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    Dhiman Nath
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    History of English Literature English Literature is one of richest literatures of the world. Being the literature of a great nation which, though inhabiting a small island off the west coast of Europe, has made its mark in the world on account of her spirit of adventure, perseverance and tenacity, it reflects these characteristics of a great people. It has vitality, rich variety and continuity. As literature is the reflection of society, the various changes which have come about in English society, from the earliest to the modern time, have left their stamp on English literature. Thus in order to appreciate properly the various phases of English literature, knowledge of English Social and Political History is essential. For example, we cannot form a just estimate of Chaucer without taking into account the characteristics of the period in which he was living, or of Shakespeare without taking proper notice of the great events which were taking place during the reign of Elizabeth. The same is the case with other great figures and important movements in English literature. When we study the history of English literature from the earliest to modern times, we find that it has passed through certain definite phases, each having marked characteristics. These phases may be termed as ‘Ages’ or ‘Periods’, which are named after the central literary figures or the important rulers of England. Thus we have the ‘Ages’ of Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton, Dryden, Pope, Johnson. Wordsworth, Tennyson, Hardy; and, on the other hand, the Elizabethan Age, the Jacobean Period, the Age of Queen Anne, the Victorian Age, the Georgian Period. Some of these phases are named after certain literary movements, as the Classical Age, the Romantic Age; while others after certain important historial eras, as the Medieval Period, AngloSaxon Period, AngloNorman Period. These literary phases are also named by some literary historians after the centuries, as the Seventeenth Century Literature, Eighteenth Century Literature, NineteenthCentury Literature and Twentieth Century Literature. These ‘Ages’ and ‘Periods’ naturally overlap each other, and they are not to be followed strictly, but it is essential to keep them in mind in order to follow the growth of English literature, and its salient and distinctive characteristics during the various periods of its development.

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    History of English Literature English Literature is one of richest literatures of the world. Being the literature of a great nation which, though inhabiting a small island off the west coast of Europe, has made its mark in the world on account of her spirit of adventure, perseverance and tenacity, it reflects these characteristics of a great people. It has vitality, rich variety and continuity. As literature is the reflection of society, the various changes which have come about in English society, from the earliest to the modern time, have left their stamp on English literature. Thus in order to appreciate properly the various phases of English literature, knowledge of English Social and Political History is essential. For example, we cannot form a just estimate of Chaucer without taking into account the characteristics of the period in which he was living, or of Shakespeare without taking proper notice of the great events which were taking place during the reign of Elizabeth. The same is the case with other great figures and important movements in English literature. When we study the history of English literature from the earliest to modern times, we find that it has passed through certain definite phases, each having marked characteristics. These phases may be termed as ‘Ages’ or ‘Periods’, which are named after the central literary figures or the important rulers of England. Thus we have the ‘Ages’ of Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton, Dryden, Pope, Johnson. Wordsworth, Tennyson, Hardy; and, on the other hand, the Elizabethan Age, the Jacobean Period, the Age of Queen Anne, the Victorian Age, the Georgian Period. Some of these phases are named after certain literary movements, as the Classical Age, the Romantic Age; while others after certain important historial eras, as the Medieval Period, AngloSaxon Period, AngloNorman Period. These literary phases are also named by some literary historians after the centuries, as the Seventeenth Century Literature, Eighteenth Century Literature, NineteenthCentury Literature and Twentieth Century Literature. These ‘Ages’ and ‘Periods’ naturally overlap each other, and they are not to be followed strictly, but it is essential to keep them in mind in order to follow the growth of English literature, and its salient and distinctive characteristics during the various periods of its development.

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    A Comprehensive History of English Literature

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    Dhiman Nath
    History of English Literature English Literature is one of richest literatures of the world. Being the literature of a great nation which, though inhabiting a small island off the west coast of Europe, has made its mark in the world on account of her spirit of adventure, perseverance and tenacity, it reflects these characteristics of a great people. It has vitality, rich variety and continuity. As literature is the reflection of society, the various changes which have come about in English society, from the earliest to the modern time, have left their stamp on English literature. Thus in order to appreciate properly the various phases of English literature, knowledge of English Social and Political History is essential. For example, we cannot form a just estimate of Chaucer without taking into account the characteristics of the period in which he was living, or of Shakespeare without taking proper notice of the great events which were taking place during the reign of Elizabeth. The same is the case with other great figures and important movements in English literature. When we study the history of English literature from the earliest to modern times, we find that it has passed through certain definite phases, each having marked characteristics. These phases may be termed as ‘Ages’ or ‘Periods’, which are named after the central literary figures or the important rulers of England. Thus we have the ‘Ages’ of Chaucer, Shakespeare, Milton, Dryden, Pope, Johnson. Wordsworth, Tennyson, Hardy; and, on the other hand, the Elizabethan Age, the Jacobean Period, the Age of Queen Anne, the Victorian Age, the Georgian Period. Some of these phases are named after certain literary movements, as the Classical Age, the Romantic Age; while others after certain important historial eras, as the Medieval Period, AngloSaxon Period, AngloNorman Period. These literary phases are also named by some literary historians after the centuries, as the Seventeenth Century Literature, Eighteenth Century Literature, NineteenthCentury Literature and Twentieth Century Literature. These ‘Ages’ and ‘Periods’ naturally overlap each other, and they are not to be followed strictly, but it is essential to keep them in mind in order to follow the growth of English literature, and its salient and distinctive characteristics during the various periods of its development.

