i n g s , ' 1 4 6
a n d it r e f e r s to a n i n t e r m e d i a t e
s t a t e , a p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n . W e r e c o g n i z e h e r e t h e idea o f
t h e i n t e r m e d i a r y , t w i l i g h t level o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s o r t h e
t w i l i g h t p e r i o d at s u n s e t o r d a w n , w h e n d a y t u r n s into
n i g h t o r v i c e v e r s a . T h e s e a r e b o r d e r l i n e s t a t e s ; t h e y are
t i m e s o f c r i s i s , w h e n t h e t e n s i o n is at its p e a k , b u t w h i c h
are also m o s t p r e g n a n t psychologically, since they are times
w h e n c h a n g e c a n m o s t readily o c c u r . I n h e r e n t in s u c h
s t a t e s is t h e o p p o r t u n i t y for t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . In t h e crack
b e t w e e n t w o w o r l d s - o f t h e living a n d t h e d e a d , o f d e a t h
a n d r e b i r t h - lies t h e s u p r e m e o p p o r t u n i t y . A c c o r d i n g t o
t h e Bardo Thodol, it is at t h e m o m e n t i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g
d e a t h t h a t t h e m i n d is c a p a b l e o f a t t a i n i n g liberation. A t
t h a t m o m e n t o n e r e a c h e s t h e subtlest level of c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
t h e c l e a r light m i n d , b u t b e c a u s e o n e is n o t familiar w i t h it
o n e m i s s e s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to u s e it to g a i n e n l i g h t e n m e n t ,
a n d instead d e s c e n d s progressively back into the world of
t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a n d a n e w birth, w h e n t h e w h e e l of s a m s a r a
a n d s u f f e r i n g s t a r t s all o v e r a g a i n . In its j o u r n e y t h r o u g h
t h e u n d e r w o r l d t h e m i n d e n c o u n t e r s at first beautiful, p e a c e -
ful, a n d later frightening, wrathful deities. T h e teaching of
t h e Book is t h a t t h e y a r e b u t p r o j e c t i o n s o f t h e m i n d w h i c h
n e e d t o b e r e c o g n i z e d a s s u c h , t h a t is, a s e m p t y f o r m s a n d
i l l u s o r y i m a g e s . T h e c o n f u s i o n is t h e n t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o
transcendental wisdom.
 T o J u n g it w a s s e l f - e v i d e n t t h a t ' t h e w h o l e b o o k is c r e a t e d
o u t of the archetypal contents of the unconscious.' T h e
w o r l d o f g o d s a n d spirits, a c c o r d i n g to h i m , is t h e collective
unconscious within u s . 1 4 7
B y i n t r o d u c i n g this b o o k to t h e
W e s t e r n w o r l d , J u n g a c k n o w l e d g e d its h i g h p s y c h o l o g i c a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e , its r e m a r k a b l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p h e n o m -
e n o n o f p r o j e c t i o n , a n d its p h i l o s o p h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s : t h e
t r a n s i t o r i n e s s o f t h e p h e n o m e n a l , relative w o r l d , a n d p e r -
m a n e n c e o f t h e e t e r n a l a b s o l u t e reality. T h r o u g h his c o m -
m e n t a r y h e m a d e t h e Book a s r e l e v a n t to c o n t e m p o r a r y
W e s t e r n e r s a s it w a s t o t h e r e m o t e a n d s e c l u d e d society of
Tibet centuries ago.
T o d a y , in a s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t m a n n e r , T r u n g p a R i n -
p o c h e t h r o w s light o n t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f Bardo Thodol and
l o o k s at it f r o m a n o t h e r s t a n d p o i n t . H e interprets the experi-
e n c e o f bardo in t e r m s o f t h e six r e a l m s o f e x i s t e n c e in
B u d d h i s t m y t h o l o g y - t h e r e a l m s of: ' h e l l , ' t h e ' h u n g r y
g h o s t , ' the 'animal,' the ' h u m a n , ' the 'jealous gods,' and
t h e ' g o d s ' - a n d r e l a t e s t h e m to c o r r e s p o n d i n g a s p e c t s o f
o u r p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a t e s . T h e ' r e a l m of hell' is the state of
a n g e r w h i c h b e c o m e s self-destructive. T h e 'hungry ghost
r e a l m ' is t h e c o n d i t i o n o f i n s a t i a b l e h u n g e r for p o s s e s s i o n s .
T h e ' a n i m a l r e a l m ' r e p r e s e n t s t h e a b s e n c e o f m y s t e r y ; it is
the world of security and comfort, predictable and me-
c h a n i c a l . T h e ' h u m a n r e a l m ' is t h e w o r l d of p a s s i o n a n d
u n c e a s i n g pursuit of pleasure and wealth. The 'realm of the
j e a l o u s g o d s ' is t h e w o r l d o f p a r a n o i a a n d i n t r i g u e . Finally,
t h e ' r e a l m o f t h e g o d s ' is t h e s t a t e o f p r i d e a n d n a r c i s s i s m ,
intoxication with one's e g o . 1 4 8

A l l t h e s e r e a l m s a r e p o r t r a i t s of this w o r l d of s a m s a r a , of
f r u s t r a t i o n a n d s u f f e r i n g . In t h e deities t h e soul m e e t s , w e
r e c o g n i z e o u r familiar g o d s o f daily living w h o h a u n t u s
a n d a f f e c t u s all t h e t i m e if w e d o n o t a c k n o w l e d g e t h e m .
T h a t m e a n s w e m u s t b e c o m e conscious of them, integrate
t h e m , a n d d e v e l o p a n e t h i c a l a t t i t u d e , if w e are to live
complete and meaningful lives. Otherwise, as with
t h e v i s i o n s i n t h e j o u r n e y t h r o u g h the bardo, w e can g o
p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e e p e r i n t o t h e u n c o n s c i o u s until w e reach
t h e total d a r k n e s s , the point of no return.

THE MANDALA

T h e m a n d a l a , t h e m y s t i c circle, is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t a n d
s i g n i f i c a n t s y m b o l in T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m . It is o n e o f t h e
m o s t a n c i e n t s y m b o l s w h i c h a c c o r d i n g to J u n g can b e traced
to paleolithic t i m e , 1 4 9
a n d c a n b e f o u n d in all p l a c e s a n d all
a g e s . T h e m o s t e l a b o r a t e a n d artistic m a n d a l a s h a v e b e e n
c r e a t e d b y Tibetan Buddhists. T h e y are images containing
s y m b o l s o f o p p o s i t e s g r o u p e d a r o u n d a central n u c l e u s ,
a n d their structure a n d design express both the world pro-
j e c t e d o u t s i d e a n d t h e i n n e r w o r l d o f t h e p s y c h e . T h u s to
t h e d i s c i p l e t h e y reveal t h e interplay of forces w h i c h operate
in t h e c o s m o s a n d w i t h i n h i s o w n m i n d .
T h e T i b e t a n m a n d a l a s are not m e r e aesthetic compositions;
t h e y are religious a n d philosophical symbols with the pre-
c i s e m e a n i n g fixed b y t r a d i t i o n . W e a r e told t h a t ,

. . . e v e r y detail in t h e m is significant a n d d o e s n o t
d e p e n d o n a r b i t r a r y m o o d s or w h i m s o f a n artist,
b u t is the o u t c o m e of centuries of meditative experi-
e n c e a n d a conventional language of symbols as
p r e c i s e a s t h e s i g n l a n g u a g e o f m a t h e m a t i c a l for-
m u l a s , w h e r e n o t o n l y e a c h s i g n , b u t a l s o its p o s -
i t i o n w i t h i n t h e f o r m u l a d e t e r m i n e s its v a l u e . 1 5 0

In o t h e r w o r d s , h e r e m a n d a l a s h a v e b e e n b o r n o u t of visions
a n d interior experiences of highly advanced meditators
a n d in a v e r y s p e c i a l , spiritually c r e a t i v e e n v i r o n m e n t .
J u n g , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h r o u g h his p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s
a n d in his w o r k with patients had observed the same motif
of mandala occurring spontaneously w h e n the psyche was
in t h e p r o c e s s o f r e i n t e g r a t i o n , f o l l o w i n g t h e t i m e of d i s -
e q u i l i b r i u m . In t h o s e i n s t a n c e s t h e a u t h o r s o f m a n d a l a s
c o u l d not possibly have had any knowledge of Tibetan
B u d d h i s m . J u n g s a w t h a t in h i s s c h i z o p h r e n i c p a t i e n t s
' m a n d a l a s y m b o l s a p p e a r v e r y f r e q u e n t l y in m o m e n t s o f
p s y c h i c d i s o r i e n t a t i o n a s c o m p e n s a t o r y o r d e r i n g factors.
T h i s a s p e c t is e x p r e s s e d a b o v e all in t h e i r m a t h e m a t i c a l
structure.' 1 5 1
H e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e m a n d a l a is a n a r c h e -
t y p e of order, of psychic integration and wholeness, and
a p p e a r s a s a n a t u r a l a t t e m p t at s e l f - h e a l i n g . B u t it w a s in
t h e d r e a m s a n d active imagination of his patients w h o were
o n t h e i r j o u r n e y to i n d i v i d u a t i o n t h a t J u n g f o u n d m o s t
surprising evidences of the formation of mandalas. The
c o n t e n t s o f t h e s e v i s i o n s e x p r e s s in a s y m b o l i c w a y t h e
v i o l e n t c l a s h e s o f o p p o s i t e s a n d their e v e n t u a l reconciliation
w h e n t h e S e l f e m e r g e s at t h e c e n t e r o f t h e p s y c h e a n d is
r e p r e s e n t e d b y a n i n n e r m o s t p o i n t . T h e h a r m o n y w h i c h is
t h e n established has a n u m i n o u s quality.
In T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m t h e d i s c i p l e s , a f t e r b e i n g initiated,
a r e g i v e n specific i n s t r u c t i o n s o n h o w to visualize the m a n d -
ala, w h i c h portrays the peaceful a n d wrathful deities, the
c l a s h i n g forces of existence, the primordial impulses and
p a s s i o n s , a s w e l l a s t h e s p a r k o f divinity - all lying in t h e
d e p t h s of the psyche. By mentally entering the mandalas
they explore the gross and subtle workings of their
m i n d s , t h e i r u n c o n s c i o u s , a n d gradually a p p r o a c h their
o w n i n n e r m o s t nuclear c e n t e r w h e r e all opposites are united.
The whole p r o c e s s is e x p r e s s e d b y m e a n s o f c o m p l e x
s y m b o l s , recapitulating the drama of psychic fragmenta-
t i o n , d i s i n t e g r a t i o n a n d r e i n t e g r a t i o n : f r o m duality, m u l t i -
plicity, psychic fragmentation after the primeval uncon-
s c i o u s o n e n e s s , to p s y c h i c reintegration, n o n - d u a l i t y , p u r e
consciousness.
D e s p i t e t h e infinite variety of mandalas, w h e t h e r produced
b y T a n t r i c m e d i t a t o r s , o r in t h e d r e a m s a n d active i m a g i n a -
t i o n o f J u n g ' s p a t i e n t s , o r i n d i v i d u a l s a n y w h e r e in t h e
world, we f i n d in t h e m a fundamental conformity of
p a t t e r n , f o r t h e y o r i g i n a t e in t h e collective u n c o n s c i o u s ,
c o m m o n t o all m a n k i n d . T h e y a r e s y m b o l s o f u n i t y , re-
c o n c i l i n g o p p o s i t e s o n a h i g h e r level o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . A t
t h e s a m e t i m e , t h e y a r e a m e a n s o f e x p r e s s i o n o f a universal
reality, a n d b y b e i n g expressed and contacted they produce
p r o f o u n d e f f e c t s i n d u c i n g t r a n s f o r m a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s . In
t h e m a n d a l a m o t i f J u n g s a w ' o n e o f t h e b e s t e x a m p l e s o f the
universal operation of an a r c h e t y p e . ' 1 5 2
5 Tantric Buddhism and
Jung: Connections,
Similarities, Differences

INTRODUCTION

I n t h i s c h a p t e r I p r o p o s e first t o d i s c u s s t h e c o n c e p t u a l a n d
methodological equivalents b e t w e e n the two systems, and
i d e n t i f y t h e p o i n t s w h e r e t h e y m e e t , w h e r e t h e y are similar
o r p a r a l l e l , a n d w h e r e t h e y differ. N e x t , I i n t e n d to e x a m i n e
J u n g ' s v i e w o f E a s t e r n t r a d i t i o n s in t e r m s o f their r e l e v a n c e
t o t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d , a n d h i s a s well a s t h e T i b e t a n B u d -
d h i s t s ' v i e w r e g a r d i n g t h e p o s s i b l e d a n g e r s i n h e r e n t in
p r a c t i c i n g T a n t r a . F i n a l l y , I s h o u l d like to c o m m e n t o n t h e
i s s u e s of ethics a n d their potential impact on the world
c o m m u n i t y , w h i c h a r e a n i m p o r t a n t a n d integral a s p e c t of
both systems.

CONSCIOUSNESS AND THE UNCONSCIOUS

T h e basic concepts of consciousness and the unconscious

i n t h e J u n g i a n s y s t e m a n d in B u d d h i s m h a v e a variety of
c o n n o t a t i o n s a n d t h e r e f o r e a r e s u b j e c t to m u c h m i s u n d e r -
standing a n d distortions. T o c o m p o u n d the problem, Jung's
c o n c e p t s a r e o f t e n c o n f u s e d w i t h t h o s e of F r e u d , w h i c h are
v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t . I shall try to r e v i e w s o m e o f t h e m , b e i n g
w e l l a w a r e t h a t m y s u r v e y is g r o s s l y i n a d e q u a t e . A w h o l e
l i f e t i m e - o r a s B u d d h i s t s w o u l d s a y , s e v e r a l lives - o f s t u d y
a n d p r a c t i c e w o u l d h a r d l y e n a b l e a n y o n e to c o m p r e h e n d
f u l l y t h e s e c o n c e p t s in b o t h s y s t e m s .
 J u n g v i e w s consciousness a n d the unconscious as being
of equal i m p o r t a n c e . 1 5 3
C o n s c i o u s n e s s , h o w e v e r , is a ' l a t e -
b o r n d e s c e n d a n t o f the u n c o n s c i o u s p s y c h e , ' 1 5 4
which means
t h a t t h e f o r m e r e m e r g e s o u t o f t h e latter. In o n e i n s t a n c e
J u n g equates consciousness with e g o . 1 5 5
H e postulates that:

C o n s c i o u s n e s s n e e d s a c e n t r e , a n e g o to w h i c h
s o m e t h i n g is c o n s c i o u s . W e k n o w o f n o o t h e r k i n d
of consciousness, nor can we imagine a conscious-
n e s s without an ego. There can be no conscious-
n e s s w h e n there is n o o n e to say:'/ a m c o n s c i o u s . ' 1 5 6

J u n g believes that consciousness, 'that most remarkable

o f all o f n a t u r e ' s c u r i o s i t i e s , ' exists a n d h a s a n u r g e to b e
w i d e n e d f o r t h e s i m p l e r e a s o n t h a t w i t h o u t it ' t h i n g s g o
less w e l l . ' 1 5 7
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d J u n g talks a b o u t ' h i g h e r
c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' w h i c h is a d e e p e r a n d m o r e r e c e p t i v e c o n -
s c i o u s n e s s that relates to the transpersonal realm.
A n d in p a r a p h r a s i n g a s e n t e n c e b y I g n a t i u s L o y o l a , p u t -
t i n g it i n t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e r m i n o l o g y , J u n g s t a t e s :

M a n ' s c o n s c i o u s n e s s w a s c r e a t e d to t h e e n d that it
may (1) r e c o g n i z e . . . i t s descent from a higher
u n i t y . . . ; (2) p a y d u e a n d careful r e g a r d to this
s o u r c e . . . ; (3) e x e c u t e its c o m m a n d s intelligently
a n d r e s p o n s i b l y . . . ; a n d (4) thereby afford the psyche
a s a w h o l e t h e o p t i m u m d e g r e e of life a n d d e v e l o p -
ment.... 1 5 8

A c c o r d i n g to J u n g , the symbols of w h o l e n e s s , which

r e s o l v e a n d t r a n s c e n d o p p o s i t e s , could b e called ' c o n s c i o u s -
n e s s , ' a s w e l l a s ' s e l f , ' ' h i g h e r e g o , ' or a n y t h i n g e l s e . T o
h i m , 'all t h e s e t e r m s a r e s i m p l y n a m e s for t h e facts that
alone carry w e i g h t . ' 1 5 9

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d extension of the s p h e r e of conscious-

n e s s is w h a t J u n g calls i n d i v i d u a t i o n . 1 6 0
But he postulates
t h a t t h e c o n s c i o u s m i n d o c c u p i e s o n l y a relatively central
position while the unconscious psyche surrounds i t . 1 6 1

T h e u n c o n s c i o u s is t h e p s y c h i c a r e a w i t h a n u n l i m i t e d
s c o p e . It is t h e ' m a t r i x o f all p o t e n t i a l i t i e s , ' 162
a n d it is b e s t
i m a g i n e d a s a fluid s t a t e w h i c h h a s a life of its o w n , a n d
w h o s e a c t i v i t y is a u t o n o m o u s a n d i n d e p e n d e n t . ' T h e u n -
c o n s c i o u s p e r c e i v e s , h a s p u r p o s e s a n d i n t u i t i o n s , feels a n d
thinks as does the conscious m i n d . ' 1 6 3
Jung defines the
c o n t e n t s of the unconscious as follows:

...everything of which I k n o w , but of which I am

n o t at t h e m o m e n t t h i n k i n g ; e v e r y t h i n g o f w h i c h I
w a s o n c e c o n s c i o u s b u t h a v e n o w forgotten; e v e r y -
thing perceived by m y senses, but not noted by
my conscious mind; everything which, invol-
u n t a r i l y a n d w i t h o u t p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n to it, I feel,
think, remember, w a n t , a n d d o ; all the future
things that are taking shape in m e a n d will
s o m e t i m e c o m e to c o n s c i o u s n e s s . . . . 1 6 7

T h u s the u n c o n s c i o u s includes future contents of the

c o n s c i o u s p s y c h e , a n d anticipates future conscious proces-
s e s . B u t in a d d i t i o n , t h e u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t a i n s a n c e s t r a l
d e p o s i t s a c c u m u l a t e d since immemorial time. T o J u n g there-
f o r e t h e u n c o n s c i o u s h a s a J a n u s f a c e : o n e side o f it p o i n t s
b a c k t o p r e h i s t o r y , t h e w o r l d o f r a w i n s t i n c t s , a n d its o t h e r
s i d e p o i n t s t o w a r d m a n ' s future f a t e . 1 6 5
T h i s is a paradox for
' t h e u n c o n s c i o u s is s e e n a s a c r e a t i v e factor, e v e n a s a b o l d
i n n o v a t o r , a n d y e t it is at t h e s a m e t i m e t h e s t r o n g h o l d of
ancestral conservatism.' 1 6 6
Like Mercurius - the person-
i f i c a t i o n o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s - it is dualistic a n d c o n t a i n s all
a s p e c t s o f h u m a n n a t u r e : d a r k a n d light, evil a n d g o o d ,
bestial a n d s u p e r h u m a n , demonic and d i v i n e . 1 6 7
O n e can
c o n c e i v e o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a s a t r e a s u r e - h o u s e , w h i c h is
t h e s o u r c e o f all inspiration, creativity a n d of w i s d o m . A s a n
a u t o n o m o u s p s y c h i c s y s t e m w h i c h s p e a k s in t h e l a n g u a g e
o f s y m b o l s , o n e o f its r o l e s is to correct t h e b i a s e s of t h e
c o n s c i o u s m i n d a n d c o m p e n s a t e its o n e - s i d e d n e s s with a
b r o a d e r , i m a g i n a l , n o n - r a t i o n a l p e r c e p t i o n that restores the
balance and reveals a more comprehensive meaning.
 Consciousness and the Unconscious 75

U n c o n s c i o u s motives are often wiser a n d more objective

t h a n c o n s c i o u s thinking. Therefore the unconscious may be
a v a l u a b l e g u i d e p o i n t i n g t h e w a y to o n e ' s true destination,
a d e s t i n a t i o n that is t r u e to o n e ' s self a n d n o t falsified b y
prejudices of the conscious mind.
At t h e basis of separate individual consciousness and the
u n c o n s c i o u s b e h i n d it, t h e r e is t h e collective u n c o n s c i o u s ,
t h e c o m m o n h e r i t a g e o f all m a n k i n d a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l
s o u r c e o f all c o n s c i o u s life. In t h e d e p t h o f t h e collective
u n c o n s c i o u s t h e r e a r e n o i n d i v i d u a l o r cultural d i f f e r e n c e s ,
n o s e p a r a t i o n . It is t h e r e a l m o f p r i m o r d i a l u n i t y , n o n -
d u a l i t y , a n d t h r o u g h it e a c h p e r s o n is c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e
rest of humanity.
T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t s s a y t h a t t h e c o n s c i o u s m i n d w h e n it is
c l e a r , u n o b s c u r e d , free f r o m p r o j e c t i o n s - t h e p u r e c o n -
s c i o u s n e s s - is t h e r o o t o f h a p p i n e s s a n d liberation, a n d is
e x p e r i e n c e d a s a s t a t e o f b l i s s . T h i s is t h e h i g h e s t state of
c o n s c i o u s n e s s k n o w n a s c l e a r light. H o w e v e r , t h e r e are
v a r i o u s k i n d s a n d d e g r e e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d t h e y are
d e s c r i b e d in d i f f e r e n t t e r m s . S i m i l a r l y , t h e r e a r e v a r i o u s
l e v e l s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d t h e u n c o n s c i o u s in the structure
of the p s y c h e as conceptualized by Jung.
In t h e v i e w o f o n e s c h o o l o f B u d d h i s t t e n e t s t h e r e a r e six
k i n d s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s : t h o s e o f sight, h e a r i n g , smell, taste,
t o u c h , a n d t h e m e n t a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e n t h e r e is t h e
a f f l i c t e d , o r d e l u d e d , c o n s c i o u s n e s s r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e
m i s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e e g o . A n d u n d e r l y i n g all o f it is t h e
' s t o r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' (alaya-vijnana), the source of all con-
s c i o u s n e s s , the Universal M i n d , in w h i c h p r i m o r d i a l f o r m s
a n d all e x p e r i e n c e s s i n c e b e g i n n i n g l e s s t i m e a r e s t o r e d . Its
latent c o n t e n t s a p p e a r to the other kinds of consciousness
w h e n a r o u s e d b y t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o n d i t i o n s a n d associa-
tions. 1 6 8

T h e n o t i o n o f s t o r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s clearly c o r r e s p o n d s to
J u n g ' s c o n c e p t o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . Like J u n g ' s description of
t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , L a m a G o v i n d a a r g u e s that alaya-vijnana

. . . c o n t a i n s d e m o n i c a s well a s d i v i n e qualities,
 c r u e l t y a s w e l l a s c o m p a s s i o n , e g o t i s m a s well a s
s e l f l e s s n e s s , d e l u s i o n a s w e l l a s k n o w l e d g e , blind
p a s s i o n a n d darkest drives as well as profound
l o n g i n g for light a n d l i b e r a t i o n . 1 6 9

A n d in d i s c u s s i n g t h e T a n t r i c e x p e r i e n c e L a m a G o v i n d a
states:

It is n o t s u f f i c i e n t to i d e n t i f y o u r s e l v e s w i t h t h e
o n e n e s s o f a c o m m o n origin o r a potential B u d d h a -
h o o d , unless w e take the decisive step toward the
transformation a n d reintegration of the divergent
tendencies or elements of our p s y c h e . 1 7 0

W h e n w e try to c o m p a r e , a s J u n g d i d , t h e B u d d h i s t
c o n c e p t o f e n l i g h t e n e d m i n d w i t h t h e collective u n c o n -
scious or the higher consciousness, we encounter enormous
o b s t a c l e s d u e to t h e fact t h a t all t h e s e c o n c e p t s h a v e m a n y
different aspects, a n d are ambiguous a n d controversial.
F u r t h e r m o r e w e are dealing here with two different cate-
gories: philosophical and metaphysical on one hand, and
p s y c h o l o g i c a l o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y n o real
c o m p a r i s o n c o u l d b e m a d e . Y e t , in e i t h e r s y s t e m , B u d d h i s t
o r J u n g ' s , t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s r e p r e s e n t o n l y abstract k n o w -
l e d g e , a n d d o not a n d cannot express the profound experi-
e n c e t h a t is t h e a i m o f b o t h , n a m e l y individual t r a n s f o r m a -
tion, achieved by transcending the m u n d a n e existence, and
thereby attaining liberation or self-realization. In that
m o m e n t o f t r a n s c e n d e n c e t h e k n o w l e d g e c e a s e s to b e p h i l o -
s o p h i c a l o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l : it is t h e indescribable, direct,
immediate knowledge beyond words and thoughts, the
e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e v o i d ( s u n y a t a ) , t h e n u m i n o u s , t h e Self,
o n e n e s s of m a n and God.
J u n g r e f e r r e d t o this e x p e r i e n c e , in o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r ,
t h r o u g h m u c h o f his w r i t i n g s , b u t h e articulated it m o s t
e l o q u e n t l y in h i s Septem Sermones ad Mortuos - Seven
S e r m o n s to the D e a d - written during the period of his
c o n f r o n t a t i o n with the unconscious. This brief but extra-
o r d i n a r y w o r k , r e p l e t e w i t h p a r a d o x e s , is strikingly r e m i -
 Spiritual Transformation JJ

n i s c e n t o f B u d d h i s t t h i n k i n g . In fact it e c h o e s t h e w o r d s o f
The Heart Sutra, ' f o r m is e m p t i n e s s , e m p t i n e s s is f o r m , ' o r
f r o m The Lankavatara Sutra, t h e s t a t e m e n t t h a t ' s p a c e is
f o r m , a n d . . . a s s p a c e p e n e t r a t e s i n t o f o r m , f o r m is s p a c e . ' 1 7 1

A n d n o w t h i s is J u n g s p e a k i n g :

N o t h i n g n e s s is t h e s a m e a s f u l l n e s s . In infinity full
is n o b e t t e r t h a n e m p t y . N o t h i n g n e s s is b o t h e m p t y
a n d f u l l . . . . A t h i n g t h a t is infinite a n d e t e r n a l h a t h
n o q u a l i t i e s , s i n c e it h a t h all q u a l i t i e s . 1 7 2

J u n g n a m e s this n o t h i n g n e s s o r fullness ' p l e r o m a , ' 1 7 3

which
h e d i s t i n g u i s h e s f r o m ' c r e a t u r a , ' t h e p r i n c i p l e of d i s t i n c -
t i v e n e s s . In pleroma 'both thinking a n d being cease, since
t h e e t e r n a l a n d infinite p o s s e s s n o q u a l i t i e s . . . I n t h e p l e r o m a
t h e r e is n o t h i n g a n d e v e r y t h i n g . ' 1 7 4
A n d in a further p a s s a g e
Jung writes:

Everything that discrimination taketh out of the

p l e r o m a is a p a i r o f o p p o s i t e s . T o g o d , t h e r e f o r e ,
a l w a y s belongeth the devil.
T h i s i n s e p a r a b i l i t y is a s c l o s e a n d , a s y o u r o w n
life h a t h m a d e y o u s e e , a s i n d i s s o l u b l e a s t h e
p l e r o m a itself. T h u s it is t h a t b o t h s t a n d v e r y c l o s e
t o t h e p l e r o m a , in w h i c h all o p p o s i t e s a r e e x t i n -
guished and j o i n e d . 1 7 5

One r e c o g n i z e s in p l e r o m a t h e B u d d h i s t c o n c e p t of
e m p t i n e s s , a s w e l l a s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t T a n t r i c c o n c e p t of
p o l a r i t y a n d its i n t e g r a t i o n , w h i c h is at t h e v e r y h e a r t o f
e v e r y V a j r a y a n a m e d i t a t i v e practice. A t t h e s a m e time J u n g ' s
c o n c e p t o f t h e ' t r a n s c e n d e n t f u n c t i o n ' is a d e v e l o p m e n t a n d
p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e principle o f p l e r o m a . It s h o u l d b e
n o t e d t h a t J u n g w r o t e Septem Sermones ad Mortuos at t h e
t i m e w h e n h e h a d n o t y e t d i s c o v e r e d t h e E a s t e r n traditions.

SPIRITUAL TRANSFORMATION

T h e u l t i m a t e goal o f J u n g ' s p s y c h o l o g y a n d of Tibetan B u d d -

h i s m is spiritual t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . J u n g refers to it a s self-
r e a l i z a t i o n , w h o l e n e s s , w h i l e for T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t s it is
B u d d h a h o o d , e n l i g h t e n m e n t , for t h e s a k e o f all b e i n g s .
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e latter e v e r y single individual h a s t h e p o t e n -
tial t o b e c o m e a B u d d h a , t o a c h i e v e t h e s u p r e m e t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n . T h e u r g e for light, for a h i g h e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
a c c o r d i n g to t h e B u d d h i s t s a s well a s J u n g , h a s b e e n always
p r e s e n t a n d is u b i q u i t o u s . A s J u n g s a y s :

. . . w i t h i n t h e s o u l f r o m its p r i m o r d i a l b e g i n n i n g s
t h e r e h a s b e e n a d e s i r e for light a n d a n i r r e p r e s -
s i b l e u r g e to rise o u t o f t h e p r i m a l d a r k n e s s . . . t h e
p s y c h i c p r i m a l n i g h t . . . i s t h e s a m e t o d a y a s it h a s
b e e n for countless millions of years. T h e longing
f o r l i g h t is t h e l o n g i n g for c o n s c i o u s n e s s . 1 7 6

F o r t h e B u d d h i s t t h e r e is p r e s s u r e t o w a r d s B u d d h a h o o d ,
w h i c h is m a n ' s q u i n t e s s e n t i a l n a t u r e , a n d for J u n g it is t h e
u r g e t o w a r d s w h o l e n e s s . In b o t h i n s t a n c e s it entails a l o n g ,
a n d f o r J u n g a n e v e r - e n d i n g j o u r n e y , w h i c h is u n i q u e to
e a c h i n d i v i d u a l a n d w h i c h c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d o n l y in t h e
m i n d . I n T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m in particular, t h e m i n d is t h e
k i n g w h o s e p o w e r is u n l i m i t e d . J u s t like t h e a l c h e m i s t w h o
can c h a n g e metal into gold, the mind can transform any
e v e n t i n t o t r a n s c e n d e n t a l w i s d o m a n d u s e it a s a m e a n s to
a t t a i n e n l i g h t e n m e n t . A n d t h a t m a j e s t i c p o w e r lies w i t h i n
u s , n o w h e r e e l s e , a n d n o t a p a r t f r o m u s , b u t to r e c o g n i z e it
w e n e e d the key of consciousness.
A c c o r d i n g to the teaching o f Tantric B u d d h i s m , enlighten-
ment, l i b e r a t i o n , c a n b e a t t a i n e d in t h e p r e s e n t life. It
c o n s i s t s o f a f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e in o u r perception of reality,
' t h e t u r n i n g a b o u t in t h e d e e p e s t s e a t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , '
w h e n t h e T o r s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s h a s t u r n e d its a t t e n t i o n
t o w a r d s t h e u n i v e r s a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s . It is t h e 'intuitive
e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e i n f i n i t e a n d t h e a l l - e m b r a c i n g o n e n e s s of
all t h a t i s . ' 1 7 7
T h e experience can also be described as a
discovery of a world b e y o n d the ordinary world of appear-
ances, in w h i c h all o p p o s i t e s n o l o n g e r e x i s t . In t h i s
open s p a c e , o n e a b a n d o n s all l i m i t a t i o n s ; t h e r e is n o
 Spiritual Transformation 79

e x c l u s i v e n e s s , n o t h i s o r t h a t , b u t this a n d t h a t , e v e r y t h i n g
is i n c l u d e d , n o t h i n g r e j e c t e d . T h i s is t h e w o r l d o f n o n -
duality, pleroma, from which everything originates, and
i n t o w h i c h e v e r y t h i n g d i s a p p e a r s . B u d d h i s t s call it s u n y a t a ,
e m p t i n e s s , t h e o p e n s p a c e w h i c h c o n t a i n s b o t h the principle
of causality and synchronicity.

In its d e e p e s t m e t a p h y s i c a l s e n s e , it [ s u n y a t a ] is
t h e p r i m o r d i a l g r o u n d , t h e e v e r - p r e s e n t starting
p o i n t o f all c r e a t i o n . It is t h e principle o f u n l i m i t e d
p o t e n t i a l i t y . . . . O n t h e intellectual p l a n e sunyata is
t h e relativity o f all t h i n g s a n d c o n d i t i o n s , i n s o f a r
a s n o t h i n g e x i s t s i n d e p e n d e n t l y b u t o n l y in r e -
l a t i o n s h i p to o t h e r s - a n d ultimately in relationship
to t h e w h o l e u n i v e r s e . T h i s relationship is m o r e
t h a n a m e r e c a u s a l , t i m e - s p a c e relationship; it is
o n e of a c o m m o n ground and a simultaneous pres-
e n c e o f all factors o f e x i s t e n c e . . . . 1 7 8

F r o m t h e T a n t r i c p o i n t o f v i e w e a c h b e i n g c o n t a i n s the
w h o l e u n i v e r s e . T h e r e is n o separation o f the individual a n d
u n i v e r s a l m i n d , t h e m i n d n o t b e i n g subject to time a n d
s p a c e limitation. T o d a y t h e discoveries of m o d e r n physics
reveal the basic view of the world as o n e of unity, inter-
r e l a t i o n , a n d i n t e r p e n e t r a t i o n o f all t h i n g s a n d e v e n t s . 1 7 9

A n d a c c o r d i n g to The Avatamsaka Sutra,

All t h e B u d d h a - l a n d s a n d all t h e B u d d h a s t h e m -
s e l v e s , a r e m a n i f e s t e d in m y o w n b e i n g . . . . 1 8 0

T h i s parallels J u n g ' s c o n v i c t i o n that the m a c r o c o s m m a n i -

f e s t s i t s e l f in t h e m i c r o c o s m o f t h e h u m a n p s y c h e . H e talks
about

. . . t h a t u n k n o w n q u a n t i t y in m a n w h i c h is a s u n i -
v e r s a l a n d w i d e a s t h e w o r l d itself, w h i c h is in h i m
b y n a t u r e a n d c a n n o t b e a c q u i r e d . Psychologically,
 this c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e collective u n c o n s c i o u s . . . . 1 8 1

T h e c o l l e c t i v e u n c o n s c i o u s is t h e r e a l m o f t h e p s y c h e
w h e r e n o n - d u a l i t y prevails, b u t w h i c h contains, like sunyata,
t h e p r i n c i p l e o f u n l i m i t e d p o t e n t i a l i t y . T h u s to J u n g t h e
p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e u n i v e r s e a r e r e f l e c t e d in t h e p s y c h e .