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    AComprehensiveHistoryofEnglishLiterature

    EnglishLiterature:ItsBackgroundandDevelopment

    Introduction
    EnglishLiteratureisoneofrichestliteraturesoftheworld.Beingtheliteratureofagreatnationwhich,
    thoughinhabitingasmallislandoffthewestcoastofEurope,hasmadeitsmarkintheworldonaccountof
    herspiritofadventure,perseveranceandtenacity,itreflectsthesecharacteristicsofagreatpeople.
    Ithasvitality,richvarietyandcontinuity.Asliteratureisthereflectionofsociety,thevariouschanges
    whichhavecomeaboutinEnglishsociety,fromtheearliesttothemoderntime,havelefttheirstampon
    Englishliterature.ThusinordertoappreciateproperlythevariousphasesofEnglishliterature,knowledge
    ofEnglishSocialandPoliticalHistoryisessential.Forexample,wecannotformajustestimateofChaucer
    withouttakingintoaccountthecharacteristicsoftheperiodinwhichhewasliving,orofShakespeare
    withouttakingpropernoticeofthegreateventswhichweretakingplaceduringthereignofElizabeth.The
    sameisthecasewithothergreatfiguresandimportantmovementsinEnglishliterature.
    WhenwestudythehistoryofEnglishliteraturefromtheearliesttomoderntimes,wefindthatithaspassed
    throughcertaindefinitephases,eachhavingmarkedcharacteristics.ThesephasesmaybetermedasAges
    orPeriods,whicharenamedafterthecentralliteraryfiguresortheimportantrulersofEngland.Thuswe
    havetheAgesofChaucer,Shakespeare,Milton,Dryden,Pope,Johnson.Wordsworth,Tennyson,Hardy
    and,ontheotherhand,theElizabethanAge,theJacobeanPeriod,theAgeofQueenAnne,theVictorian
    Age,theGeorgianPeriod.Someofthesephasesarenamedaftercertainliterarymovements,asthe
    ClassicalAge,theRomanticAgewhileothersaftercertainimportanthistorialeras,astheMedieval
    Period,AngloSaxonPeriod,AngloNormanPeriod.Theseliteraryphasesarealsonamedbysomeliterary
    historiansafterthecenturies,astheSeventeenthCenturyLiterature,EighteenthCenturyLiterature,
    NineteenthCenturyLiteratureandTwentiethCenturyLiterature.TheseAgesandPeriodsnaturally
    overlapeachother,andtheyarenottobefollowedstrictly,butitisessentialtokeeptheminmindinorder
    tofollowthegrowthofEnglishliterature,anditssalientanddistinctivecharacteristicsduringthevarious
    periodsofitsdevelopment.

    NowletushaveacriticalsurveyofthebackgroundanddevelopmentofEnglishliteraturefromtheearliest
    timesuptothepresentage.

    TheAngloSaxonOrOldEnglishPeriod(6701100)

    TheearliestphaseofEnglishliteraturestartedwithAngloSaxonliteratureoftheAnglesandSaxons(the
    ancestorsoftheEnglishrace)muchbeforetheyoccupiedBritain.Englishwasthecommonnameand
    tongueofthesetribes.BeforetheyoccupiedBritaintheylivedalongthecoastsofSwedenandDenmark,
    andthelandwhichtheyoccupiedwascalledEngleland.Thesetribeswerefearless,adventurousandbrave,
    andduringthelateryearsofRomanoccupationofBritain,theykepttheBritishcoastinterror.Likeother
    nationstheysangattheirfeastsaboutbattles,godsandtheirancestralheroes,andsomeoftheirchiefswere
    alsobards.Itwasinthesesongsofreligion,warsandagriculture,thatEnglishpoetrybeganintheancient
    EnglelandwhileBritainwasstillaRomanprovince.

    ThoughmuchofthisAngloSaxonpoetryislost,therearestillsomefragmentsleft.Forexample,Widsith
    describescontinentalcourtsvisitedinimaginationbyafarwanderingpoetWaldheretellshowWalterof
    AquitainewithstoodahostoffoesinthepassesoftheVosgesthesplendidfragmentcalledTheFightat
    FinnesburgdealswiththesamefavouritethemeofbattleagainstfearfuloddsandComplaintofDeor
    describesthedisappointmentofalover.ThemostimportantpoemofthisperiodisBeowulf.Itisataleof
    adventuresofBeowulf,thehero,whoisanchampionanslayerofmonsterstheincidentsinitaresuchas
    maybefoundinhundredsofotherstories,butwhatmakesitreallyinterestinganddifferentfromlater
    romances,isthatisfullofallsortsofreferencesandallusionstogreatevents,tothefortunesofkingsand
    nations.Thereisthusanhistoricalbackground.

    AftertheAngloSaxonsembracedChristianity,thepoetstookupreligiousthemesasthesubjectmatterof
    theirpoetry.Infact,amajorportionofAngloSaxonpoetryisreligious.Thetwoimportantreligiouspoets
    oftheAngloSaxonperiodwereCaedmonandCynewulf.Caedmonsanginseriesthewholestoryofthe
    fateofman,fromtheCreationandtheFalltotheRedemptionandtheLastJudgment,andwithinthislarge
    framework,theScripturehistory.CynewulfsmostimportantpoemistheCrist,ametricalnarrativeof
    leadingeventsofChristsministryuponearth,includinghisreturntojudgment,whichistreatedwithmuch
    grandeur.

    AngloSaxonpoetryismarkedlydifferentfromthepoetryofthenextperiodMiddleEnglishorAnglo
    Normanperiodforitdealswiththetraditionsofanolderworld,andexpressesanothertemperamentand
    wayoflivingitbreathestheinfluenceofthewindandstorm.Itisthepoetryofasternandpassionate
    people,concernedwiththeprimalthingsoflife,moody,melancholyandfierce,yetwithgreatcapacityfor
    enduranceandfidelity.

    TheAngloSaxonperiodwasalsomarkedbythebeginningofEnglishprose.ThroughtheChronicles,
    whichprobablybeganinKingAlfredstime,andthroughAlfredstranslationsfromtheLatinacommon
    availableprosewasestablished,whichhadallsortsofpossibilitiesinit.Infact,unlikepoetry,therewasno
    breakinproseofAngloSaxonperiodandtheMiddleEnglishperiod,andeventhelaterproseinEngland
    wascontinuationofAngloSaxonprose.ThetendencyoftheAngloSaxonproseistowardsobservanceof
    therulesofordinaryspeech,thatiswhy,thoughonehastomakeaconsiderableeffortinordertoreadverse
    oftheAngloSaxons,itiscomparativelyeasytounderstandtheirprose.ThegreatsuccessofAngloSaxon
    proseisinreligiousinstructions,andthetwogreatpioneersofEnglishprosewereAlfredtheGreat,the
    gloriouskingofWessex,whotranslatedanumberofLatinChroniclesinEnglish,andAelfric,apriest,who
    wrotesermonsinasortofpoeticprose.

    TheAnglesandSaxonsfirstlandedinEnglandinthemiddleofthefifthcentury,andby670A.D.theyhad
    occupiedalmostthewholeofthecountry.UnliketheRomanswhocameasconquerors,thesetribessettled
    inEnglandandmadehertheirpermanenthome.Theybecame,therefore,theancestorsoftheEnglishrace.
    TheAngloSaxonkings,ofwhomAlfredtheGreatwasthemostprominent,ruledtill1066,whenHarold,
    thelastofSaxonkings,wasdefeatedattheBattleofHastingsbyWilliamtheConquerorofNormandy,
    France.TheAngloSaxonorOldEnglishPeriodinEnglishliterature,therefore,extendsroughlyfrom670
    A.D.to1100A.D.

    AsithasbeenmadeclearintheFirstPartofthisbookthattheliteratureofanycountryinanyperiodisthe
    reflectionofthelifelivedbythepeopleofthatcountryinthatparticularperiod,wefindthatthisappliesto
    theliteratureofthisperiod.TheAnglesandSaxonscombinedinthemselvesopposingtraitsofcharacter
    savageryandsentiment,roughlivinganddeepfeeling,splendidcourageanddeepmelancholyresulting
    fromthinkingabouttheunansweredproblemofdeath.Thustheylivedarichexternalaswellasinternal
    life,anditisespeciallythelatterwhichisthebasisoftheirrichliterature.Tothesebraveandfearless
    fighters,loveofuntarnishedglory,andhappydomesticlifeandvirtues,madegreatappeal.Theyfollowed
    intheirlifefivegreatprinciplesloveofpersonalfreedom,responsivenesstonature,religion,lovefor
    womanhood,andstruggleforglory.Alltheseprinciplesarereflectedintheirliterature.Theywerefullof
    emotionsandaspirations,andlovedmusicandsongs.ThuswereadinBeowulf:
    Musicandsongwheretheheroessat
    Thegleewoodrang,asonguprose

    WhenHrothgarsscopgavethehallgoodcheer.

    TheAngloSaxonlanguageisonlyabranchofthegreatAryanorIndoEuropeanfamilyoflanguages.It
    hasthesamerootwordsforfatherandmother,forGodandman,forthecommonneedsandthecommon
    relationsoflife,aswefindinSanskrit,Iranian,GreekandLatin.AnditisthisoldvigorousAngloSaxon
    languagewhichformsthebasisofmodernEnglish.

    MiddleEnglishOrAngloNormanPeriod(11001500)

    TheNormans,whowereresidinginNormandy(France)defeatedtheAngloSaxonKingattheBattleof
    Hastings(1066)andconqueredEngland.

    TheNormanConquestinauguratedadistinctlynewepochintheliteraryaswellaspoliticalhistoryof
    England.TheAngloSaxonauthorswerethenassuddenlyandpermanentlydisplacedastheAngloSaxon
    king.

    TheliteratureafterwardsreadandwrittenbyEnglishmenwastherebyascompletelytransformedasthe
    sentimentsandtastesofEnglishrulers.TheforeigntypesofliteratureintroducedaftertheNorman
    Conquestfirstfoundfavourwiththemonarchsandcourtiers,andweredeliberatelyfosteredbythem,tothe
    disregardofnativeforms.NoeffectiveprotestwaspossiblebytheAngloSaxons,andEnglishthoughtfor
    centuriestocomewaslargelyfashionedinthemanneroftheFrench.Throughoutthewholeperiod,which
    wecalltheMiddleEnglishperiod(asbelongingtotheMiddleAgesorMedievaltimesintheHistoryof
    Britain)ortheAngloNormanperiod,informsofartisticexpressionaswellasofreligiousservice,the
    EnglishopenlyacknowledgedaLatincontrol.

    ItistruethatbeforetheNormanConquesttheAngloSaxonshadabodyofnativeliteraturedistinctly
    superiortoanyEuropeanvernacular.ButonecannotdenythattheNormanscametotheirlandwhenthey
    greatlyneededanexternalstimulus.TheConquesteffectedawholesomeawakeningofnationallife.The
    peopleweresuddenlyinspiredbyanewvisionofagreaterfuture.Theybecameunitedinacommonhope.
    IncourseoftimetheAngloSaxonslosttheirinitialhostilitytothenewcomers,andallbecamepartand
    parcelofonenation.TheNormansnotonlybroughtwiththemsoldiersandartisansandtraders,theyalso
    importedscholarstoreviveknowledge,chroniclerstorecordmemorableevents,minstrelstocelebrate
    victories,orsingofadventureandlove.

    ThegreatdifferencebetweenthetwoperiodsAngloSaxonperiodandAngloNormanperiod,ismarked
    bythedisappearanceoftheoldEnglishpoetry.ThereisnothingduringtheAngloNormanperiodlike
    BeowulforFalloftheAngels.ThelaterreligiouspoetryhaslittleinittorecallthefinishedartofCynewulf.
    AngloSaxonpoetry,whetherderivedfromheathendomorfromtheChurch,hasideasandmannersofits
    ownitcomestoperfection,andthenitdiesaway.ItseemsthatAngloSaxonpoetrygrowstorichmaturity,
    andthendisappears,aswiththenewformsoflanguageandundernewinfluences,thepoeticaleducation
    startedagain,andsothepoetryoftheAngloNormanperiodhasnothingincommontheAngloSaxon
    poetry.