THE UNION OF OPPOSITES

T h e f u n d a m e n t a l c o n c e p t in Tantra is recognition o f polarity,

a n d its i n t e g r a t i o n is t h e c o r e o f T a n t r i c p r a c t i c e : t h e u n i o n
o f m a l e a n d f e m a l e e n e r g i e s , m a t t e r a n d spirit, active a n d
p a s s i v e p r i n c i p l e s , w i s d o m , t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g principle
(personified b y Manjushri, the Buddha of wisdom), and
c o m p a s s i o n , the unifying principle (personified b y Avalo-
kiteshvara, the Buddha of compassion).
T h e principle of o p p o s i t e s is equally of primary importance
in J u n g ' s p s y c h o l o g y . F o r J u n g , o p p o s i t i o n is i n h e r e n t in
t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p s y c h e , a s it is in t h e c o s m o s : t h e
c o s m o l o g i c a l is r e f l e c t e d o n t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l level. W i t h i n
t h e f r a m e w o r k o f his p s y c h o l o g y , t h e b a s i c pair of o p p o s i t e s
a r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . O n e c o u l d s a y that
o n the cosmological level, the former represents creatura,
i n d i v i d u a l i t y , a n d t h e latter p l e r o m a , n o n - d u a l i t y .
O n t h e psychological level, the significance of the principle
o f o p p o s i t e s lies in t h e fact t h a t t h e p s y c h e is a d y n a m i c
u n i t y , a s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g s y s t e m in w h i c h c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d
t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a r e c o m p l e m e n t a r y to e a c h o t h e r . T o d e n y
o n e o r t h e o t h e r r e s u l t s in o n e - s i d e d n e s s , d i s e q u i l i b r i u m
a n d h e n c e a loss of w h o l e n e s s . 'There m u s t always be a
h i g h a n d l o w , h o t a n d c o l d , e t c . . . ' s a y s J u n g . H o w e v e r , 'the
p o i n t is n o t c o n v e r s i o n into the opposite b u t conservation o f
p r e v i o u s v a l u e s together with recognition of their o p p o -
sites.' 1 8 2
N o t h i n g is r e j e c t e d , a n d n o t h i n g is a c c e p t e d as a n
a b s o l u t e . In J u n g ' s view:

It i s . . .a f u n d a m e n t a l m i s t a k e to i m a g i n e that w h e n
w e s e e t h e n o n - v a l u e in a v a l u e o r t h e u n t r u t h in
 The Middle Way and the Madhyamika 81

t h e t r u t h , t h e v a l u e o r t h e truth c e a s e s to exist. It
h a s o n l y b e c o m e relative. E v e r y t h i n g h u m a n is
relative because everything rests on an inner p o -
larity.... 1 8 3

T o J u n g ' t h e union of opposites through the middle path' is a

'most fundamental item of inward e x p e r i e n c e . ' 1 8 4
T h e resol-
u t i o n o f o p p o s i t e s e n d s conflict a n d b r i n g s w h o l e n e s s . B u t
w h o l e n e s s c a n n o t b e a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h s u p p r e s s i o n or n e -
g a t i o n , w h i c h is a l w a y s o n e - s i d e d , b u t o n l y b y raising
o n e ' s s t a n d p o i n t to a h i g h e r level o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h i s is
the basic premise of J u n g ' s psychological method. 'Individ-
u a t i o n , o r b e c o m i n g w h o l e , ' h e s a y s 'is n e i t h e r a summum
bonum n o r a summum desideratum, b u t t h e painful e x p e r i e n c e
of the union of o p p o s i t e s . ' 1 8 5
1 s h o u l d like to s u g g e s t t h o u g h ,
t h a t t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h e u n i o n o f o p p o s i t e s is t h e summum
bonum b e c a u s e it b r i n g s w i t h it spiritual f r e e d o m , e x p e r i -
e n c e d in t h e i n t e g r a t e d a n d u n i f i e d p e r s o n a l i t y .
B u d d h a o n h i s j o u r n e y to E n l i g h t e n m e n t a b a n d o n e d a s -
c e t i c i s m , a s h e m u s t h a v e realized that b y practicing it o n e
rejects part of oneself and consequently wholeness cannot
b e a t t a i n e d . I n s t e a d h e a d o p t e d a n d later t a u g h t t h e M i d d l e
Way.

THE MIDDLE WAY AND THE MADHYAMIKA

B u d d h a ' s w a y , the middle way, was reformulated and

s y s t e m a t i z e d in p h i l o s o p h i c a l t e r m s b y t h e third c e n t u r y
I n d i a n p h i l o s o p h e r N a g a r j u n a in h i s M a d h y a m i k a ( M i d d l e
W a y ) s y s t e m o f t h o u g h t , w h i c h is c o n s i d e r e d to b e t h e
central philosophy of Mahayana Buddhism. While Buddha
m a i n t a i n e d his 'noble silence' w h e n asked philosophical
a n d m e t a p h y s i c a l q u e s t i o n s , N a g a r j u n a , a brilliant d i a l e c -
t i c i a n , a p p l i e d t h e d i a l e c t i c m e t h o d a n d a r g u e d that truth is
n o t t o b e f o u n d in a n y v i e w or c o n c e p t , in a n y s y s t e m o f
u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e t r u t h , t h e A b s o l u t e , w h i c h is i n e x p r e s -
s i b l e , c a n o n l y b e c o m p r e h e n d e d in rising a b o v e a n y k i n d
o f e x c l u s i v e n e s s . T h e conflict produced by reason and con-
t e n d i n g positions can b e resolved by attaining a higher
s t a n d p o i n t - t h a t i s , b y t h e a w a r e n e s s o f t h e total r a t h e r
t h a n t h e s e p a r a t e p a r t s . O n e g o e s b e y o n d to intuition, c o n -
s i d e r e d t o b e a h i g h e r faculty: t h e n o n - d u a l k n o w l e d g e , t h e
k n o w l e d g e of the Real, the Absolute.
A n d h e r e is J u n g ' s v i e w o f intuition:

I n i n t u i t i o n a c o n t e n t p r e s e n t s itself w h o l e a n d
c o m p l e t e , w i t h o u t o u r b e i n g a b l e to e x p l a i n or
discover h o w this content c a m e into existence.
. . . I n t u i t i v e k n o w l e d g e p o s s e s s e s a n intrinsic c e r -
tainty a n d c o n v i c t i o n . . . . 1 8 6

T h e c e n t r a l p o i n t i n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f N a g a r j u n a is t h e
rule of t h e M i d d l e W a y , w h i c h in practice m e a n s : " t o see
t h i n g s as t h e y are, to recognize the possibility of deter-
m i n i n g t h i n g s differently from different standpoints and
t o r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e s e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s c a n n o t b e s e i z e d as
absolute." 1 8 7

E q u a l l y basic to the p h i l o s o p h y of Nagarjuna is the distinc-

t i o n b e t w e e n t h e m u n d a n e a n d u l t i m a t e t r u t h , w h i c h is
a c t u a l l y o n e o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f B u d d h a ' s t e a c h i n g , a n d is
a l w a y s e m p h a s i z e d in M a h a y a n a B u d d h i s m . B u t this d o e s
n o t m e a n a s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e w o r l d l y a n d t h e tran-
s c e n d e n t a l . It is r a t h e r t h e realization o f t h e relativity o f t h e
m u n d a n e , a n d a consequent deepening of inward aware-
n e s s i n t h e p r o c e s s o f w h i c h t h e m u n d a n e , t h e superficial,
is n o t d e s t r o y e d b u t is t r a n s f o r m e d a n d t h e n s e e n in a n e w
light. 1 8 8

T h e M a d h y a m i k a teaches that

. . . t o r e a l i z e t h e u l t i m a t e is n o t to a b a n d o n the
m u n d a n e b u t t o l e a r n t o s e e it ' w i t h t h e e y e of
w i s d o m ' . . . W h a t n e e d s to b e a b a n d o n e d is o n e ' s
p e r v e r s i o n s a n d false c l i n g i n g s . . . . T h i s a p p l i e s n o t
o n l y t o a c t u a l life b u t t o w o r d s , c o n c e p t s , u n d e r -
standing, systems of u n d e r s t a n d i n g . 1 8 9
EGO AND NON-EGO

In the Tantric system, any worldly pleasure, any experience

o f t h e s e n s e s , a n y o c c a s i o n i n t h i s w o r l d c a n b e c o m e an
o p p o r t u n i t y for e n l i g h t e n m e n t w h e n w i s d o m is a p p l i e d .
W e h a v e s e e n t h a t w i s d o m (prajna) implies non-exclusive-
n e s s , n o n - a t t a c h m e n t , t h e p r i n c i p l e o f relativity, s u n y a t a .
T h e g r e a t e s t o b s t a c l e is t h e e g o . E g o - o r r a t h e r o n e ' s view
o f o n e ' s T - is at t h e r o o t o f all p r o b l e m s a n d s u f f e r i n g s ,
a c c o r d i n g t o B u d d h i s t t h o u g h t . W h e n B u d d h i s t s talk a b o u t
e g o t h e y r e f e r t o t h e illusory belief in a solid, c o n c r e t e ,
s e p a r a t e entity, i n d e p e n d e n t and disconnected from any
o t h e r p h e n o m e n a . In t h a t s e n s e n a t u r a l l y t h e e g o b e c o m e s
a n i n s u r m o u n t a b l e b a r r i e r b e t w e e n o n e s e l f a n d t h e rest of
t h e w o r l d , w i t h n o p o s s i b i l i t y of t r u e c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d
c o m m u n i o n , n o t o n l y w i t h o t h e r s b u t a l s o w i t h t h e d e p t h of
o n e s e l f . T h a t b a r r i e r h a s to b e d e m o l i s h e d , a n d that is t h e
c h i e f p r o b l e m in t h e p a t h t o liberation.
T h e a i m , t h e n , is n o t s o m u c h t h e d i s s o l u t i o n of t h e e g o
a s t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e false v i e w o f t h e e g o ; a n d w h a t is to
b e a c h i e v e d is a n o p e n n e s s to all possibilities that p r e s e n t
t h e m s e l v e s , a n d a b o v e all, a realization that w e are infinitely
m o r e t h a n w e believe w e are w h e n identified with our
c o n c r e t e little e g o . W e h a v e limitless p o t e n t i a l s , o n c e w e
a r e f r e e f r o m t h e b o n d a g e o f o u r e g o c e n t r i c world: the
Buddhist would say, w e can become a Buddha.
I n d e e d , a c c o r d i n g to J u n g , t h e e g o , full o f d i s t o r t i o n s a n d
projections, n e e d s to b e dissolved before the Self can
e m e r g e . T h e S e l f , h o w e v e r , w h i c h is t h e totality o f t h e
p s y c h e , i n c l u d e s t h e e g o . In t h e p r o c e s s of i n d i v i d u a t i o n
o n e d o e s n o t d e s t r o y t h e e g o , r a t h e r o n e p l a c e s it in s u b o r -
d i n a t e r e l a t i o n t o t h e S e l f . T h e e g o is n o l o n g e r t h e c e n t e r o f
t h e p e r s o n a l i t y ; t h e S e l f , t h e m a n d a l a , w h i c h u n i t e s all
o p p o s i t e s , is its c e n t e r . W h a t is d i s s o l v e d is t h e i n f l a t e d ,
c o n c r e t e e g o , p u r s u i n g its e x c l u s i v e selfish p u r p o s e s , j u s t
f o l l o w i n g its o w n i m p u l s e s . T h e i n d i v i d u a t e d e g o , in rela-
t i o n t o t h e S e l f , is n o t o n l y n e e d e d for a d e q u a t e f u n c t i o n -
i n g o n w h a t t h e B u d d h i s t s r e f e r to a s t h e m u n d a n e level of
r e a l i t y ; it i s a l s o o f c r u c i a l i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e e n c o u n t e r
w i t h t h e t r a n s p e r s o n a l , i n o r d e r to p r e s e r v e t h e i n t e g r i t y of
the psyche.
F o r J u n g , t r a n s f o r m a t i o n is t h e goal o f p s y c h o t h e r a p y ,
a n d t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f e g o h o o d is t h e o n l y criterion of
c h a n g e . B u t h e m a i n t a i n s t h a t f r e q u e n t l y for W e s t e r n e r s 'a
c o n s c i o u s e g o a n d a c u l t i v a t e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g m u s t first b e
p r o d u c e d through analysis before o n e can even think about
abolishing e g o h o o d . ' 1 9 0

H o w e v e r i n t h e a l c h e m i c a l s e n s e of solutio, the dissolution

o f a d r y , h a r d soil o f e g o - c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h r o u g h a c o n -
f r o n t a t i o n w i t h a n d fertilization b y t h e fluid u n c o n s c i o u s is
a n e c e s s a r y p r e r e q u i s i t e for t r a n s m u t a t i o n to take p l a c e .
T h i s is a n o t h e r w a y o f v i e w i n g t h e sacrifice o f t h e p e r s o n a l
e g o t o t h e t r a n s p e r s o n a l S e l f , t h e o n g o i n g p r o c e s s of d e a t h
a n d r e b i r t h . T h e e x p e r i e n c e o f n o n - d u a l i t y , t h e mystical
e x p e r i e n c e , o r e v e r y creative act m u s t g o through that process.
T h e illusion of a p e r m a n e n t , separate ego does not mean
t h e r e is n o i n d i v i d u a l i t y . O u r e s s e n t i a l o n e n e s s with the
u n i v e r s e , in t h e v i e w o f L a m a G o v i n d a ,

. . . i s n o t s a m e n e s s o r u n q u a l i f i e d i d e n t i t y , b u t an
o r g a n i c r e l a t i o n s h i p , in w h i c h d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a n d
u n i q u e n e s s o f f u n c t i o n a r e a s i m p o r t a n t a s that
ultimate or basic unity.
I n d i v i d u a l i t y a n d u n i v e r s a l i t y are n o t m u t u a l l y
e x c l u s i v e v a l u e s , b u t t w o s i d e s o f t h e s a m e reality,
c o m p e n s a t i n g , fulfilling, a n d c o m p l e m e n t i n g each
o t h e r , a n d b e c o m i n g o n e in t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f e n -
l i g h t e n m e n t . This experience does not dissolve
t h e m i n d i n t o a n a m o r p h o u s All, b u t r a t h e r b r i n g s
t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e individual itself c o n t a i n s '
t h e totality f o c a l i z e d in its v e r y c o r e . 1 9 1

Universality and individuality, unity and diversity,

p l e r o m a a n d c r e a t u r a , n i r v a n a a n d s a m s a r a , t h e ' t w o sides
o f t h e s a m e reality'; t h e r e c o u l d n o t b e o n e w i t h o u t its
opposite.
SUFFERING AND METHODS OF HEALING

B o t h B u d d h i s m a n d J u n g h a v e a s their p r i m a r y c o n c e r n
relief o f s u f f e r i n g . In fact t h e w h o l e B u d d h i s t s y s t e m h a s
evolved around that core idea initially formulated by
B u d d h a in t h e F o u r N o b l e T r u t h s t h a t all life is suffering,
b u t t h e r e c a n b e a n e n d to it. In M a h a y a n a B u d d h i s m t h e
i d e a l o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a , t h e s y m b o l o f c o m p a s s i o n , is the
u l t i m a t e e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g c o n c e r n to lead e v e r y
b e i n g t o f r e e d o m f r o m s u f f e r i n g , to e n l i g h t e n m e n t .
J u n g t o o tells u s in h i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y a n d t h r o u g h o u t his
w r i t i n g s t h a t h e is c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e h e a l i n g o f h u m a n
suffering. ' W e do not profess' he says,

...a psychology with merely academic pretensions,

or s e e k explanations that have no bearing on
life. W h a t w e w a n t is a practical p s y c h o l o g y w h i c h
yields approvable results - o n e which explains
t h i n g s in a w a y t h a t m u s t b e justified b y t h e o u t -
c o m e for the p a t i e n t . 1 9 2

B u t u n l i k e B u d d h a , J u n g does not perceive the possi-

b i l i t y o f a n e n d to s u f f e r i n g . In h i s v i e w h a p p i n e s s a n d
suffering represent another pair of opposites, indis-
p e n s a b l e to life, a n d o n e cannot exist without the other. H e
states:

M a n h a s to c o p e w i t h t h e p r o b l e m o f s u f f e r i n g .
T h e O r i e n t a l w a n t s to g e t rid of suffering b y casting
it o f f . W e s t e r n m a n tries to s u p p r e s s suffering
w i t h d r u g s . B u t s u f f e r i n g h a s to b e o v e r c o m e , a n d
t h e o n l y w a y t o o v e r c o m e it is to e n d u r e it. W e
l e a r n t h a t o n l y f r o m h i m [the C r u c i f i e d C h r i s t ] . 1 9 3

At a n o t h e r time, Jung discusses the double-edged pos-

sibility o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of suffering: it c a n b e a discipline
' n e e d e d f o r t h e e m o t i o n a l c h a o s o f m a n , t h o u g h at the s a m e
t i m e it c a n kill t h e living s p i r i t . . . i t r e m a i n s forever a n
u n r e s o l v e d q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r s u f f e r i n g is e d u c a t i v e o r d e -
m o r a l i z i n g . . . . M a n ' s fate h a s a l w a y s s w u n g b e t w e e n d a y
a n d n i g h t . T h e r e is n o t h i n g w e c a n d o to c h a n g e t h i s / 1 9 4

T h u s suffering has the potential of becoming a 'psychic

m o v e r / a p r e l u d e to t h e process of healing a n d individuation
o r it c a n l e a d t o p a t h o l o g y . T h e p a i n f u l s y m p t o m s o f a
neurosis often are the expression of psyche's urge towards
w h o l e n e s s . T h e y contain s e e d s of potentials to b e actualized,
a n d w h e n they are w o r k e d with rather than avoided or
s u p p r e s s e d they b e c o m e sources of n e w achievements,
n e w integration - 'the dark night of the soul' turns into
i l l u m i n a t i o n . J u n g e x p e r i e n c e d t h a t t h r o u g h o u t his life. O n
t h e o t h e r h a n d e x c e s s i v e , o v e r w h e l m i n g s u f f e r i n g , particu-
l a r l y in a n i n d i v i d u a l w h o s e i n n e r c o n s t i t u t i o n is w e a k a n d
t h e e g o d i s c o n n e c t e d f r o m t h e Self, can lead to diametrically
o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s : m a d n e s s , criminality, a n d o t h e r k i n d s
of pathology.
T h e p a t h l e a d i n g via t h e u n d e r w o r l d to i l l u m i n a t i o n , to
t h e S e l f , is b y n o m e a n s a n e a s y o n e . It r e q u i r e s t h e sacrifice
o f o u r m o s t c h e r i s h e d p o s s e s s i o n , o u r e g o , s o that t h e S e l f
c a n e m e r g e . S i m i l a r l y B u d d h i s t s say t h e root o f all suffering
is a t t a c h m e n t t o e g o , a n d t h e y u r g e u s t o r e l i n q u i s h it, s o
that o u r true nature, our Buddha-nature, can be revealed.
B u t t h i s c a n o n l y c o m e a b o u t s p o n t a n e o u s l y ; it c a n n o t b e
f o r c e d , e i t h e r with J u n g ' s therapeutic m e t h o d s , or a n y B u d -
dhist methods.
I n b o t h s y s t e m s t h e p a t h differs w i t h e a c h individual,
a n d it is a l w a y s c a r r i e d o n w i t h i n i n d i v i d u a l s a s their o w n
u n i q u e i n n e r work. J u n g ' s process of individuation, his
j o u r n e y t o w h o l e n e s s , is a v e r y individual p u r s u i t . J u n g
w a s e v e n o p p o s e d to the u s e of groups as a psychothera-
p e u t i c m e t h o d . T h e p a t h o f t h e B u d d h i s t a d e p t is likewise
v e r y i n d i v i d u a l , a l t h o u g h it m a k e s u s e o f g r o u p practice,
r e c o g n i z i n g t h e p o w e r f u l e n e r g y t h a t is g e n e r a t e d from it,
a n d e s p e c i a l l y f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i o n in rituals.
It is i n v a r i a b l y , in b o t h s y s t e m s , a n o n - d o g m a t i c , empiri-
c a l m e t h o d a i m e d at t h e living i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e , a d y n a m i c
w a y of going inward towards the center, where the seed of
e n l i g h t e n m e n t , o f t h e S e l f , is c o n t a i n e d in e a c h o f u s . ' N o
t e x t b o o k c a n t e a c h p s y c h o l o g y ; o n e l e a r n s b y actual e x p e r i -
ence ' 1 9 S
- s a y s J u n g . A n d in a n o t h e r p a s s a g e h e w r i t e s : T n
p s y c h o l o g y o n e possesses nothing unless one has experi-
e n c e d it i n r e a l i t y . H e n c e a p u r e l y intellectual i n s i g h t is n o t
e n o u g h , because o n e k n o w s only the words and not the
substance of the thing from i n s i d e . ' 1 9 6

T h e c o g n i t i v e f u n c t i o n , t h o u g h , is n o t m i n i m i z e d in
J u n g , o r in B u d d h i s m . According to the Tibetans, 'Intellectual
u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n c r e a s e s t h e p o w e r o f t h e rational m i n d
a n d this increases the p o w e r of formal m e d i t a t i o n . ' 1 9 7
After
l i s t e n i n g t o t h e t e a c h i n g d i s c i p l e s m u s t try to u n d e r s t a n d it
t h r o u g h r e a s o n b e f o r e t h e y c a n t r a n s f o r m it i n t o living
r e a l i t y . A n d t h e n if it d o e s n o t c o r r e s p o n d to t h e i r e x p e r i -
e n c e o f l i v i n g reality t h e y s h o u l d a b a n d o n it. Is t h a t n o t
w h a t J u n g tells u s w h e n h e m a i n t a i n s t h a t a c o n s c i o u s
u n d e r s t a n d i n g m u s t p r e c e d e t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of e g o h o o d ?
A n d f u r t h e r m o r e , is h e n o t in h i s p s y c h o l o g y primarily
c o n c e r n e d w i t h p r a c t i c a l r e s u l t s t h a t m u s t b e justified b y
t h e s u b j e c t i v e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e p a t i e n t h e is t r e a t i n g ?
T h e F i r s t N o b l e T r u t h , w h i c h is t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f life is
s u f f e r i n g , m u s t first b e clearly u n d e r s t o o d b e f o r e a n y t h i n g
e l s e c a n b e d o n e . It h a s b e e n s a i d t h a t t h e p a t h l e a d i n g to
liberation is c o m p l e t e d t h r o u g h intellectual, a s well a s m o r a l
a n d s p i r i t u a l p e r f e c t i o n . In t h e B u d d h i s t practice o f m i n d -
f u l n e s s o n e is c l o s e l y a t t e n t i v e t o t h e activities of t h e m i n d ,
i d e a s a n d t h o u g h t s , s e n s a t i o n s a n d f e e l i n g s . A n d in T a n t r a
e s p e c i a l l y , all t h e h i d d e n t e n d e n c i e s , p r o j e c t i o n s , m u s t b e
k n o w n a n d experienced before they can b e transmuted into
wisdom.
In Jungian analysis o n e m u s t deal with one's shadow, the
d a r k rejected part of the psyche, detect projections a n d
e g o c e n t r i c a i m s . T h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e e m o t i o n a l t u r m o i l is
n o t r e p r e s s e d o r d e v a l u e d , b u t t h e e n e r g y that is c o n t a i n e d
t h e r e is utilized in t h e p r o c e s s o f c h a n g e . Similarly in Tantric
p r a c t i c e s t h e e n e r g y o f t h e e m o t i o n s , like a n g e r , desire,
a v e r s i o n , e t c . , is m o b i l i z e d to t r a n s m u t e t h e p a s s i o n . B o t h
s y s t e m s f u l l y r e c o g n i z e t h e p o t e n t i a l d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s of
h i d d e n u n c o n s c i o u s t e n d e n c i e s . For that r e a s o n t h e total
p s y c h e m u s t b e a p p r o a c h e d , its dark a s well as its light
a s p e c t s , p e r s o n i f i e d in T a n t r a b y p e a c e f u l a n d w r a t h f u l
d e i t i e s , r e p e a t e d l y c o n s t r u c t e d a n d d i s s o l v e d in o n e ' s v i s -
u a l i z a t i o n . O n e is c o n t i n u a l l y facing t h e conflict of o p p o s i t e s
in t h e e f f o r t t o t r a n s c e n d t h e m . T h i s is t h e p u r p o s e of t h e
sadhanas ( m e d i t a t i o n e x e r c i s e s ) , w h i c h are b a s e d o n a p r o -
found understanding of depth psychology.
I n J u n g i a n a n a l y s i s , t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t function is the c o m -
p a r a b l e p r i n c i p l e t h a t is a i m e d at in t h e dialectic p r o c e s s
b e t w e e n a n a l y s t s a n d a n a l y s a n d s . T h e latter o n t h e i r w a y to
i n d i v i d u a t i o n a r e r e c o n c i l i n g t h e conflicting p a r t s o f their
p s y c h e , t h e split b e t w e e n t h e c o n s c i o u s e g o a n d t h e u n c o n -
s c i o u s a n d r e a c h i n g b e y o n d all pairs of o p p o s i t e s .
In b o t h s y s t e m s t h e a d e p t , o r t h e a n a l y s a n d , m u s t e v e n t u -
ally b e c o m e i n d e p e n d e n t from outside support. T h e m e t h o d s
u s e d in w o r k i n g o n i n n e r growth vary infinitely, depend-
ing on the person, the time, and the circumstances.
B u d d h a u s e d a d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e to t e a c h t h e s a m e truth to
different people, being aware of the importance of
i n d i v i d u a l characteristics a n d n e e d s . 'Since individuality
. . . is absolutely u n i q u e , unpredictable, and uninter-
p r e t a b l e , ' J u n g s t r e s s e s , ' t h e t h e r a p i s t m u s t a b a n d o n all h i s
preconceptions and techniques. . . , ' 1 9 8
T h e i n t e g r i t y of
t h e p s y c h e o f t h e o t h e r is h i g h l y r e s p e c t e d a n d n e v e r to b e
violated by imposing one's o w n definitions and pre-
c o n c e i v e d i d e a s . I n t h i s m a n n e r t r u e c o m m u n i c a t i o n can
b e e s t a b l i s h e d . T h i s i s J u n g ' s v i e w , b u t it is also in the
spirit of the Madhyamika philosophy.
T r a n s f o r m a t i o n c o m e s about through the vehicle of sym-
b o l s . J u n g r e c o g n i z e d t h a t ' a n y i m a g i n a t i o n is a p o t e n -
tiality,' 1 9 9
a n d t h r o u g h h i s m e t h o d of active i m a g i n a t i o n
f o u n d a w a y of healing a n d transforming the personality.
Similarly in Tantric meditation the initiate becomes impreg-
n a t e d w i t h t h e s y m b o l s v i s u a l i z e d , t h e d e i t i e s - all different
s y m b o l s o f B u d d h a - a n d is t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o B u d d h a .
I n t h e T a n t r i c m o d e l J u n g d i s c e r n e d a n a n a l o g y to his
p s y c h o l o g y o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s . H e p o i n t s o u t that Tantra
deals with contents which are 'constantly reproduced by our
u n c o n s c i o u s in this f o r m o r a n o t h e r . . . . T h i s is not mysticism,
t h i s is p s y c h o l o g y . ' 2 0 0

N o t e s h o u l d b e m a d e o f t h e p o w e r f u l s y m b o l o g y that
T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t s u s e in their i c o n o g r a p h y (thangkas), their
s a c r e d t e x t s , a n d t h e i r rituals, all d e s i g n e d to e x p r e s s t h e
i n e x p r e s s i b l e a n d t o e v o k e certain e x p e r i e n c e s that transport
t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o h i g h e r levels o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s b e y o n d
m u n d a n e r e a l i t y . T h e t e a c h i n g s a r e d o n e in a style that is
p o e t i c , i m a g i n a l , a n d o f t e n r e p e t i t i v e . In h i s w r i t i n g s J u n g
also m a k e s a b u n d a n t use of repetition, circumambulation,
p a r a d o x e s , a n d a v o i d s a l a n g u a g e a n d style that is p u r e l y
r a t i o n a l . H e tells u s t h a t ,

. . . i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e living p r o c e s s o f t h e p s y c h e , I
d e l i b e r a t e l y a n d c o n s c i o u s l y give p r e f e r e n c e to a
d r a m a t i c , m y t h o l o g i c a l w a y of t h i n k i n g a n d s p e a k -
i n g , b e c a u s e t h i s is n o t o n l y m o r e e x p r e s s i v e b u t
a l s o m o r e e x a c t t h a n a n a b s t r a c t scientific t e r m i n -
ology.... 2 0 1

REDEMPTION OF GOD

T h e idea o f p s y c h i c transformation is f u n d a m e n t a l to Tantra,

J u n g , a n d a l c h e m y . In T a n t r a a d e p t s identify with the divine
q u a l i t i e s , in t h e p r o c e s s o f w h i c h t h e y b e c o m e a w a r e o f
t h e i r o w n d i v i n e e s s e n c e . T h e B u d d h i s t , w e a r e told,

. . . b e l i e v e s in t h e d i v i n e p r i n c i p l e in m a n , the in-
b o r n s p a r k o f light (bodhi-citta) e m b o d i e d in h i s
c o n s c i o u s n e s s as a yearning toward perfection,
toward completeness, toward Enlightenment. To
p u t it p a r a d o x i c a l l y , it is n o t G o d w h o c r e a t e s
m a n , b u t m a n w h o c r e a t e s G o d in h i s i m a g e , i . e . ,
the idea of the divine aim within himself, which
h e r e a l i z e s in t h e fires o f s u f f e r i n g f r o m w h i c h
 c o m p a s s i o n , u n d e r s t a n d i n g , love a n d w i s d o m are
born.
T h e u n f o l d m e n t o f individual life in the u n i v e r s e
h a s n o o t h e r a i m a p p a r e n t l y b u t to b e c o m e c o n -
s c i o u s of its o w n d i v i n e e s s e n c e , a n d since this
p r o c e s s g o e s o n c o n t i n u o u s l y , it r e p r e s e n t s a p e r -
p e t u a l b i r t h o f G o d o r , t o p u t it i n t o B u d d h i s t
t e r m i n o l o g y , t h e c o n t i n u o u s arising of Enlightened
Beings, in each of w h o m t h e totality of the
universe becomes conscious. 2 0 2

H e r e w e f i n d a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y parallel to J u n g ' s t h o u g h t
that ' t h e c r e a t o r . . . n e e d s M a n to illuminate his c r e a t i o n ' 2 0 3

a n d t h a t t h i s w o r k c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d o n l y in t h e i n d i v i d -
u a l p s y c h e , w h i c h is t h e carrier o f t h e d i v i n e s p a r k .
L e t u s l i s t e n t o J u n g s p e a k i n g o n this s u b j e c t :

A l t h o u g h t h e d i v i n e i n c a r n a t i o n is a c o s m i c a n d
a b s o l u t e e v e n t , it o n l y m a n i f e s t s e m p i r i c a l l y in
t h o s e relatively few individuals capable of e n o u g h
c o n s c i o u s n e s s to m a k e ethical d e c i s i o n s , i . e . , to
d e c i d e for t h e G o o d . T h e r e f o r e G o d c a n b e called
g o o d o n l y in a s m u c h a s H e is a b l e to m a n i f e s t H i s
g o o d n e s s in individuals. His moral quality d e p e n d s
u p o n i n d i v i d u a l s . T h a t is w h y H e i n c a r n a t e s . I n -
d i v i d u a t i o n a n d individual e x i s t e n c e are i n d i s p e n -
sable for the transformation of G o d the C r e a t o r . 2 0 4

The Mahayana Bodhisattva - who has attained the

h i g h e s t state of consciousness a n d through his actions and
a t t i t u d e s , h i s w i s d o m a n d c o m p a s s i o n , is a n active force in
f u r t h e r i n g ' t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f G o d ' - h e i s , it s e e m s to m e ,
in J u n g ' s t e r m s , t h e m o s t fully a c c o m p l i s h e d i n d i v i d u a t e d
p e r s o n o n w h o m G o d d e p e n d s to i l l u m i n a t e H i s c r e a t i o n .
B o t h J u n g a n d B u d d h i s t s a f f i r m that o n l y h u m a n b e i n g s c a n
p e r f o r m t h a t t a s k in t h e u n i v e r s e - t h e r e f o r e t h e n e c e s s i t y
f o r h u m a n e x i s t e n c e , o r a s T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t s w o u l d s a y for
' t h e p r e c i o u s h u m a n r e b i r t h . ' T h i s is p e r h a p s t h e true
m e a n i n g o f t h e M a h a y a n a ideal o f t h e B o d h i s a t t v a w h o s e
s o l e a n d u n i q u e p u r p o s e in this w o r l d is t o w o r k for t h e
b e n e f i t o f all b e i n g s . A n d w h e n B o d h i s a t t v a s a r e t e a c h i n g
a n d i n s p i r i n g t h o s e o n t h e p a t h to liberation c o n t i n u o u s l y
a n d p r o g r e s s i v e l y to e x p a n d their c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e y are
leading t h e m towards those inward experiences intimated
b y J u n g , a n d a l l u d e d t o in h i s s t a t e m e n t that: ' . . . i t c a n b e
e x p e c t e d t h a t w e a r e g o i n g to c o n t a c t s p h e r e s of a n o t y e t
t r a n s f o r m e d G o d w h e n o u r c o n s c i o u s n e s s begins to extend
i n t o t h e s p h e r e o f the u n c o n s c i o u s . ' 2 0 5

H o w e v e r , t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the M a h a y a n a B u d d h i s t
a n d J u n g is t h a t in J u n g ' s t h o u g h t t h e u n c o n s c i o u s c a n
n e v e r b e totally c o n s c i o u s a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n
is n e v e r c o m p l e t e d , w h e r e a s to t h e B u d d h i s t it is p o s s i b l e to
k n o w all o f t h e u n k n o w a b l e a n d b e c a m e fully enlightened.
W e s h o u l d b e r e m i n d e d h e r e , that in h i s entire work Jung
i s o n l y c o n s i d e r i n g p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s that c a n b e
e s t a b l i s h e d e m p i r i c a l l y a n d is n o t d e a l i n g w i t h m e t a -
physical categories. Therefore, Jung states,

. . . w h e n G o d o r t h e T a o is n a m e d a n i m p u l s e o f t h e
s o u l , o r a p s y c h i c s t a t e , s o m e t h i n g h a s b e e n said
about the knowable only, but nothing about the
u n k n o w a b l e , about which nothing can be deter-
mined. 2 0 6

In J u n g ' s v i e w , a l t h o u g h it is m a n ' s task to reach m a x i m u m

l e v e l s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n y i n c r e a s e o f it b r i n g s a n a d -
d i t i o n a l b u r d e n . T h i s is d i a m e t r i c a l l y o p p o s e d to t h e v i e w
o f M a h a y a n a B u d d h i s t s t h a t c o n s c i o u s n e s s is at t h e s o u r c e
o f l i b e r a t i o n , a n d it is b l i s s . T h e a c t u a l p r o c e s s in r e a c h i n g
t h e g o a l is b y n o m e a n s f r e e f r o m t o r t u r e s . T h e a d v a n c e d
d i s c i p l e m a y b e p u t t o all k i n d s o f t e s t s , a n d t h e e x p e r i e n c e s
e n d u r e d a r e n o t u n l i k e t h e frightful a n d t o r m e n t i n g v i s i o n s
of the alchemist Z o s i m o s . 2 0 7
B u t t h e e n d r e s u l t is n o t h i n g
s h o r t o f b l i s s . Bliss is c o n s i s t e n t l y e m p h a s i z e d in T a n t r i c
m e d i t a t i o n , a n d it is a n e x p e r i e n c e t h a t c o m e s e v e n to t h e
less a d v a n c e d meditator. T h e cheerfulness and infectious
l a u g h t e r o f T i b e t a n l a m a s , their e x u b e r a n c e c o u p l e d w i t h
c a l m a n d p e a c e f u l n e s s , their exquisite s p o n t a n e i t y , w a r m t h
a n d o p e n n e s s reflect the state of m i n d of h u m a n beings
u n e n c u m b e r e d b y p r o b l e m s a n d b u r d e n s o f daily life, m a -
t e r i a l o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l , n o r b y fear o f d e a t h . T h i s is t h e v e r y
first i m p r e s s i o n i n v a r i a b l y g a i n e d b y a n y o n e w h o h a s h a d
t h e g o o d f o r t u n e a n d p r i v i l e g e to m e e t t h e m . B y their
a t t i t u d e a n d b e h a v i o r it i s a s t h o u g h t h e y w a n t to c o n v e y
t o u s , in a w o r d l e s s b u t c l e a r , u n e q u i v o c a l l a n g u a g e , t h a t it
is i n d e e d p o s s i b l e to t r a n s c e n d suffering, as their first M a s t e r
had taught them.
I n c o n t r a s t t o it, J u n g d o e s n o t p r o p o s e to h e l p h i s patients
e n d t h e i r s u f f e r i n g . H e b e l i e v e s that: 'Life d e m a n d s for its
c o m p l e t i o n a n d fulfilment a balance between joy and sor-
row.' 2 0 8
W h i l e h e c o n t e n d s t h a t s u f f e r i n g is a n a t u r a l , n o t
u n h e a l t h y a s p e c t o f life, a n d h a p p i n e s s a n i m p o s s i b l e s t a t e
to attain, Tibetan B u d d h i s t s claim that suffering can be
transmuted into happiness.
H o w e v e r , Buddhists, as well as Jung, a n d the alchemists,
p e r c e i v e t h a t t h e m a j o r t a s k to a c c o m p l i s h is t h e r e d e m p -
t i o n o f t h e d i v i n e s p a r k w i t h i n . T o t h e T a n t r i c B u d d h i s t it
m e a n s f i n d i n g t h e d e i t y h i d d e n in t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a n d
s u f f o c a t e d b y t h e e g o . T o J u n g it is t h e c o n s c i o u s realization
o f t h e S e l f , a n d its s e p a r a t i o n f r o m t h e e g o . T o t h e a l c h e m i s t
it i s t h e r e d e m p t i o n o f t h e anima mundi imprisoned in
matter.