    Themostobviouschangeinliteraryexpressionappearsinthevehicleemployed.ForcenturiesLatinhad
    beenmoreorlessspokenorwrittenbytheclergyinEngland.TheConquestwhichledtothereinvigoration
    ofthemonasteriesandthetighteningofthetieswithRome,determineditsmoreextensiveuse.Stillmore
    important,asaresultofforeignsentimentincourtandcastle,itcausedwritingsintheEnglishvernacularto
    bedisregarded,andestablishedFrenchasthenaturalspeechofthecultivatedandthehighborn.Theclergy
    insistedontheuseofLatin,thenobilityontheuseofFrenchnooneofinfluencesawtheutilityofEnglish
    asameansofperpetuatingthought,andfornearlythreecenturiesveryfewworksappearedinthenative
    tongue.

    InspiteoftheEnglishlanguagehavingbeenthrownintothebackground,someworkswerecomposedinit,
    thoughtheyechoedinthemainthesentimentsandtastesoftheFrenchwriters,asFrenchthenwasthe
    supremearbiterofEuropeanliterarystyle.Anotherstrikingcharacteristicofmedievalliteratureisits
    generalanonymity.Ofthemanywhowrotethenamesofbutfewarerecorded,andofthehistoryofthese
    fewwehaveonlythemostmeagredetails.Itwasbecauseoriginalitywasdeploredasafault,and
    independenceoftreatmentwasaheinousoffenceintheireyes.
    (a)TheRomances

    ThemostpopularformofliteratureduringtheMiddleEnglishperiodwastheromances.Noliterary
    productionsoftheMiddleAgesaresocharacteristic,nonesoperenniallyattractiveasthosethattreat
    romanticallyofheroesandheroinesofbygonedays.Theseromancesarenotablefortheirstoriesrather
    thantheirpoetry,andthey,likethedramaafterwards,furnishedthechiefmentalrecreationoftimeforthe
    greatbodyofthepeople.TheseromancesweremostlyborrowedfromLatinandFrenchsources.Theydeal
    withthestoriesofKingArthur,TheWarofTroy,themythicaldoingsofCharlemagneandofAlexander
    theGreat.

    (b)TheMiracleandMoralityPlays

    IntheMiddleEnglishperiodMiracleplaysbecameverypopular.Fromthegrowthanddevelopmentofthe
    Biblestory,scenebyscene,carriedtoitslogicalconclusion,thisdramadevelopedtoanenormouscycle
    ofsacredhistory,beginningwiththecreationofman,hisfallandbanishmentfromtheGardenofEdenand
    extendingthroughthemoreimportantmattersoftheOldTestamentandlifeofChristintheNewtothe
    summoningofthequickandthedeadonthedayoffinaljudgment.Thiskindofdramaiscalledthemiracle
    playsometimeslesscorrectlythemysteryplayanditflourishedthroughoutEnglandfromthereignof
    HenryIItothatofElizabeth(11541603).

    AnotherformofdramawhichflourishedduringtheMiddleAgeswastheMoralityplays.Intheseplaysthe
    uniformthemeisthestrugglebetweenthepowersofgoodandevilforthemasteryofthesoulofman.The
    personageswereabstractvirtues,orvices,eachactingandspeakinginaccordancewithhisnameandthe
    plotwasbuiltupontheircontrastsandinfluencesonhumannature,withtheintenttoteachrightlivingand
    upholdreligion.Inaword,allegoryisthedistinguishingmarkofthemoralplays.Inthesemoralplaysthe
    protagonistisalwaysanabstractionheisMankind,theHumanRace,thePrideofLife,andthereisan
    attempttocompassthewholescopeofmansexperienceandtemptationsinlife,astherehadbeena
    correspondingeffortintheMiracleplaystoembracethecompleterangeofsacredhistory,thelifeofChrist,
    andtheredemptionoftheworld.
    (c)WilliamLangland(1332?...?)

    OneofthegreatestpoetsoftheMiddleAgeswasWilliamLangland,andhispoem,AVisionofPiersthe
    PlowmanholdsanimportantplaceinEnglishliterature.Inspiteofitsarchaicstyle,itisaclassicworkin
    Englishliterature.Thispoem,whichisasatireonthecorruptreligiouspractices,throwslightontheethical
    problemsoftheday.ThecharacterassumedbyLanglandisthatoftheprophet,denouncingthesinsof
    societyandencouragingmentoaspiretoahigherlife.Herepresentsthedissatisfactionofthelowerandthe
    morethinkingclassesofEnglishsociety,asChaucerrepresentsthecontentofthearistocracyandthe
    prosperousmiddleclass.AlthoughLanglandisessentiallyasatiricpoet,hehasdecidedviewsonpolitical
    andsocialquestions.Thefeudalsystemishisidealhedesiresnochangeintheinstitutionofhisdays,and
    hethinksthatallwouldbewellifthedifferentordersofsocietywoulddotheirduty.LikeDanteand
    Bunyan,heennobleshissatirebyarrayingitinagarbofallegoryandheisintenselyreal.
    (d)JohnGower(1325?1408)

    GoweroccupiesanimportantplaceinthedevelopmentofEnglishpoetry.ThoughitwasChaucerwho
    playedthemostimportantroleinthisdirection,Gowerscontributioncannotbeignored.Gowerrepresents
    theEnglishculminationofthatcourtlymedievalpoetrywhichhaditsriseinFrancetwoorthreehundred
    yearsbefore.Heisagreatstylist,andheprovedthatEnglishmightcompetewiththeotherlanguages
    whichhadmostdistinguishedthemselvesinpoetry.Gowerismainlyanarrativepoetandhismost
    importantworkisConfessionAmantis,whichisintheformofconversationbetweenthepoetandadivine
    interpreter.Itisanencyclopaediaoftheartoflove,andsatirisesthevanitiesofthecurrenttime.
    ThroughoutthecollectionofstorieswhichformsthemajorportionofConfessionAmantis,Gowerpresents
    himselfasamoralist.ThoughGowerwasinferiortoChaucer,itissufficientthattheywerecertainlyfellow
    pioneers,fellowschoolmasters,inthetaskofbringingEnglandtoliterature.Uptotheirtime,theliterary
    productionofEnglandhadbeenexceedinglyrudimentaryandlimited.Gower,likeChaucer,performedthe
    functionofestablishingtheformofEnglishasathoroughlyequippedmediumofliterature.