J U N G ' S V I E W O F EASTERN TRADITIONS

O n e c a n f i n d m a n y p a r a d o x e s a n d i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s in J u n g ' s
w r i t i n g s , a n d his views of Eastern traditions are a good
e x a m p l e o f t h i s . A t t i m e s J u n g is s p e a k i n g in f a v o r o f
E a s t e r n traditions, praising their w a y s of approaching the
p s y c h e a n d their intuitive w i s d o m , which the W e s t lacks,
a n d at o t h e r times h e w a r n s Westerners against the dangers
o f e m b r a c i n g a s y s t e m t h a t is f o r e i g n to t h e i r c u l t u r e .
P e r s o n a l l y I a m a m a z e d at J u n g ' s penetrating u n d e r s t a n d -
ing (despite occasional misconceptions) of the Eastern
s y s t e m s , i n c l u d i n g t h e T i b e t a n tradition, w i t h o u t h a v i n g
h a d t h e b e n e f i t o f d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e latter a n d w i t h o u t
e x p e r i e n c i n g their m e d i t a t i v e practices. I a m just a s a m a z e d
t o d a y at s o m e o f t h e T i b e t a n l a m a s ' k e e n p e r c e p t i v e n e s s
a n d s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e W e s t a n d its lifestyle. I h a v e o f t e n
p o n d e r e d o v e r it, a n d I s u g g e s t that in b o t h c a s e s this is d u e
t o t h e i n t u i t i v e w i s d o m o f a clear, u n p r e j u d i c e d mind
w h i c h is c a p a b l e o f t r a n s c e n d i n g historical a n d cultural
b a r r i e r s a n d r e a c h i n g valid c o n c l u s i o n s .
J u n g s e e s v a s t d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e Eastern a n d W e s t -
e r n s t a n d p o i n t s a n d r a i s e s the q u e s t i o n of the possibility a n d
advisability of imitating each o t h e r . 2 0 7
Along with this
c o n t e n t i o n , h e a l s o tells u s that in t h e h u m a n p s y c h e t h e
collective unconscious 'possesses a common substratum
t r a n s c e n d i n g all differences in culture a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s . ' 210

T h i s u n c o n s c i o u s p s y c h e , b y v i r t u e o f b e i n g c o m m o n t o all
h u m a n beings, contains 'latent predispositions towards
identical r e a c t i o n s . ' 2 1 1
I n d e e d J u n g is a w a r e of t h e c l o s e
parallels between Eastern and Western p s y c h o l o g y . 2 1 2
His
concern, t h o u g h , is t h a t W e s t e r n e r s will a d o p t E a s t e r n
v a l u e s from their usual extroverted position, and m a k e
d o g m a s out of them, rather than seek those values within
t h e m s e l v e s , in their p s y c h e . H e finds that the core of Eastern
t e a c h i n g s c o n s i s t s in i n w a r d looking o f t h e m i n d , w h i c h in
itself h a s a self-liberating p o w e r . H e is v e r y critical of the
W e s t e r n e r s w h o m e r e l y a t t e m p t to i m i t a t e a n d w h o s e e n -
d e a v o r s remain superficial a n d therefore useless, and m o r e
t h a n t h a t , e v e n d a m a g i n g to t h e i r p s y c h e . J u n g r e m a r k s :

O n e c a n n o t b e t o o c a u t i o u s in t h e s e m a t t e r s , for
w h a t w i t h t h e i m i t a t i v e u r g e a n d a positively m o r -
b i d a v i d i t y to p o s s e s s t h e m s e l v e s o f o u t l a n d i s h
f e a t h e r s a n d d e c k t h e m s e l v e s o u t in this exotic
p l u m a g e , far t o o m a n y p e o p l e a r e m i s l e d into
s n a t c h i n g at s u c h ' m a g i c a l ' i d e a s a n d a p p l y i n g
t h e m e x t e r n a l l y , like a n o i n t m e n t . P e o p l e will d o
 a n y t h i n g , n o m a t t e r h o w a b s u r d , in o r d e r to a v o i d
facing their o w n s o u l s . 2 1 3

J u n g s a y s t h a t t h e b a s i c p r o b l e m , w h e t h e r in t h e Eastern
o r W e s t e r n w o r l d , 'is n o t s o m u c h a w i t h d r a w a l from the
o b j e c t s o f d e s i r e , a s a m o r e d e t a c h e d attitude to desire as
s u c h , n o m a t t e r w h a t its o b j e c t . ' 2 1 5
In this respect h e fully
u n d e r s t o o d o n e o f t h e principal postulates o f T a n t r a , that it
is n o t d e s i r e a s s u c h , b u t lack o f control, p o s s e s s i v e n e s s , a n d
a t t a c h m e n t t o d e s i r e that b r i n g s a b o u t a c o n f u s e d state of
m i n d , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y suffering. H e n c e the n e e d to s e e all
p h e n o m e n a as impermanent and empty.
J u n g c a n n o t c o n c e i v e o f t h e possibility o f achieving total
n o n - d u a l i t y , a state of a t - o n e m e n t . ' O n e c a n n o t k n o w s o m e -
t h i n g t h a t is n o t d i s t i n c t f r o m o n e s e l f . . . . I t h e r e f o r e a s s u m e
t h a t , i n t h i s p o i n t , E a s t e r n i n t u i t i o n h a s o v e r r e a c h e d it-
self.' 2 1 6
In m a k i n g this s t a t e m e n t J u n g s e e m s to forget that
h i s o w n c o n c e p t s a r e o f t e n irrational a n d p a r a d o x i c a l , a n d
b e s i d e s t h a t , n o n - d u a l i t y o n a t r a n s p e r s o n a l level d o e s n o t
e x c l u d e i n d i v i d u a l i t y o n a c o n v e n t i o n a l level o f e x i s t e n c e .
F u r t h e r m o r e experiences of non-duality are not u n k n o w n
in t h e W e s t e r n t r a d i t i o n t o o . I a m referring h e r e to t h e
disciplines a n d contemplative exercises of medieval m o n -
a s t i c life, w h e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l for a m o m e n t felt in Unity
w i t h G o d , o r r a t h e r was G o d , 2 1 7
like t h e T a n t r i c m e d i t a t o r
w h o b e c o m e s the deity h e visualizes.
I n m a n y w a y s J u n g c o m e s c l o s e r to E a s t e r n s y s t e m s t h a n
t o W e s t e r n traditions d e s p i t e h i s insistence that W e s t e r n e r s
s h o u l d stay with their o w n traditions, their symbols a n d
m y t h o l o g y . A l o n g with the Buddhists, he rejects dogmas
a n d in h i s p s y c h o l o g y , like in B u d d h i s t t e a c h i n g , it is o n l y
t h e s u b j e c t i v e , i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e t h a t validates t h e t h e o r y .
J u n g h i m s e l f h a d p r o f o u n d i n n e r e x p e r i e n c e s , a n d it is
f r o m t h e d e p t h o f h i s s o u l t h a t h e g a i n e d direct i m m e d i a t e
k n o w l e d g e w h i c h h e t h e n t r a n s l a t e d i n t o h i s w o r k . I n that
r e s p e c t h e w a s f o l l o w i n g t h e g n o s t i c tradition. T h e latter
h a d i n s p i r e d a n d i n f l u e n c e d h i m b e f o r e E a s t e r n traditions
 Jung's View of Eastern Traditions 95

c a m e t o h i s attention. S c h o l a r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d that H i n d u or
B u d d h i s t traditions i n f l u e n c e d gnosticism, although there is
n o conclusive e v i d e n c e . 2 1 8
It m a y b e that t h e h u m a n m i n d
i n d e p e n d e n t l y p r o d u c e d similar or identical ideas in t w o
d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d . T h i s w o u l d o n l y confirm J u n g ' s
c o n c e p t o f t h e c o m m o n structure of the p s y c h e , transcending
cultural differences. B u t w h a t e v e r its origin, gnosticism h a s
m o r e t h a n superficial parallels with B u d d h i s m .
I n c o m p a r i n g t h e s e t w o s y s t e m s o n e finds m a n y analogies.
S o m e o f t h e m o s t s a l i e n t o f t h e s e i n c l u d e t h e idea o f h u m a n
l i b e r a t i o n t h r o u g h i n t e r n a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ; of t h e p s y c h e
c a r r y i n g w i t h i n i t s e l f t h e p o t e n t i a l for l i b e r a t i o n ; of the
e m p h a s i s o n t h e p r i m a c y o f i m m e d i a t e e x p e r i e n c e ; a n d of
t h e n e e d f o r initial g u i d a n c e b u t t h e e v e n t u a l f r e e d o m f r o m
a n y external authority. Both systems also see the disciples'
o w n m i n d s a s t h e i r g u i d e a n d it is t h e r e that t h e y m u s t
d i s c o v e r t h e t r u t h . A f u r t h e r similarity is t h e b e l i e f t h a t n o t
s i n b u t i g n o r a n c e , lack o f s e l f - k n o w l e d g e , is t h e s o u r c e of
suffering a n d enslavement by unconscious impulses: the
o n e w h o r e m a i n s i g n o r a n t lives in illusion a n d c a n n o t
experience fulfilment. A n d , of course, the discovery of the
d i v i n e w i t h i n is c e n t r a l t o e a c h : t h e o n e w h o achieves
g n o s i s is n o l o n g e r a C h r i s t i a n b u t b e c o m e s C h r i s t . 2 1 9

H e r e is a p a s s a g e f r o m t h e G n o s t i c G o s p e l o f P h i l i p that is
r e m a r k a b l e in its similarity to t h e f u n d a m e n t a l Tantric view:

. . . Y o u s a w t h e spirit, y o u b e c a m e spirit. Y o u s a w
C h r i s t , y o u b e c a m e C h r i s t . Y o u s a w [the F a t h e r ,
you] shall b e c o m e Father...you see yourself, and
what you see you shall [become]. 220

A n d n o w another passage implying that the Kingdom of

G o d is b u t t h e s y m b o l f o r a t r a n s f o r m e d s t a t e o f c o n s c i o u s -
ness:

Jesus said...'When you make the two one, and

w h e n y o u m a k e t h e i n s i d e like t h e o u t s i d e a n d t h e
o u t s i d e like t h e i n s i d e , a n d t h e a b o v e like t h e
b e l o w , a n d w h e n y o u m a k e the m a l e a n d the female
 o n e a n d t h e s a m e . . . t h e n y o u will e n t e r [the K i n g -
dom].' 2 2 1

It a p p e a r s o b v i o u s t h a t B u d d h i s t a n d G n o s t i c C h r i s t i a n
symbols express the same inner experiences and, whether
t h e d i s c i p l e a d o p t s o n e o r t h e o t h e r , t h e e s s e n t i a l q u e s t for
m e a n i n g a n d s p a t i a l a n d t e m p o r a l t r a n s c e n d e n c e is t h e
s a m e . T h e r e f o r e w h e n J u n g p e n e t r a t e d t h e d e p t h of his
p s y c h e a n d t h e r e b y g a i n e d a c c e s s to direct k n o w l e d g e aris-
ing out of his o w n transformative experience, he became a
l i n k in t h e c h a i n o f a n c i e n t m y s t i c a l traditions, B u d d h i s t
a n d C h r i s t i a n . O r t o p u t it d i f f e r e n t l y , in t h e d e p t h of t h e
collective u n c o n s c i o u s - or the h e i g h t of his supra-conscious-
n e s s - J u n g m e t t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e medieval Christian
mystic, a M a s t e r Eckhart, a n d that of the Tantric master.
T h e w o r d s expressing the ineffable experience, the union
w i t h t h e O n e M i n d , o r w i t h G o d ( w h i c h is b e y o n d w o r d s
a n y w a y ) a n d t h e t o o l s u s e d in t h e p r o c e s s m a y differ, b u t
t h e c o r e o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e d o e s n o t : in t h e h e a r t o f it, for t h e
briefest m o m e n t , t h e g a p b e t w e e n v a r i o u s traditions is
c l o s e d . A n d it is precisely t h e r e that I a m looking for parallels
b e t w e e n Jungian and Tantric systems. The methods and
t e c h n i q u e s t h a t J u n g d e v e l o p e d in t h e c o n t e x t of, a n d to
conform with, the Western tradition a n d mythological
images, a n d with the socio-cultural conditions of contem-
p o r a r y E u r o p e a n d A m e r i c a , are less i m p o r t a n t . T h e y reflect
o n l y t h e n e c e s s i t y t o r e m a i n r o o t e d in o n e ' s o w n c u l t u r e ,
w h i c h Jung recognized, and which Tibetan Buddhists
w o u l d a c k n o w l e d g e t o o . A n d m o s t o f all, e v e r y B u d d h i s t
w o u l d b e i n p e r f e c t a g r e e m e n t w i t h J u n g ' s s t a t e m e n t that
' W e m u s t g e t at t h e E a s t e r n v a l u e s f r o m w i t h i n a n d n o t
f r o m w i t h o u t , s e e k i n g t h e m in ourselves. . . . ' 2 2 2

DANGERS

B o t h J u n g a n d T a n t r i c B u d d h i s t s a r e a w a r e o f t h e latent
r i s k s i n h e r e n t in t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e m e t h o d s .
J u n g r e p e a t e d l y w a r n s u s o f t h e p o s s i b l e d a n g e r o u s effects
w h e n releasing unconscious contents without proper safe-
g u a r d s a n d p r e c a u t i o n s , a s it m a y o v e r w h e l m c o n s c i o u s n e s s
a n d c a u s e its c o l l a p s e , r e s u l t i n g in s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s ,
e v e n p s y c h o s i s . H e c o m p a r e s t h e potential explosive p o w e r
o f t h e a r c h e t y p e s to that of the released atom, a n d h e says:

T h e a r c h e t y p e s h a v e t h i s peculiarity in c o m m o n
with the atomic world, which is...that the more
d e e p l y t h e investigator p e n e t r a t e s into t h e u n i v e r s e
of microphysics the m o r e devastating are the ex-
plosive forces he finds enchained t h e r e . 2 2 3

F o r t h i s r e a s o n , a s a l r e a d y n o t e d , it is of crucial i m p o r t a n c e
to h a v e a strong, well-developed psychic structure before
c o n f r o n t i n g t h e u n c o n s c i o u s s o m e n t a l equilibrium c a n b e
maintained.
T a n t r i c m a s t e r s i s s u e v e r y s i m i l a r w a r n i n g s , n a m e l y , that
the m e t h o d s they teach are profound but also extremely
p o w e r f u l a n d therefore hazardous unless the proper prepa-
r a t i o n s a r e m a d e a n d t h e d i s c i p l e is l e d i n t o t h e p r a c t i c e
g r a d u a l l y u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e of a qualified teacher. T h e y
f u r t h e r m o r e s t r e s s t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f relating at all t i m e s to
t h e a c t u a l i t y o f o n e ' s e x p e r i e n c e , to t h e s o l i d , e a r t h y a s p e c t
of i t . 2 2 4
T h i s is w h e r e J u n g w o u l d a g r e e : h e k n e w s o well
h o w c r u c i a l it w a s for h i m t o k e e p o n w i t h h i s daily w o r k ,
m a i n t a i n c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h h i s family, a n d fulfil his o t h e r
o b l i g a t i o n s w h i l e in t h e m i d s t of his o w n confrontation with
the unconscious.
T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t s u r g e W e s t e r n e r s n o t to a b a n d o n t h e
v a l u e s o f t h e i r o w n c u l t u r e . In fact a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f o n e ' s o w n c u l t u r e a n d b e i n g d e e p l y r o o t e d in it - t h e y
w o u l d s a y - is a prerequisite for venturing into a n d benefiting
f r o m p r a c t i c e s o f a f o r e i g n tradition. T h e r e is a l s o a l w a y s
t h e d a n g e r o f g r a s p i n g t h e literal rather t h a n t h e intrinsic
m e a n i n g o f s y m b o l s a n d rituals, a n d t h e r e b y g o i n g astray
a n d g e t t i n g lost in o n e ' s practice.
T a n t r i c i m a g e s visualized in meditation r e p r e s e n t a r c h e -
t y p e s a n d therefore particular caution is n e e d e d in dealing
w i t h t h e m . A s e v e r y a r c h e t y p e h a s a double aspect - a light
a n d a d a r k o n e - t h e p o w e r o f its dark side w h e n it suddenly
e m e r g e s f r o m t h e d e p t h o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s m a y c a u s e delu-
s i o n a l f a n t a s i e s a n d loss of touch w i t h reality. For example,
t h e a r c h e t y p e o f t h e G r e a t M o t h e r c o n t a i n s s u c h paradoxical
a s p e c t s a s n u r t u r i n g a n d creative, a s well as devouring and
d e s t r u c t i v e . A fragile individual w h o s e consciousness is not
well d e v e l o p e d m a y b e c o m e disoriented b y the e m e r g e n c e of
t h e a r c h e t y p e in its u n e x p e c t e d terrifying a s p e c t . 2 2 5
I have
b e e n a w i t n e s s to this u n f o r t u n a t e effect o n W e s t e r n students,
o n m o r e t h a n o n e occasion, at intensive meditation courses.