    (e)Chaucer(1340?...1400)

    Itwas,infact,ChaucerwhowastherealfounderofEnglishpoetry,andheisrightlycalledtheFatherof
    EnglishPoetry.Unlikethepoetryofhispredecessorsandcontemporaries,whichisreadbyfewexcept
    professedscholars,Chaucerspoetryhasbeenreadandenjoyedcontinuouslyfromhisowndaytothis,and
    thegreatestofhissuccessors,fromSpenserandMiltontoTennysonandWilliamMorris,havejoinedin
    praisingit.Chaucer,infact,madeafreshbeginninginEnglishliterature.Hedisregardedaltogethertheold
    Englishtradition.Hiseducationasapoetwastwofold.PartofitcamefromFrenchandItalianliteratures,
    butpartofitcamefromlife.Hewasnotamerebookman,norwasheintheleastavisionary.Like
    ShakespeareandMilton,hewas,onthecontrary,amanoftheworldandofaffairs.

    ThemostfamousandcharacteristicworkofChauceristheCanterburyTales,whichisacollectionof
    storiesrelatedbythepilgrimsontheirwaytotheshrineofThomasBecketatCanterbury.Thesepilgrims
    representdifferentsectionsofcontemporaryEnglishsociety,andinthedescriptionofthemostprominent
    ofthesepeopleinthePrologueChaucerspowersareshownattheirveryhighest.Allthesecharactersare
    individualized,yettheirthoroughlytypicalqualitygivesuniquevaluetoChaucerspictureofmenand
    mannersintheEnglandofhistime.

    TheCanterburyTalesisalandmarkinthehistoryofEnglishpoetrybecausehereChaucerenrichedthe
    Englishlanguageandmetretosuchanextent,thatnowitcouldbeconvenientlyusedforanypurpose.
    Moreover,byintroducingavarietyofhighlyfinishedcharactersintoasingleaction,andengagingthemin
    ananimateddialogue,Chaucerfulfilledeveryrequirementofthedramatist,shortofbringinghisplayson
    thestage.Also,bydrawingfinishedandvariousportraitsinverse,heshowedthewaytothenoveliststo
    portraycharacters.

    Chaucersworksfallintothreeperiods.DuringthefirstperiodheimitatedFrenchmodels,particularlythe
    famousandverylongpoemLeRomandelaRoseofwhichhemadeatranslationRomauntoftheRose.
    ThispoemwhichgivesanintimateintroductiontothemedievalFrenchromancesandallegoriesofcourtly
    love,istheembryooutofwhichallChaucerspoetrygrows.DuringthisperiodhealsowrotetheBookof
    theDuchess,anelegy,whichinitsformandnatureisliketheRomauntoftheRoseComplaintuntoPity,a
    shorterpoemandABC,aseriesofstanzasreligiousintone,inwhicheachopenswithaletterofthe
    alphabetinorder.

    Thepoemsofthesecondperiod(137384)showtheinfluenceofItalianliterature,especiallyofDantes
    DivineComedyandBoccacciospoems.InthisperiodhewroteTheParliamentofFowls,whichcontains
    verydramaticandsatiricdialoguesbetweentheassembledbirdsTroilusandCriseyde,whichnarratesthe
    storyoftheTrojanprinceTroilusandhisloveforadamsel,CreseidaTheStoryofGriselda,inwhichis
    givenapitifulpictureofwomanhoodandTheHouseofFame,whichisamasterpieceofcomicfantasy,
    withagraverundertoneofcontemplationofhumanfolly.

    Chaucersthirdperiod(138490)maybecalledtheEnglishperiod,becauseinithethrewoffforeign
    influencesandshowednativeoriginality.IntheLegendofGoodWomanheemployedforthefirsttimethe
    heroiccouplet.ItwasduringthisperiodthathewroteTheCanterburyTales,hisgreatestpoetic
    achievement,whichplacesusintheheartofLondon.Herewefindhisgentle,kindlyhumour,whichis
    Chaucersgreatestquality,atitsverybest.

    ChaucersimportanceinthedevelopmentofEnglishliteratureisverygreatbecauseheremovedpoetry
    fromtheregionofMetaphysicsandTheology,andmadeitholdastwerethemirroruptonature.Hethus
    broughtbacktheoldclassicalprincipleofthedirectimitationofnature.
    (f)ChaucersSuccessors

    AfterChaucertherewasadeclineinEnglishpoetryforaboutonehundredyears.Theyearsfrom1400to
    theRenaissancewereaperiodbereftofliterature.Therewereonlyafewminorpoets,theimitatorsand
    successorsofChaucer,whoarecalledtheEnglishandScottishChaucerianswhowroteduringthisperiod.
    Themaincauseofthedeclineofliteratureduringthisperiodwasthatnowriterofgeniuswasbornduring
    thoselongyears.ChaucerssuccessorswereOccieeve,Lydgate,Hawes,SkeltonHenryson,Dunbarand
    Douglas.Theyalldidlittlebutcopyhim,andtheyrepresentoneraofmediocrityinEnglishliteraturethat
    continuesuptothetimeoftheRenaissance.