ETHICAL ISSUES

A t i s h a , t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u r y I n d i a n s a g e , r e s p o n s i b l e for a
r e v i v a l o f B u d d h i s m in T i b e t , said: ' W h e n t h e c o n t a i n e r
a n d its c o n t e n t s a r e filled w i t h w r o n g s , c h a n g e this a d v e r s e
c i r c u m s t a n c e into the path to full a w a k e n i n g . ' 2 2 6
This a d m o n -
ition c o u l d j u s t a s well b e m a d e to t h e p e o p l e of t h e t w e n t i e t h
c e n t u r y . T i b e t a n s t o d a y r e c o g n i z e that since w e are living in
a n a g e o f d e g e n e r a t i o n w h e n b o t h the e n v i r o n m e n t - the
c o n t a i n e r - a n d its i n h a b i t a n t s - t h e c o n t e n t s - a r e polluted
a n d a f f l i c t e d w i t h e n o r m o u s a n d d a n g e r o u s p r o b l e m s , this
is e s p e c i a l l y t h e t i m e to u s e t h e prevailing situation as an
e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o cultivate o u r m i n d s , t r a n s f o r m o u r o u t -
look, or as they say, to change the adverse circumstances
into t h e path to l i b e r a t i o n . 2 2 7

J u n g o n t h e o t h e r h a n d w a s a l s o e x t r e m e l y c o n c e r n e d , in
t h i s t i m e o f c o n f u s i o n , w i t h t h e fate of o u r civilization a n d
t h e d a n g e r o f h u m a n i t y d e s t r o y i n g itself. H e d i s c e r n e d ,
h o w e v e r , that

W e a r e l i v i n g in w h a t t h e G r e e k s called Kairos - t h e
right t i m e - f o r a ' m e t a m o r p h o s i s of the g o d s . ' . . . S o
m u c h is at s t a k e a n d s o m u c h d e p e n d s o n t h e
psychological constitution of modern m a n . ' 2 2 8
 A c c o r d i n g t o J u n g - a n d this is t h e s a m e idea that T i b e t a n
B u d d h i s t s are proposing - the c h a n g e m u s t begin with
i n d i v i d u a l s , in their o w n p s y c h e , their greatest i n s t r u m e n t .
T o J u n g that implies self-knowledge, k n o w i n g the dark
s i d e o f t h e p s y c h e , t h e u n c o n s c i o u s a s well a s its c o n s c i o u s
a p s e c t s , a n d to r e c o n c i l e t h e polarities. W i t h o u t this k n o w -
l e d g e , u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t s c a u s e p r o j e c t i o n s a n d illusions
t h a t falsify o u r r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r s , a n d t h a t is w h e r e the
w a r s b e g i n . ' R i g h t a c t i o n c o m e s f r o m right t h i n k i n g , a n d
.. . t h e r e is n o c u r e a n d n o i m p r o v i n g o f t h e w o r l d that d o e s
not begin with the individual h i m s e l f , ' 2 2 9
says Jung. The
r i g h t a c t i o n a n d r i g h t t h i n k i n g , is t h a t n o t w h a t B u d d h a
t a u g h t 2500 y e a r s a g o ?
T h e m o r e c o n s c i o u s w e b e c o m e o f o u r u n c o n s c i o u s drives
a n d act accordingly, the less contaminated with projections
a r e o u r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e w o r l d , a n d t h e m o r e o p e n w e are
to e n t e r into c o m m u n i c a t i o n , yes, even c o m m u n i o n with
it. J u n g t a l k s o f s o c i e t y ' s n e e d for a n affective b o n d , t h e
p r i n c i p l e o f caritas, t h e C h r i s t i a n l o v e of t h e n e i g h b o r . H e
w a r n s u s t h a t : ' W h e r e l o v e s t o p s , p o w e r b e g i n s , a n d viol-
ence, and terror.' 2 3 0

C o m p a s s i o n is t h e b a s i c e l e m e n t in B u d d h i s t p h i l o s o p h y
a n d p s y c h o l o g y , a n d in T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m it is i n s e p a r a b l e
f r o m w i s d o m , t h e e n l i g h t e n e d state o f m i n d . T o d a y t h e
D a l a i L a m a , w h o is r e g a r d e d a s t h e i n c a r n a t i o n o f A v a l o k i -
t e s h v a r a , t h e B u d d h a o f c o m p a s s i o n , is teaching a n d bringing
t o t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d , w h e r e v e r h e g o e s , t h e ideal o f c o m -
p a s s i o n a s a m e a n s to a c h i e v e h a r m o n y in t h e w o r l d , a n d a s
t h e principle of universal responsibility.
T h e B u d d h i s t c o n c e p t o f v o i d n e s s ( s u n y a t a ) is s o m e t i m e s
misinterpreted in t h e W e s t a s i m p l y i n g a n n u l m e n t of
ethical considerations. J u n g suspected that Westerners'
a t t e m p t a t d e t a c h m e n t a s a w a y o f liberation, w h i c h t h e y
l e a r n e d f r o m y o g i c p r a c t i c e s , w a s o n l y a w a y o f liberation
from moral responsibilities. 2 3 1

B u d d h i s m is o n e o f t h e m o s t h i g h l y d e v e l o p e d ethical a s
w e l l a s p s y c h o l o g i c a l s y s t e m s . Ethical i s s u e s a n d individual
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a r e a l w a y s a n d w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n a n integral
p a r t o f its p h i l o s o p h y a n d p r a c t i c e . T h e rule a p p l i e s to all
s c h o o l s a n d of course to Tantric B u d d h i s m as well.
A n d J u n g , a p s y c h o l o g i s t a n d p h y s i c i a n , in all his m u l t i -
d i m e n s i o n a l w o r k , a n d h i s e n t i r e life, h a s consistently
r e m i n d e d m a n - t h e o n l y c a r r i e r o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s - of h i s
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d e t h i c a l o b l i g a t i o n to t r a n s f o r m h i m s e l f ,
o r shall I s a y , to transform G o d .
Conclusion

IN DRAWING t o a c l o s e , I s h o u l d l i k e t o m a k e a f e w p o i n t s
t o h i g h l i g h t t h e c o n c l u s i o n s r e a c h e d i n m y a t t e m p t to
u n d e r s t a n d a n d find p o s s i b l e parallels b e t w e e n B u d d h i s m
and Jung's psychology.
T h e t w o s y s t e m s w e r e b o r n a n d d e v e l o p e d in a r e a s widely
a p a r t f r o m e a c h o t h e r , g e o g r a p h i c a l l y , historically, a n d c u l -
t u r a l l y , a n d w e r e s e p a r a t e d in t i m e b y a s p a n o f t w o a n d
a h a l f m i l l e n i a . Y e t b o t h , d e s p i t e all the differences, are con-
c e r n e d with the same human problems, and have found
t h a t s o l u t i o n s a r e to b e s o u g h t , u n i q u e l y , within t h e p s y c h e
of each individual.
T h e o v e r r i d i n g c o n c e r n of B u d d h i s m is termination of
suffering. J u n g ' s m a j o r task w a s the healing of man's
psychic wounds. However, the Buddhist believes that
t o t a l d e l i v e r a n c e f r o m s u f f e r i n g i s p o s s i b l e ; J u n g ' s v i e w is
t h a t s u f f e r i n g i s i n t h e n a t u r e o f life a n d i s e v e n a n e c e s s a r y
i n g r e d i e n t that can never b e completely eliminated.
T h e u l t i m a t e g o a l i n b o t h s y s t e m s i s for u s to b e c o m e
w h a t w e t r u l y a r e . F o r t h e M a h a y a n a B u d d h i s t that m e a n s
to a c h i e v e B u d d h a h o o d ; every b e i n g without exception
h a s t h a t p o t e n t i a l . F o r J u n g it m e a n s to a c h i e v e w h o l e n e s s ,
r e a l i z e o n e ' s Self, w h i c h is an urge i n h e r e n t in the psyche.
The path to B u d d h a h o o d is e x t r e m e l y l o n g , b u t it is
believed t h a t b y p r a c t i c i n g T a n t r i c m e t h o d s it c a n be
r e a c h e d w i t h i n a s i n g l e life t i m e . F o r J u n g , t h o u g h , self-
r e a l i z a t i o n is a n e v e r e n d i n g p r o c e s s .
P r o g r e s s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t of consciousness through in-
t r o s p e c t i o n is t h e initial g o a l o f b o t h B u d d h i s m a n d J u n g ' s
p s y c h o l o g y . B u t t h e B u d d h i s t m a i n t a i n s that c o n s c i o u s n e s s
c a n b e d e v e l o p e d fully s o t h a t n o u n c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t c a n
d i s t u r b t h e m i n d , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y perfect control a c h i e v e d
- t h e s t a t e o f p u r e a w a r e n e s s . C o n s c i o u s n e s s to t h e B u d -
d h i s t is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b l i s s : k n o w i n g is h a p p i n e s s , u n -
k n o w i n g is s u f f e r i n g . J u n g d o e s n o t b e l i e v e that p u r e c o n -
s c i o u s n e s s , uncontaminated by the unconscious, can ever
b e attained. Furthermore, integration of the unconscious
i n t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s , t h e r e c o n c i l i a t i o n o f o p p o s i t e s , entails
n o t e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e u n c o n s c i o u s , o r t h e c o n t r o l o f it, b u t
a c o n c e s s i o n to both aspects of the psyche.
T h e p r i n c i p l e a n d u s e o f o p p o s i t e s is f u n d a m e n t a l in
J u n g ' s m o d e l , a s it is in B u d d h i s m , a n d is particularly
e m p h a s i z e d in T a n t r i c p r a c t i c e s .
B o t h s y s t e m s r e q u i r e t h a t e v e r y a s p e c t o f t h e individual
b e i n v o l v e d in t h e p r o c e s s ; n o t h i n g is to b e r e j e c t e d . K n o w -
l e d g e a n d intellectual understanding are important, espec-
ially i n t h e initial s t a g e s o f t h e p a t h , b u t t h e y h a v e to b e
c o m p l e m e n t e d b y f e e l i n g a n d intuition, a n d t h e i n s i g h t
1

g a i n e d i n t h e c o u r s e o f c o m t e m p l a t i o n o r m e d i t a t i o n h a s to
b e translated into action a n d become a moral duty.
T h e path starts and ends in the psyche, the mind. Jung
c l a i m s h e does not m a k e philosophical or metaphysical
statements and that his work is b a s e d on empirical
e v i d e n c e s only. B u d d h i s m b y contrast, b e i n g a religion,
necessarily deals with philosophical and metaphysical
c a t e g o r i e s . H o w e v e r , B u d d h a h i m s e l f r e f u s e d to a n s w e r
questions pertaining to the nature of the Absolute,
k n o w i n g that philosophical arguments create discord and
c o n f u s i o n a n d d o n o t a d d t o t h e s o l u t i o n of s u f f e r i n g , t h e
p r i m a r y p r o b l e m . H e t a u g h t i n s t e a d t h e M i d d l e W a y , later
to b e e l a b o r a t e d b y the M a d h y a m i k a school, whose basic
a t t i t u d e i s f r e e d o m f r o m d o g m a t i s m a n d t h e dialectical
a p p r o a c h , a t t e m p t i n g to r e s o l v e t h e o r e t i c a l conflicts b y
r i s i n g to a h i g h e r standpoint.
T h i s i n a w a y is J u n g ' s a p p r o a c h to h i s o w n w o r k a n d
practice. T h e r e are n o definitive theories, nor therapeutic
m e t h o d s a p p l i c a b l e i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y to e v e r y o n e , s i n c e
e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l i s u n i q u e i n h i s o r h e r specific s i t u a t i o n .
At the s a m e time in assisting the person through his
c o n f l i c t s , a n d o n h i s j o u r n e y to i n d i v i d u a t i o n , J u n g w o u l d
a p p l y t h e m e t h o d o f first b r i n g i n g to c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d
o b j e c t i v e l y o b s e r v i n g t h e facts o f h i s i n n e r a n d o u t e r life;
t h e n , b y u s i n g i m a g i n a t i o n amplifying them, and raising
t h e c o n f l i c t a n d d i l e m m a t o a h i g h e r level of c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,
leading from t h e p e r s o n a l to t h e t r a n s p e r s o n a l - the
a p p r o a c h to t h e n u m i n o u s .
I n b o t h T a n t r a a n d J u n g ' s s y s t e m s y m b o l s are a b u n d a n t l y
m a d e u s e of, a s v e h i c l e s a n d m e a n s o f transforming o u r
a w a r e n e s s a n d o u r o r d i n a r y reality into a significant o n e . In
T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m s y m b o l i c i m a g e s a n d visualization prac-
t i c e s a r e specifically d e f i n e d b y tradition, a l t h o u g h there is
latitude g i v e n to the meditator, a n d generally creative imagin-
a t i o n is e n c o u r a g e d a n d fostered. J u n g ' s m o d e l , having m u c h
l e s s o f a tradition, allows a purely individual, unstructured
w a y o f exercising o n e ' s imagination in the service of develop-
i n g s e l f - k n o w l e d g e . B o t h w a y s l e a d to t h e S e l f - t h e c e n t e r ,
the heart of the mandala.
B u d d h i s t teachings a n d J u n g ' s therapeutic methods are
i n v a r i a b l y a d a p t e d t o t h e specific n e e d s , c o n d i t i o n s a n d
c a p a c i t i e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ; t h e g u r u a n d t h e therapist a r e
g u i d e s o n the w a y . T h e y are never regarded as ultimate
a u t h o r i t i e s : t h e p s y c h e o r m i n d o f t h e individual - t h e o n l y
i n s t r u m e n t t h r o u g h w h i c h o n e e x p e r i e n c e s reality - is t h e
s o l e a u t h o r i t y . I n B u d d h i s m o n e is c o n s t a n t l y u r g e d to test
w i t h o n e ' s e x p e r i e n c e t h e validity o f t h e t e a c h i n g , and
a d o p t o r r e j e c t it in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h o n e ' s o w n f i n d i n g s .
S i m i l a r l y J u n g h a s e n o r m o u s r e s p e c t for t h e integrity of t h e
p s y c h e , a n d a t r u s t in its c a p a c i t y to f u n c t i o n o b j e c t i v e l y -
w h e n n o t i n t e r f e r e d w i t h - a n d t h u s t o lead t h e i n d i v i d u a l
t o w a r d s h i s true d e s t i n a t i o n , h i s Self.
B o t h s y s t e m s w a r n a g a i n s t d a n g e r s a n d u r g e t h e initiate
to take necessary precautions and safeguards w h e n con-
tacting p o w e r f u l inner forces, potentially disruptive to the
p s y c h i c s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t y . For this r e a s o n T i b e t a n
B u d d h i s m , e s p e c i a l l y in its T a n t r i c f o r m , h a s traditionally
o b s e r v e d a m e a s u r e of secrecy.
I n b o t h s y s t e m s p a s s i o n s , e m o t i o n s , positive o r negative,
a r e n o t s u p p r e s s e d b u t t r a n s f o r m e d in t h e m i n d b y utilizing
the very energy they contain.
Contradictions, paradoxes, and imaginal language
a b o u n d in J u n g ' s w o r k a n d in B u d d h i s m in g e n e r a l , a n d
T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m in particular, but neither Jung nor Bud-
d h i s t s a r e c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h a t . T h e y are r e g a r d e d as
m e a n s o f p o r t r a y i n g t h e f u l l n e s s a n d r i c h n e s s o f life a n d
d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f p e r c e i v i n g i t , w h i c h c o n v e n t i o n a l lan-
g u a g e w i t h i t s l i m i t a t i o n s is u n a b l e to e x p r e s s .
T a n t r a ' s c h i e f c o n c e r n is spiritual g r o w t h , a n d t h e r e m a r k -
a b l e T a n t r i c w a y i s o n e n o t o f a s c e t i c i s m b u t of fully e x p e r i -
e n c i n g life in all its j o y , s p o n t a n e i t y a n d creativity. A n
e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f it, h o w e v e r , is t h e m e n t a l a t t i t u d e , that is,
t h e s e l f l e s s m o t i v a t i o n t h a t u n d e r s c o r e s e v e r y f o r m of B u d -
d h i s t p r a c t i c e . In T a n t r a a n d in J u n g ' s m o d e l t h e m u n d a n e
a n d s p i r i t u a l d i m e n s i o n s o f life a r e c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d ; in
f a c t t h e y a r e t w o s i d e s o f t h e s a m e reality t h a t n e e d to b e
reconciled.
I n J u n g ' s w o r k , t h e e l e m e n t o f c o m p a s s i o n , t h e principle
o f E r o s , is n o t e m p h a s i z e d , a s it is in T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m ,
a l t h o u g h h e too is k e e n l y c o n c e r n e d with the fate of h u m a n -
i t y , a n d a b o v e all t h a t o f t h e i n n e r m a n . A s a p s y c h o l o g i s t
a n d physician h e k n o w s that w e can heal ourselves only by
relinquishing ego-centered pursuits, and connecting our-
s e l v e s t o a l a r g e r c o n t e x t o f life. In t h e p r o c e s s o f it, in o u r
d e p t h s , o n t h e a r c h e t y p a l level w h e r e t h e r e is n o separation,
w e b e c o m e r e l a t e d t o t h e rest o f h u m a n i t y a n d c o m p a s s i o n
s p o n t a n e o u s l y arises. Nevertheless, Jung's psychology by
n e c e s s i t y h a s to h a v e a l e s s e n c o m p a s s i n g s c o p e t h a n B u d -
d h i s m , a p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d e t h i c a l s y s t e m that h a s also a
religious basis.
Y e t it h a s b e c o m e o b v i o u s t o m e t h a t T i b e t a n B u d d h i s t s
a n d C. G . J u n g - a n d the alchemists - each coming from
t h e i r o w n u n i q u e d i r e c t i o n s , are pointing to u s , b y m e a n s of
t h e i r o w n u n i q u e w o r d s a n d s y m b o l s , a w i s d o m that is
u n i v e r s a l . It h a s b e e n s a i d t h a t t h e W e s t h a s a w e a l t h of its
o w n s y m b o l s a n d t h e r e is n o n e e d to s e e k o t h e r s in t h e E a s t .
I n d e e d it w o u l d b e a p i t y a n d a g r e a t loss to reject t h e rich
W e s t e r n s y m b o l i s m . Y e t E a s t e r n s y m b o l s are fresh to the
W e s t e r n m i n d a n d t h e r e f o r e p o s s e s s a g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y to
i n s p i r e a n d stimulate the imagination, while unfortu-
nately for m a n y in the W e s t our symbols have become
o s s i f i e d a n d t h u s h a v e lost t h e i r i n t r i n s i c m e a n i n g . T h e
s t i r r i n g s of the soul can c o m e from m a n y different sources,
d o e s it r e a l l y m a t t e r w h i c h is t h e o n e ? If it is true that the
u l t i m a t e w i s d o m is o n e a n d t h e s a m e , w h e t h e r d i s c o v e r e d
in o n e ' s B u d d h a - n a t u r e , the Self, or the Philosopher's
S t o n e , w e s h o u l d b e a b l e to find in s e e m i n g l y r e m o t e a n d
e s o t e r i c t r a d i t i o n s v a l u e s w h i c h s p e a k to u s i n a l a n g u a g e
t h a t i s r e l e v a n t to t h e W e s t e r n w o r l d . P e r h a p s J u n g ' s m o d e l
w i l l b e p r e f e r a b l e t o s o m e W e s t e r n e r s , as c e r t a i n of its
f o r m s a n d a s p e c t s m a y b e m o r e e a s i l y a d a p t e d to t h e i r
n e e d s a n d l i f e s t y l e . S o m e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , will find a
g r e a t e r a f f i n i t y t o t h e T i b e t a n m o d e l . A n d s o m e o t h e r s still,
w i l l p e r c e i v e n o c o n t r a d i c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o a n d will b e
immeasurably e n r i c h e d b y the treasures they both so
g e n e r o u s l y offer.
T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e T i b e t a n s in t h e W e s t m u s t b e m o r e
t h a n t h e r e s u l t o f a h i s t o r i c a l turn o f e v e n t s that b e g a n in a
t r a g e d y . I p e r c e i v e in it a n o t h e r t a n g i b l e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f
t h e l a w o f o p p o s i t e s : t h e a b y s m a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n of m o r a l
a n d s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s in o u r materialistic a n d militaristic
civilization h a d to p r o d u c e its c o u n t e r - b a l a n c e , the p r e s e n c e
o f t h e h o l y m e n f r o m T i b e t , w h o d e s c e n d e d f r o m t h e t o p of
the w o r l d into the valleys of the Western hemisphere. As
J u n g a l r e a d y s e n s e d a n d p o i n t e d to u s , t h e r e is m u c h to
l e a r n f r o m t h e E a s t . T i b e t a n l a m a s w i t h their p r o f o u n d
w i s d o m and compassionate hearts, their serene manners
a n d g e n t l e s p e e c h , h a v e m u c h to t e a c h u s . A n d especially in
t h e i r s i l e n t m e d i t a t i o n s t h e y s p e a k to u s , e a c h o n e of u s
i n d i v i d u a l l y , in a d i r e c t a n d forceful w a y . B u t m o s t o f all,
t h e y are living symbols of enlightened beings - of the
h i g h e s t a s p i r a t i o n s a n d a t t a i n m e n t of w h i c h m a n is capable.
It is t h e i r v e r y p r e s e n c e a m o n g u s that is t h e u n i q u e a n d
m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e T i b e t a n tradition t o t h e
Western world.
W h e n the roaring, giant iron birds flew a n d brought the
T i b e t a n s i n t o o u r m i d s t , it m a r k e d n o t o n l y t h e fulfillment
o f a n a g e - o l d p r o p h e c y : it w a s a s y n c h r o n i s t i c m o m e n t in
w h i c h t h e w o r l d s o f spirit a n d m a t t e r c a m e t o g e t h e r . Birds,
s y m b o l s o f f r e e d o m , in t h e i r i r o n f o r m b e c a m e t h e v e h i c l e s
o f s o m e e x t r a o r d i n a r y h u m a n b e i n g s w h o , in t h e i r m i n d s
a n d h e a r t s a r e c a r r i e r s o f t r u e spiritual f r e e d o m in its living,
actualized f o r m . S o , the iron birds have joined their spiritual
counterparts.