    (Continued)

    Source:LearnEnglish,IELTS,EFL,ESLPublicSpeaking,Grammar,Literature,LinguisticsbyNEO:
    HistoryofEnglishLiterature

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    TheRenaissancePeriod(15001600)

    TheRenaissancePeriodinEnglishliteratureisalsocalledtheElizabethanPeriodortheAgeof
    Shakespeare.ThemiddleAgesinEuropewerefollowedbytheRenaissance.Renaissancemeansthe
    RevivalofLearning,anditdenotesinitsbroadestsensethegradualenlightenmentofthehumanmindafter
    thedarknessoftheMiddleAges.
    WiththefallofConstantinoplein1453A.D.bytheinvasionoftheTurks,theGreekscholarswhowere
    residingthere,spreadalloverEurope,andbroughtwiththeminvaluableGreekmanuscripts.Thediscovery
    oftheseclassicalmodelsresultedintheRevivalofLearninginthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies.The
    essenceofthismovementwasthatmandiscoveredhimselfandtheuniverse,andthatman,solong
    blindedhadsuddenlyopenedhiseyesandseen.ThefloodofGreekliteraturewhichthenewartofprinting
    carriedswiftlytoeveryschoolinEuroperevealedanewworldofpoetryandphilosophy.Alongwiththe
    RevivalofLearning,newdiscoveriestookplaceinseveralotherfields.VascodaGamacircumnavigatedthe
    earthColumbusdiscoveredAmericaCopernicusdiscoveredtheSolarSystemandpreparedthewayfor
    Galileo.Bookswereprinted,andphilosophy,science,andartweresystematised.TheMiddleAgeswere
    past,andtheoldworldhadbecomenew.Scholarsflockedtotheuniversities,asadventurerstothenew
    worldofAmerica,andtheretheoldauthorityreceivedadeathblow.Truthonlywasauthoritytosearchfor
    trutheverywhere,asmensoughtfornewlandsandgoldandtheFountainofYouththatwasthenew
    spirit,whichawokeinEuropewiththeRevivalofLearning.
    ThechiefcharacteristicoftheRenaissancewasitsemphasisonHumanism,whichmeansmansconcern
    withhimselfasanobjectofcontemplation.ThismovementwasstartedinItalybyDante,Petrarchand
    Baccacciointhefourteenthcentury,andfromthereitspreadtoothercountriesofEurope.InEnglandit
    becamepopularduringtheElizabethanperiod.Thismovementwhichfocuseditsinterestontheproper
    studyofmankindhadanumberofsubordinatetrends.Thefirstinimportancewastherediscoveryof
    classicalantiquity,andparticularlyofancientGreece.Duringthemedievalperiod,thetraditionbound
    EuropehadforgottentheliberaltoneofoldGreekworldanditsspiritofdemocracyandhumandignity.
    WiththerevivalofinterestinGreekClassicalAntiquity,thenewspiritofHumanismmadeitsimpacton
    theWesternworld.ThefirstEnglishmanwhowroteundertheinfluenceofGreekstudieswasSirThomas
    More.HisUtopia,writteninLatin,wassuggestedbyPlatosRepublic.SirPhilipSidneyinhisDefenceof
    PoesieacceptedandadvocatedthecriticalrulesoftheancientGreeks.
    ThesecondimportantaspectofHumanismwasthediscoveryoftheexternaluniverse,anditssignificance
    forman.Butmoreimportantthanthiswasthatthewritersdirectedtheirgazeinward,andbecamedeeply
    interestedintheproblemsofhumanpersonality.Inthemedievalmoralityplays,thecharactersaremostly
    personifications:Friendship,Charity,Sloth,Wickednessandthelike.ButnowduringtheElizabethan
    period,undertheinfluenceofHumanism,theemphasiswaslaidonthequalitieswhichdistinguishone
    humanbeingfromanother,andgiveanindividualityanduniqueness.Moreover,therevealingofthe
    writersownmindbecamefullofinterest.ThistendencyledtotheriseofanewliteraryformtheEssay,
    whichwasusedsuccessfullybyBacon.IndramaMarloweprobeddownintothedeeprecessesofthe
    humanpassion.Hisheroes,Tamburlaine,Dr.FaustusandBarabas,theJewofMalta,arepossessedof
    uncontrolledambitions.Shakespeare,amoreconsummateartist,carriedHumanismtoperfection.His
    genius,fedbythespiritoftheRenaissance,enabledhimtoseelifewhole,andtopresentitinallitsaspects.
    Itwasthisnewinterestinhumanpersonality,thepassionforlife,whichwasresponsiblefortheexquisite
    lyricalpoetryoftheElizabethanAge,dealingwiththeproblemsofdeath,decay,transitorinessoflifeetc.
    AnotheraspectofHumanismwastheenhancedsensitivenesstoformalbeauty,andthecultivationofthe
    aestheticsense.Itshoweditselfinanewidealofsocialconduct,thatofthecourtier.AnItaliandiplomat
    andmanofletters,Castiglione,wroteatreatiseentitledIlCortigiano(TheCourtier)wherehesketchedthe
    patternofgentlemanlybehaviourandmannersuponwhichtheconductofsuchmenasSirPhillipSidney
    andSirWalterRaleighwasmodelled.Thiscultofeleganceinprosewritingproducedtheornatestyle
    calledEuphuismbyLyly.Thoughitsufferedfromexaggerationandpedantry,yetitintroducedorderand
    balanceinEnglishprose,andgaveitpithinessandharmony.
    AnotheraspectofHumanismwasthatmencametoberegardedasresponsiblefortheirownactions,as
    CasiussaystoBrutusinJuliusCaesar:

    TheFault,dearBrutus,isnotinourstars,
    Butinourselves,thatweareunderlings.

    Insteadoflookinguptosomehigherauthority,aswasdoneinTheMiddleAges,duringtheRenaissance
    Periodguidancewastobefoundfromwithin.LylywrotehisromanceofEuphuesnotmerelyasanexercise
    inanewkindofprose,butwiththeseriouspurposeofinculcatingrighteousnessofliving,basedonself
    control.SidneywrotehisArcadiaintheformoffictioninordertoexpoundanidealofmoralexcellence.
    SpenserwrotehisFaerieQueene,withaviewtofashionagentlemanornoblepersoninvirtuousand
    gentledisposition.ThoughwedonotlookfordirectmoralteachinginShakespeare,nevertheless,wefind
    underlyinghisworkthesameprofoundlymoralattitude.
    (a)ElizabethanDrama

    DuringtheRenaissancePeriodortheElizabethanPeriod,asitispopularlycalled,themostmemorable
    achievementinliteraturewasinthefieldofdrama.Oneoftheresultsofthehumanistteachinginthe
    schoolsanduniversitieshadbeenagreatdevelopmentofthestudyofLatindramaandthegrowthofthe
    practiceofactingLatinplaysbyTerence,PlautusandSeneca,andalsoofcontemporaryworksbothin
    LatinandinEnglish.Theseperformancesweretheworkofamateuractors,schoolboysorstudentsofthe
    UniversitiesandtheInnsofCourt,andwereoftengiveninhonourofthevisitsofroyalpersonsor
    ambassadors.Theirsignificanceliesinthefactthattheybroughttheeducatedclassesintotouchwitha
    muchmorehighlydevelopedkindofdrama,thantheolderEnglishplay.Aboutthemiddleofthesixteenth
    centurysomeacademicwritersmadeattemptstowriteoriginalplaysinEnglishontheLatinmodel.The
    threeimportantplaysofthistypeareNicholasUdallsRalphRoisterDoister,JohnStillsGrummar
    GurtonsNeedle,andThomasSackvillesGorbuducorFerrexandPorrexthefirsttwoarecomediesand
    lastoneatragedy.Alltheseplaysaremonotonousanddonotpossessmuchliterarymerit.

    ThesecondperiodofElizabethandramawasdominatedbytheUniversityWits,aprofessionalsetof
    literarymen.Ofthislittleconstellations,Marlowewasthecentralsun,androundhimrevolvedasminor
    stars,Lyly,Greene,Peele,LodgeandNash.
    Lyly(15541606)

    TheauthorofEuphues,wroteanumberofplays,thebestknownofthemareCompaspe(1581),Saphoand
    Phao(1584),Endymion(1591),andMidas(1592),Theseplaysaremythologicalandpastoralandare
    nearertotheMasque(courtspectaclesintendedtosatisfytheloveofglitterandnovelty)ratherthantothe
    narrativedramaofMarlowe.Theyarewritteninproseintermingledwithverse.Thoughtheverseissimple
    andcharmingproseismarredbyexaggeration,acharacteristicofEuphuism.
    GeorgePeele(155897?)

    Formed,alongwithMarlowe,GreeneandNash,oneofthatbandofdissoluteyoungmenendeavouringto
    earnalivelihoodbyliterarywork.Hewasanactoraswellaswriterofplays.Hewrotesomehalfdozen
    plays,whicharericherinbeautythananyofhisgroupexceptMarlowe.HisearnestworkisThe
    ArraignmentofParis,(1584)hismostfamousisDavidandBathsheba(1599).TheArraignmentofParis,
    whichcontainsanelaborateeulogyofQueenElizabeth,isreallyacourtplayoftheMasqueorder.David
    andBathshebacontainsmanybeautifullines.LikeMarlowe,Peelewasresponsibleforgivingtheblank
    versemusicalquality,whichlaterattainedperfectioninthedefthandsofShakespeare.

    ThomasKyd(155895)

    Achievedgreatpopularitywithhisfirstwork,TheSpanishTragedy,whichwastranslatedinmany
    Europeanlanguages.Heintroducedthebloodandthunderelementindrama,whichprovedoneofthe
    attractivefeaturesofthepreShakespeareandrama.Thoughheisalwaysviolentandextravagant,yethe
    wasresponsibleforbreakingawayfromthelifelessmonotonyofGorboduc.
    RobertGreene(15601592)

    Helivedamostdissolutelife,anddiedindistressanddebt.HisplayscompriseOrlandoFurioso,Friar
    BaconandFriarBungay,AlphonsusKingofAragonandGeorgeaGreene.HismosteffectiveplayisFriar
    BaconandFriarBungay,whichdealspartlywiththetricksoftheFriar,andpartlywithasimplelovestory
    betweentwomenwithonemaid.Itsvarietyofinterestandcomic,reliefandtotheentertainmentofthe
    audience.Butthechiefmeritoftheplayliesinthelivelymethodofpresentingthestory.Greenealso
    achievesdistinctionbythevigoroushumanityofhischaracterisation.
    ChristopherMarlowe(15641593)

    ThedramaticworkofLodgeandNashisnotofmuchimportance.Ofallthemembersofthegroup
    Marloweisthegreatest.In1587hisfirstplayTamburlainewasproducedandittookthepublicbystormon
    accountofitsimpetuousforce,itssplendidcommandofblankverse,anditssensitivenesstobeauty,Inthis
    playMarlowedramatisedtheexploitsoftheScythianshepherdwhorosetobetheterroroftheworld,
    andthescourgeofGod.TamburlainwassucceededbyTheTragicalHistoryofDoctorFaustus,inwhich
    Marlowegaveanoldmedievallegendaromanticsetting.Thestoryofthescholarwhosellshissoultothe
    Devilforworldlyenjoymentandunlimitedpower,ispresentedinamostfascinatingmanner.Marlowes
    FaustusisthegenuineincarnationoftheRenaissancespirit.TheJewofMalta,thethirdtragedyof
    Marlowe,isnotsofineasDoctorFaustus,thoughithasagloriousopening.Hislastplay,EdwardII,ishis
    bestfromthetechnicalpointofview.Thoughitlackstheforceandrhythmicbeautyoftheearlierplays,it
    issuperiortothemonaccountofitsrareskillofconstructionandadmirablecharacterisation.

    MarlowescontributionstotheElizabethandramaweregreat.Heraisedthesubjectmatterofdramatoa
    higherlevel.Heintroducedheroeswhoweremenofgreatstrengthandvitality,possessingtheRenaissance
    characteristicofinsatiablespiritofadventure.Hegavelifeandrealitytothecharacters,andintroduced
    passiononthestage.Hemadetheblankversesuppleandflexibletosuitthedrama,andthusmadethe
    workofShakespeareinthisrespecteasy.Hegavecoherenceandunitytothedrama,whichitwasformerly
    lacking.Healsogavebeautyanddignityandpoeticglowtothedrama.Infact,hedidthepioneeringwork
    onwhichShakespearebuiltthegrandedifice.ThushehasbeenrightlycalledtheFatherofEnglish
    DramaticPoetry.