CODA

It is e x t r e m e l y difficult t o u n d e r s t a n d T a n t r i c B u d d h i s m ,
a n d it is e v e n m o r e difficult to w r i t e a b o u t it, s i n c e its
f o u n d a t i o n lies n o t in k n o w l e d g e b u t in individual e x p e r i -
e n c e . T h e s a m e is t r u e o f J u n g ' s w o r k . T h u s I a m painfully
a w a r e o f t h e i n a d e q u a c y , a n d t h e o m i s s i o n s a n d inevitable
d i s t o r t i o n s t h a t a b o o k like t h i s m u s t c o n t a i n .
F r o m t h e o u t s e t I h a v e b e e n a l s o well a w a r e t h a t t h e task I
h a v e g i v e n m y s e l f w a s t r e m e n d o u s l y ambitious, considering
t h e l i m i t l e s s p r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r . B u t it w a s
e v e n m u c h m o r e t h a n t h a t : t h e task w a s a w e s o m e . T h e r e
w a s n o p o s s i b i l i t y o f e n c o m p a s s i n g it all, a n d c o n v e y i n g
the n u m i n o u s , as well as the dynamic, flowing, ever-
c h a n g i n g a s p e c t o f it, w h i c h is primarily t h e w a y I h a v e
experienced both systems.
W i t h this in m i n d , for a l o n g time I could n o t start writing.
I c o u l d s e e t h e i m a g e o f t h e f u t u r e w o r k in m y i n n e r vision,
b u t I c o u l d n o t p u t it i n t o w o r d s . T h e n I h a d a d r e a m in
w h i c h a voice g e n t l y w h i s p e r e d to m e : T h e S e l f a n d P a d m a . '
T h e Self a n d P a d m a , the Western and Eastern symbols of
s p i r i t u a l u n f o l d m e n t a n d totality - this w a s w h a t m y b o o k -
t o - b e w a s all a b o u t . W h a t e l s e n e e d e d to b e said: it w a s all
t h e r e , t o l d in f o u r b r i e f w o r d s . B u t this w a s o n l y t h e b e g i n -
n i n g . A n d t h e d r e a m w a s a signal t h a t I c o u l d n o w start
writing. Shortly afterwards I e m b a r k e d on the journey.
I n d e e d it w a s like a j o u r n e y , l o n g , h a r d , a n d t o r t u o u s , with
s o m e m o m e n t s o f n e a r d e s p a i r , a l t e r n a t i n g with t h o s e o f
exhilaration. I s o o n r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e act o f writing a n d
b u i l d i n g t h i s b o o k w a s like a m e d i t a t i v e p r o c e s s . It w a s like
a n a l c h e m i c a l opus t o o , s t a r t i n g w i t h t h e massa confusa, and
l e a d i n g u p t h r o u g h t h e v a r i o u s s t a g e s to final crystallization
i n t o its e s s e n c e . A n d a l o n g t h e w a y , as the w o r k w a s building,
its i n n e r m e a n i n g w a s g r a d u a l l y u n f o l d i n g to m e .
After I had g o n e a r o u n d and around a long, tedious road,
i n t e r m i t t e n t l y g e t t i n g lost a n d finding m y w a y back, slowly,
a n d p a i n f u l l y o r j o y o u s l y c i r c u m a m b u l a t i n g , I c a m e to t h e
s a m e p o i n t I s t a r t e d f r o m , b u t this t i m e t h e m e s s a g e w a s
i m p r i n t e d deeply into m y mind and soul:

THE SELF AND PADMA

Notes

CHAPTER 1

1 Walpola Rahula, What the Buddha Taught (Bedford:

G o r d o n F r a s e r , 1959), p . 1.
2 R a h u l a , op. cit., p p . 45-50.
3 L a m a T h u b t e n Y e s h e , ' T u r n i n g t h e W h e e l , ' in Wisdom
Energy 2 ( U l v e r s t o n : W i s d o m C u l t u r e , 1979), p . 24.
4 E d w a r d C o n z e , Buddhism ( L o n d o n : Faber a n d Faber,
1963)/ P- 93-
5 N a n c y W i l s o n R o s s , Buddhism; A Way of Life and
Thought ( N e w Y o r k : V i n t a g e B o o k s , 1981), p . 44.
6 G a m p o p a , The Jewel Ornament of Liberation (Berkeley:
S h a m b h a l a , 1971), p . 7.
7 C h a r l e s M u s e s , East-West Fire; Schopenhauer's Optimism
and the Lankavatara Sutra (London: John Watkins,
1955), P- 45-
8 K . V e n k a t a R a m a n a n , Nagarjuna's Philosophy (New
Y o r k : S a m u e l W e i s e r , 1966), p . 145.
9 Ibid., p . 299.
10 Ibid., p . 297.
11 T e n z i n G y a t s o , T h e F o u r t e e n t h Dalai L a m a , The Budd-
hism of Tibet and The Key to the Middle Way (London:
G e o r g e A l l e n & U n w i n , 1975), p p . 21-22.
12 L a m a T h u b t e n Z o p a R i n p o c h e , ' T h e T h r e e Principal
A s p e c t s o f t h e P a t h to E n l i g h t e n m e n t , ' in L a m a T h u b t e n
Yeshe and Lama Thubten Zopa Rinpoche, Wisdom
Energy ( L o n d o n : W i s d o m P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1982), p . 82.
13 In Z e n t h i s is c a l l e d t h e ' m o n k e y m i n d , ' j u m p i n g f r o m
o n e place to a n o t h e r .
14 G e s h e N g a w a n g Dhargyey,Tibetan Tradition of Mental
Development ( D h a r a m s a l a : Library o f T i b e t a n W o r k s
a n d A r c h i v e s , 1974), p . 58.
15 It is i n t e r e s t i n g to n o t e that in a d i s c o u r s e I h e a r d , o n e
L a m a e q u a t e d sin with confusion.
16 L a m a T h u b t e n Z o p a R i n p o c h e , op. cit., p p . 84-86.
17 T e n z i n G y a t s o , op. cit., p . 46.
18 I h a v e o f t e n s e e n a n d h e a r d p s y c h i a t r i c p a t i e n t s say in
g r o u p t h e r a p y that t h e y forgot a b o u t their o w n troubles,
t h e i r o w n m i s e r a b l e lives, a s t h e y w e r e in t h e p r o c e s s
o f t r y i n g t o h e l p a n o t h e r fellow p a t i e n t .
A l s o in a n e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o j e c t I c o n d u c t e d in a
p s y c h i a t r i c clinic, s h o w i n g s h o r t art films to s c h i z o -
p h r e n i c or other severely disturbed patients, I was
i m p r e s s e d with their positive responses, the e n t h u -
s i a s m a n d i n s p i r a t i o n t h a t t h e s e films g e n e r a t e d . M a n y
p a t i e n t s told m e , e v e n m o n t h s later, that t h e w e e k l y
v i e w i n g o f t h e f i l m s h a d m a d e a significant d i f f e r e n c e
in t h e i r d u l l l i v e s , a n d s o m e f u r t h e r m o r e felt less o f a
n e e d to r e l y o n m e d i c a t i o n s .
19 L a m a T h u b t e n Z o p a R i n p o c h e , op. cit., p . 58.
20 L a m a T h u b t e n Y e s h e , " K a r m a a n d E m p t i n e s s , " in op.
cit., p . 52.
21 Skandhas in B u d d h i s t t e a c h i n g s a r e o u r a g g r e g a t e s : t h e
body, feelings, perceptions, impulses and emotions,
acts of consciousness.
22 C o n z e , op. cit., p p . 130-131.
23 The Lankavatara Sutra, translated by Daisetz Teitaro
S u z u k i ( L o n d o n : R o u t l e d g e & K e g a n P a u l , 1932), p . 67.
24 G e s h e N g a w a n g D h a r g y e y , op. cit., p . 29.
25 D a l a i L a m a , My Land and My People ( N e w Y o r k : Potala,
1962), p . 241.
26 G e s h e N g a w a n g D h a r g y e y , op. cit., p . 29.
27 M i r c e a Eliade, Yoga, Immortality and Freedom (Princeton:
P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1970), p . 202.
28 K a r l S p r i n g e r , T i b e t a n B u d d h i s m in t h e W e s t / The
Tibetan Journal, V o l . I, n o . 3-4 ( A u t u m n 1976), p . 76.
29 T h i s , o n c e a g a i n , is v e r y m u c h in t h e spirit o f B u d d h a
w h o t a u g h t different p e o p l e using different approaches,
m e t h o d s , a n d p h i l o s o p h i e s d e p e n d i n g o n their inclina-
tions, t a s t e s , t e m p e r a m e n t s , levels o f e d u c a t i o n a n d
spiritual development.
30 S . B . D a s g u p t a , An Introduction to Tantric Buddhism (Cal-
c u t t a : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l c u t t a , 1974), p . 54.
31 Ibid., p . 145.
32 L a m a Anagarika Govinda, Foundations of Tibetan
Mysticism ( L o n d o n : R i d e r & C o m p a n y , 1959), p p . 94-
96.
33 D a s g u p t a , op. cit., p . 145.
34 I b i d . , p . 146.
35 T h e V o w o f M a h a m u d r a / b y G a r m a p a R i n c h e n D o r j e ,
in C . A . M u s e s , e d . Esoteric Teachings of the Tibetan
Tantra ( N e w Y o r k : Altai P r e s s , 1961), p . 304.
36 L a m a G o v i n d a , op. cit., p . 103.
37 Idem.
38 Ibid., p . 104.
39 D a s g u p t a , op. cit., p . 188.
40 Ibid., p p . 193-194.
41 H e r b e r t G u e n t h e r , The Tantric View of Life (Boulder:
S h a m b h a l a , 1976), p . 37.
42 Q u o t e d i n ibid., p . 38.
43 D a s g u p t a , op. cit., p . 187.
44 G i u s e p p e T u c c i , The Theory of Practice of the Mandala
( N e w Y o r k : S a m u e l W e i s e r , 1970), p . 78.

CHAPTER 2

45 C . G . J u n g , Memories, Dreams, Reflections (New York:

V i n t a g e B o o k s , 1961), p p . 44-45.
46 J u n g , op. cit., p . xii.
47 Ibid., p . 222.
48 Ibid., p . 179.
49 Ibid., p . 188.
50 Ibid., p . 194.
51 Ibid., p . 195.
52 Ibid., p . 193. (Italics a d d e d )
53 Ibid., p. 196.
54 Wem.
55 Zfa'd., p . 199.
56 Idem.
57 Jbid., p . 204.
58 Idem.
59 C . G. Jung, Two Essays on Analytical Psychology
( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966), p . 220.
60 C. G . J u n g , The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious
( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1969), p . 44.
61 Ibid., p . 42.
62 Ibid., p . 43.
63 J u n g , Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, p . 66.
64 J u n g , The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious,
p . 48.
65 J u n g , Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, p . 67.
66 Ibid., p . 68.
67 Ibid., p. 238.
68 C . G. Jung, Aion (Princeton: Princeton University
P r e s s , 1959), p . 63.
69 C . G . J u n g , ' A n s w e r to J o b , ' in Psychology and Religion:
West and East ( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1969), p . 468.
70 J u n g , Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, p. 219.
71 J u n g , The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche (Prince-
t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1969), p . 90.
72 Ibid., p . 91.
73 R u s s e l l L o c k h a r t , ' E r o s in L a n g u a g e , M y t h , a n d D r e a m , '
Quadrant (Fall 1978), p . 66.
74 L e v y - B r u h l ' s t e r m describing the b a s i c nature of primi-
tive m e n t a l i t y .
75 C . G . J u n g , Psychology and Alchemy (Princeton: Prince-
t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1968), p . 34.
' O u r g o l d i s n o t t h e c o m m o n g o l d . ' It is t h e gold
within m a n - the gold within each of us.
76 Jung, Psychology and Alchemy, p. 244.
77 Ibid., p. 312.
78 Jung, Aion, p. 264.
79 C . G . Jung, Mysterium Coniunctionis (Princeton: Prince-
t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1970), p. 3.
80 Ibid., pp. 106-114.
81 Z e n koans perform such a function.
82 Quoted in R a l p h M e t z n e r , Maps of Consciousness (New
Y o r k : M a c m i l l a n P u b l i s h i n g C o . , 1971), pp. 94-95.
83 C . G . Jung, Alchemical Studies (Princeton: Princeton
University P r e s s , 1967), pp. 237-241.
84 Jung, Mysterium Coniunctionis, p. 63.
85 Ibid., pp. 534-540.
86 Ibid., pp. 554-556.
87 Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections, p. 197.
88 Jung, The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, p. 520.
89 I b i d . , pp. 525-526.
90 Ibid., pp. 421-422.
91 Jung, Mysterium Coniunctionis, p. 538.
92 Jung, Aion, p. 261.

CHAPTER 3

93 J u n g , Memories, Dreams, Reflections, p . 124.

94 J u n g , Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, p . 110.
95 C . G . J u n g , The Practice of Psychotherapy (Princeton:
P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966), p . 41.
96 C . G . J u n g , ' C o m m e n t a r y o n t h e Secret of the Golden
Flower,' in h i s Psychology and the East (Princeton:
P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1978), p . 18.
97 J u n g , The Practice of Psychotherapy, p p . 7-8.
98 J u n g , Memories, Dreams, Reflections, p . 131.
99 J u n g , ' C o m m e n t a r y o n t h e Secret of the Golden Flower,'
p p . 18-19.
100 J u n g , The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, p. 89.
101 J a n e t Dallett, 'Active Imagination in Practice,' in
M u r r a y S t e i n , e d . Jungian Analysis (La S a l l e : O p e n
C o u r t , 1982), p . 182.
102 J u n g , The Practice of Psychotherapy, p . 75.
103 Ibid., p . 46.
104 Idem.
105 C . G . J u n g , Psychology and Religion: West and East
( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1969), p . 334.
106 J u n g , Memories, Dreams, Reflections, p . 143.
107 Ibid., p . 144.
108 J u n g , The Practice of Psychotherapy, p . 71.
109 J u n g , Mysterium Coniunctionis, p. 528.
110 J u n g , Memories, Dreams, Reflections, p. 145.
1 1 1 J u n g , The Practice of Psychotherapy, p. 108.
112 Ira Progoff, T h e M a n W h o T r a n s f o r m s C o n s c i o u s n e s s , '
Eranos Jahrbuch, X X X V (1966), p p . 138-139. (Italics a d d e d )
113 Ibid., p. 139.
114 Ibid., pp. 139-140.
115 A n a g a r i k a G o v i n d a , The Psychological Attitude of Early
Buddhist Philosophy ( L o n d o n : R i d e r & C o . , 1961), p . 44.
116 Ibid., p. 39.
117 H e r b e r t G u e n t h e r a n d C h o g y a m T r u n g p a , The Dawn
of Tantra ( B o u l d e r : S h a m b h a l a , 1975), p . 52.
118 T u c c i , op. cit., p p . 72-73.
119 G u e n t h e r a n d T r u n g p a , op. cit., p. 47.
120 L a m a T h u b t e n Y e s h e , Silent Mind, Holy Mind (Ulver-
s t o n : W i s d o m C u l t u r e , 1978), p p . 34-35.
121 J u n g , The Practice of Psychotherapy, pp. 51-52.
122 G o v i n d a Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, p. 27.
123 G a m p o p a , op. cit., pp. 31-32.
124 L a m a T h u b t e n Y e s h e , T u r n i n g t h e W h e e l , ' p . 20.
125 N o t e d e l e t e d .
 CHAPTER 4

126 C . G . J u n g , Man and His Symbols ( N e w Y o r k : Dell

P u b l i s h i n g C o . , 1964), p . 88.
127 G o v i n d a , Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, p p . 91-92.
128 J u n g , The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, p. 48.
129 M i c h a e l A d a m s , ' T h e B e n z e n e U r o b o r o s , ' Spring (1981),
p p . 149-161.
130 Erich N e u m a n n , The Great Mother (Princeton: Princeton
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963), p p . 332-335.
131 G o v i n d a , Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, p . 192.
132 Ibid., p . 172.
133 C . G . J u n g , Psychological Types (Princeton: Princeton
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1971), p . 446.
134 N a t h a n Katz, ' A n i m a a n d m K h a ' - ' g r o - m a : A Critical
C o m p a r a t i v e S t u d y of J u n g a n d Tibetan B u d d h i s m , ' The
Tibetan Journal, Vol. 2, N o . 3 ( A u t u m n 1977), p p . 13-43.
135 J u n g , Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, p . 192.
136 S . K . R a m a c h a n d r a R a o , Tibetan Meditation; Theory and
Practice ( N e w D e l h i : A r n o l d - H e i n e m a n , 1979) p. 32.
137 J u n g , Aion, p . 11.
138 Ibid., p . 14.
139 J u n g , Psychology and Alchemy, p . 13.
140 J u n g , The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, p. 142.
141 E d w a r d E d i n g e r , Ego and Archetypes (New York: Pen-
g u i n B o o k s , 1972), p . 102.
142 J u n g , Psychology and Alchemy, p . 306.
143 Ibid., p . 313.
144 W . Y . E v a n s - W e n t z , e d . The Tibetan Book of the Dead
( N e w Y o r k : G a l a x y , i960), p . xxxvi.
145 F r a n c e s c a F r e m a n t l e a n d C h d g y a m T r u n g p a , The Tibetan
Book of the Dead ( B o u l d e r : S h a m b h a l a , 1975), p . i .
146 Ibid., p . 10.
147 E v a n s - W e n t z , op. cit., p . li.
148 F r e m a n t l e a n d T r u n g p a , op. cit., p p . 5-10.
149 J u n g , " C o m m e n t a r y o n t h e Secret of the Golden Flower,"
p . 30.
150 A n a g a r i k a G o v i n d a , Creative Meditation and Multi-
Dimensional Consciousness (Wheaton: Theosophical
P u b l i s h i n g H o u s e , 1976), p . 61.
151 C . G . J u n g , The Psychogenesis of Mental Disease (Prince-
t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , i960), p . 270.
152 J u n g , The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, p . 353.

CHAPTER 5

153 J u n g , The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, p . 256.

154 Ibid., p . 350.
155 J u n g , Mysterium Coniunctionis, p. 109.
156 J u n g , The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, p.
283.
157 J u n g , The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, p. 361.
158 J u n g , Aion, p. 165.
159 J u n g , The Practice of Psychotherapy, pp. 319-320.
160 J u n g , Psychological Types, pp. 449-450.
161 J u n g , Psychology and Alchemy, p. 137.
162 J u n g , Mysterium Coniunctionis, p. 197.
163 J u n g , The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, p. 349.
164 J u n g , Ibid., p. 185.
165 J u n g , The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious,
p. 279.
166 J u n g , The Practice of Psychotherapy, p. 34.
167 Ibid., p. 192.
168 G o v i n d a , Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, p p . 71-77.
169 G o v i n d a , Creative Meditation and Multi-Dimensional
Consciousness, p. 30.
170 Ibid., p . 31.
171 The Lankavatara Sutra, p. 48.
172 C. G . J u n g , Septem Sermones ad Mortuos, in his Memories,
Dreams, Reflections, p . 379.
173 P l e r o m a is t h e G r e e k w o r d for ' p l e n i t u d e . '
174 J u n g , Septem Sermones ad Mortuos, p. 379.
175 Ibid., p. 382.
176 J u n g , Memories, Dreams, Reflections, p . 269.
177 G o v i n d a , Foundations of Tibetan Mysticism, p . 77.
178 G o v i n d a , Creative Meditation and Multi-Dimensional Con-
sciousness, p . 105.
179 F r i t j o f C a p r a , The Tao of Physics (Boulder: Shambhala,
1975), P- 99.
180 Q u o t e d in B e a t r i c e S u z u k i , Impressions of Mahayana
Buddhism (Kyoto: Eastern Buddhist Society, 1940),
p . 48.
181 J u n g , The Practice of Psychotherapy, p . 312.
182 J u n g , Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, p p . 75-76.
183 Ibid., p . 75.
184 Ibid., p . 205.
185 J u n g , The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, p. 382.
186 J u n g , Psychological Types, p . 453.
187 R a m a n a n , op. cit., p . 50.
188 Ibid., p . 258.
189 Ibid., p . 329.
190 C . G . J u n g , ' F o r e w o r d to S u z u k i ' s Introduction to Zen
Buddhism,' in h i s Psychology and the East, p . 154.
191 G o v i n d a , Creative Meditation and Multi-Dimensional
Consciousness, p p . 48-49.
192 J u n g , The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche, p . 351.
193 C . G . J u n g , Letters (Princeton: Princeton University
P r e s s , 1973), V o l . 1, p . 236.
194 Ibid., V o l . 2, p . 248.
195 J u n g , Man and His Symbols, p . 81.
196 J u n g , Aion, p . 33.
197 D h a r g y e y , op. cit., p . 92.
198 J u n g , The Practice of Psychotherapy, p p . 7-8.
199 C . G . J u n g , Psychological Analysis of Nietzsche's Zara-
thustra, V o l . 3 ( W i n t e r 1935), p . 23.
200 Ibid., p . 4.
201 J u n g , Aion, p . 13.
202 G o v i n d a , Creative Meditation and Multi-Dimensional
Consciousness, p . 141.
203 M i g u e l S e r r a n o , C. G . Jung and Hermann Hesse; A
 Record of Two Friendships (New York: Schoken Books,
1966), p . 88.
204 J u n g , Letters, V o l . 2, p . 314.
205 Idem.
206 J u n g , ' C o m m e n t a r y o n The Secret of the Golden Flower,'
p . 56.
207 J u n g , Alchemical Studies p p . 59-64.
208 J u n g , The Practice of Psychotherapy, p . 81.
209 J u n g , ' P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o m m e n t a r y o n The Tibetan Book
of Great Liberation/ p . 111.
210 J u n g , ' C o m m e n t a r y o n The Secret of the Golden Flower,'
p . 13.
211 Idem.
212 J u n g , ' P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o m m e n t a r y o n The Tibetan Book
of Great Liberation,' p . 134.
213 J u n g , Psychology and Alchemy, p p . 99-101.
214 J u n g , ' P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o m m e n t a r y o n The Tibetan Book
of Great Liberation,' p. 120.
215 Ibid., p . 125.
216 Ibid., p p . 132-133.
217 Ira P r o g o f f , The Cloud of Unknowing ( N e w Y o r k : Dell
P u b l i s h i n g C o . , 1957), p p . 23-38.
218 E l a i n e P a g e l s , The Gnostic Gospel (New York: Vintage
B o o k s , 1979), p p . x x - x x i .
219 Ibid., pp. 149-161.
220 Q u o t e d in P a g e l s , op. cit., p . 161. (Italics a d d e d ) .
221 Q u o t e d in P a g e l s , op. cit., p. 155.
222 J u n g , ' P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o m m e n t a r y o n The Tibetan Book
of Great Liberation,' p. 112.
223 J u n g , The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious,
p . 224.
224 G u e n t h e r a n d T r u n g p a , op. cit., p . 89.
225 Erich N e u m a n n , The Origins and History of Consciousness
( P r i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1954), p . 322.
226 G e s h e R a b t e n a n d G e s h e N g a w a n g D h a r g y e y , Advice
from A Spiritual Friend (London: W i s d o m Publications,
1984), p . 65.
227 Ibid., p p . 65-66.
228 J u n g , The Undiscovered Self (New York: The New
A m e r i c a n L i b r a r y , 1959), p . 123.
229 J u n g , Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, p . 226.
230 J u n g , The Undiscovered Self, p p . 117-118.
231 J u n g , ' P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o m m e n t a r y o n The Tibetan Book
of Great Liberation,' p . 135.
Glossary

BUDDHISM

U n l e s s i n d i c a t e d o t h e r w i s e , all w o r d s a r e S a n s k r i t .
alaya-vijnana ' s t o r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s , ' t h e s o u r c e o f all c o n -
s c i o u s n e s s in a p e r s o n , a c c o r d i n g to the Cittamatra school
of Buddhist tenets
Arhat o n e w h o h a s attained c o m p l e t e liberation from suffer-
ing, has attained nirvana
Avalokiteshvara the Buddha of compassion
bardo t h e s t a t e b e t w e e n d e a t h a n d rebirth
bodhicitta t h e e n l i g h t e n e d m o t i v e or a t t i t u d e p o s s e s s e d b y
B o d h i s a t t v a s : t h e d e s i r e to b e c o m e a B u d d h a in o r d e r to
b e n e f i t all b e i n g s
Bodhisattva an enlightenment-bound being
Buddha a fully e n l i g h t e n e d b e i n g ; o n e w h o h a s o v e r c o m e
all n e g a t i v i t i e s a n d c o m p l e t e d all g o o d qualities
dakini ( T i b e t a n : khadoma) a s y m b o l i c b e i n g in female form,
w h o e m b o d i e s b l i s s a n d w i s d o m a n d acts as a spiritual
helper
Dharma spiritual t e a c h i n g s ; t h e d o c t r i n e of t h e B u d d h a ;
universal law
enlightenment t h e s t a t e o f b e i n g a B u d d h a , w h e n all duality
is t r a n s c e n d e d i n t o a b s o l u t e u n i t y ; t h e eradication o f all
n e g a t i v e s t a t e s o f m i n d a n d a c c u m u l a t i o n of all positive
qualities
Hinayana early school of Buddhism, southern Buddhism,
o f w h i c h T h e r a v a d a is t h e o n l y s u r v i v i n g s y s t e m
karma t h e l a w o f c a u s e a n d effect; t h e c o n s q u e n c e s of o u r
120 Glossary

t h o u g h t s , s p e e c h a n d a c t i o n s in this a n d f u t u r e lives
karuna compassion
Mahayana later schools of B u d d h i s m ; northern Buddhism
Manjushri the Buddha of wisdom
mantra sacred word, auditory symbol
mudra ritual s y m b o l i c g e s t u r e
nirvana the state b e y o n d suffering; freedom from karma
a n d d e l u s i o n a n d r e p e a t e d rebirth in s a m s a r a
padma l o t u s b l o s s o m ; t h e s y m b o l o f spiritual u n f o l d m e n t
prajna s u p r e m e k n o w l e d g e a n d intuitive, liberating wisdom;
female principle
sadhana spiritual exercise
samadhi a d e e p state o f u n d i s t u r b e d s i n g l e - p o i n t e d c o n c e n -
tration
samsara cyclic e x i s t e n c e o f c o n t i n u o u s , u n c o n t r o l l e d rebirth
i n t o t h e v a r i o u s r e a l m s o f e x i s t e n c e ; cycle o f c o n t i n u o u s
mental a n d physical suffering
satori ( J a p a n e s e ) in Z e n B u d d h i s m a n o t h e r n a m e for e n -
lightenment
skandhas a h u m a n b e i n g ' s aggregates: body, feelings, per-
c e p t i o n s , i m p u l s e s a n d e m o t i o n s , acts o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s
sunyata e m p t i n e s s , v o i d n e s s ; all p h e n o m e n a a r e said to b e
e m p t y o f i n h e r e n t e x i s t e n c e , o r e x i s t e n c e f r o m their o w n
s i d e ; t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f all p h e n o m e n a
Tantra t h e e s o t e r i c t e a c h i n g s o f B u d d h a that l e a d quickly to
e n l i g h t e n m e n t ; t h e m e t h o d s a n d p r a c t i c e s *for quickly
attaining enlightenment; Vajrayana
Tao (Chinese) eternal way of the cosmic order
Tar a a f e m i n i n e a s p e c t o f B u d d h a m i n d
thangka (Tibetan) religious painting usually executed on
c l o t h a n d f r a m e d in b r o c a d e
up ay a m e t h o d ; m a l e p r i n c i p l e
vajra (Tibetan: dorje) d i a m o n d , a d a m a n t i n e sceptre, symbol
o f i n d e s t r u c t i b i l i t y ; t h e m a l e p r i n c i p l e o f action
Vajrayana t h e ' d i a m o n d v e h i c l e ' to e n l i g h t e n m e n t , part of
the M a h a y a n a ; Tantric school of Buddhism
Vajra Yogini a d a k i n i o f t h e h i g h e s t r a n k , d e p i c t e d in bril-
 liant r e d c o l o u r a n d s u r r o u n d e d b y a h a l o o f flames
yidam ( T i b e t a n ) a m a l e o r f e m a l e deity, or B u d d h a , i n v o k e d
in c e r t a i n T a n t r i c m e d i t a t i o n p r a c t i c e s

JUNG

anima the female aspect of the male psyche

anima mundi the Soul of the World
archetypes c o n t e n t s o f t h e collective u n c o n s c i o u s ; p r i m o r -
dial i m a g e s , a n d patterns of symbol formation which
recur throughout mankind
collective unconscious the portion of the psyche w h o s e un-
c o n s c i o u s c o n t e n t s a r e h e r e d i t a r y a n d b e l o n g i n g to m a n -
k i n d in g e n e r a l ; b y c o n t r a s t t h e p e r s o n a l u n c o n s c i o u s
c o m p r i s e s personal experiences that have been repressed
and forgotten
ego a c o m p l e x o f i d e a s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e s t h e c e n t e r of o n e ' s
f i e l d o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d a p p e a r s to p o s s e s s a h i g h
d e g r e e of continuity a n d identity
eros the principle of relatedness
individuation the process of the integration of the person-
ality; the q u e s t for m e a n i n g
mandala a S a n s k r i t w o r d for circle; a p a t t e r n o f s y m b o l i c
s q u a r e s a n d circles
Philemon J u n g ' s p h a n t a s y image of an old m a n w h o m h e
called P h i l e m o n , a n d w h o represented superior insight;
t o J u n g h e w a s like a g u r u
pleroma a G r e e k w o r d for plenitude
psyche t h e totality o f all p s y c h i c p r o c e s s e s , c o n s c i o u s a n d
unconscious
Self t h e c e n t e r o f p e r s o n a l i t y , t h e s y m b o l o f w h o l e n e s s , the
p r i n c i p l e o f o r i e n t a t i o n a n d m e a n i n g ; t h e c u l m i n a t i o n of
the psychic development
synchronicity acausal connecting principle; a meaningful
c o i n c i d e n c e w h e n a n i n n e r a n d outer e v e n t c o m e together
transcendent function t h e transformation o f personality aris-
ing from the union of conscious and unconscious contents
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 i

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Wisdom East-West Books: Grey Series

This new series of titles reflects the heartfelt
desire current in the West to build bridges
between the great philosophies and religions of
the world and to explore the universality of their
methods and ideas.

Wisdom Tibet Books: Yellow Series

There is growing worldwide interest in the Dalai
Lama and Tibet. In this new series we will
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both before and after the Chinese conquest of
1959 of this remarkable Buddhist country.

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 A Wisdom East-West Book Grey Series

In Jung's Psychology and Tibetan Buddhism

Radmila Moacanin reconciles an ancient
Eastern spiritual discipline with a
contemporary Western pyschological system.
She touches on many of their major
ideas and methods and finds that, although
there are fundamental differences, both are vitally
concerned with what Jung called "the tremendous
experiment of becoming conscious,"
successfully bridging the gap between
our deepest yearnings for spiritual fulfilment
and the demands of our mundane life.
Indeed, Western and Eastern paths to the heart...

ISBN 0-flhl71-DM2-fl

ll ll 11
9 780861 710423
Wisdom Publications London