    Shakespeare(15641616)

    ThegreatestofallElizabethandramatistswasShakespeareinwhosehandstheRomanticdramareachedits
    climax.Aswedonotknowmuchabouthislife,anditiscertainthathedidnothavepropertrainingand
    educationasotherdramatistsoftheperiodhad,hisstupendousachievementsareanenigmatoallscholars
    uptothepresentday.Itisstillamysteryhowacountryboy,pooranduneducated,whocametoLondonin
    searchofoddjobstoscrapealiving,couldreachsuchheightsindramaticliterature.Endowedwitha
    marvellousimaginativeandcreativemind,hecouldputnewlifeintooldfamiliarstoriesandmakethem
    glowwithdeepestthoughtsandtenderestfeelings.

    ThereisnodoubtthatShakespearewasahighlygiftedperson,butwithoutpropertraininghecouldnot
    havescaledsuchheights.Inspiteofthemeagrematerialwehavegotabouthislife,wecansurmisethathe
    musthaveundergonepropertrainingfirstasanactor,secondasareviserofoldplays,andthelastasan
    independentdramatist.Heworkedwithotherdramatistsandlearnedthesecretsoftheirtrade.Hemusthave
    studieddeeplyandobservedminutelythepeoplehecameincontactwith.Hisdramaticoutputmust,
    therefore,havebeentheresultofhisnaturalgeniusaswellasofhardworkandindustry.

    Besidesnondramaticpoetryconsistingoftwonarrativepoems,VeniceandAdonisandTheRapeof
    Lucrece,and154sonnets,Shakespearewrote37plays.Hisworkasadramatistextendedoversome24
    years,beginningabout1588andendingabout1612.Thisworkisgenerallydividedintofourperiods.
    (i)157793

    Thiswastheperiodofearlyexperimentalwork.Tothisperiodbelongtherevisionofoldplaysasthethree
    partsofHenryVIandTitusAndronicushisfirstcomediesLovesLabourLost,TheTwoGentlemenof
    Verona,TheComedyofErrorsandAMidsummerNightsDreamhisfirstchronicleplayRichardIIIa
    youthfultragedyRomeoandJuliet.
    (ii)15941600

    TothesecondperiodbelongShakespearesgreatcomediesandchronicleplaysRichardII,KingJohn,
    TheMerchantofVenice,HenryIV,PartIandII,HenryV,TheTamingoftheShrew,TheMerryWivesof
    Windsor,MuchAdoAboutNothing,AsYouLikeItandTwelfthNight.TheseplaysrevealShakespeares
    greatdevelopmentasathinkerandtechnician.Theyshowthematurityofhismindandart.
    (iii)16011608

    TothethirdperiodbelongShakespearesgreatesttragediesandsombreorbittercomedies.Thisishispeak
    periodcharacterisedbythehighestdevelopmentofhisthoughtandexpression.Heismoreconcernedwith
    thedarkersideofhumanexperienceanditsdestructivepassions.Evenincomedies,thetoneisgraveand
    thereisagreateremphasisonevil.TheplaysofthisperiodareJuliusCaesar,Hamlet,AllsWellthat
    EndsWell,MeasureforMeasureTroilusandCressida,Othello,KingLear,Macbeth,Antonyand
    Cleopatra,Coriolanus,andTimonofAthens.
    (iv)16081612

    Tothefourthperiodbelongthelatercomediesordramaticromances.Herethecloudsseemtohavebeen
    liftedandShakespeareisinachangedmood.Thoughthetragicpassionsstillplaytheirpartasinthethird
    period,theevilisnowcontrolledandconqueredbygood.Thetoneoftheplaysisgraciousandtender,and
    thereisadeclineinthepowerofexpressionandthought.Theplayswrittenduringthisperiodare
    Cymbeline,TheTempestandTheWintersTale,whichwerecompletelywrittenincollaborationwithsome
    otherdramatist.

    TheplaysofShakespearearesofullofcontradictorythoughtsexpressedsoconvincinglyindifferent
    contexts,thatitisnotpossibletoformulateasystemofphilosophyoutofthem.Eachofhischaracters
    fromthekingtotheclown,fromthemosthighlyintellectualtothesimpletonjudgeslifefromhisown
    angle,andutterssomethingwhichissoprofoundandappropriate,thatoneisastonishedattheplaywrigts
    versatilityofgenius.Hisstyleandversificationareofthehighestorder.Hewasnotonlythegreatest
    dramatistoftheage,butalsothefirstpoetoftheday,andoneofthegreatestofalltimes.Hisplaysarefull
    ofalargenumberofexquisitesongs,andhissonnetsglowingwithpassionandsensitivenesstobeauty
    reachthehighwatermarkofpoeticexcellenceinEnglishliterature.Inhisplaysthereisafinecommingling
    ofdramaticandlyricelements.Wordsandimagesseemtoflowfromhisbrainspontaneouslyandtheyare
    clothedinastylewhichcanbecalledperfect.

    ThoughShakespearebelongedtotheElizabethanAge,onaccountofhisuniversalityhebelongstoall
    times.Evenafterthelapseofthreecenturieshisimportance,insteadofdecreasing,hasconsiderably
    increased.Everytimewereadhim,webecomemoreconsciousofhisgreatness,likethecharmof
    Cleopatra,

    Agecannotwitherher,norcustomstale
    Herinfinitevariety.

    theappealofShakespeareisperennial.Hisplaysandpoetryarelikeagreatriveroflifeandbeauty.
    BenJonson(15731637)

    BenJonsonacontemporaryofShakespeare,andaprominentdramatistofhistimes,wasjusttheopposite
    ofShakespeare.Jonsonwasaclassicist,amoralist,andareformerofdrama.Inhiscomedieshetriedto
    presentthetruepictureofthecontemporarysociety.Healsomadeanattempttohavetheunitiesoftime,
    placeandactioninhisplays.UnlikeShakespearewhoremainedhiddenbehindhisworks,Jonson
    impressedupontheaudiencetheexcellenceofhisworksandtheobjectofhisplays.Healsomadehisplays
    realisticratherthanromantic,andintroducedhumourswhichmeansomepeculiartraitsincharacter,
    whichobsessanindividualandgovernallthisfaculties.

    Jonsonwasmainlyawriterofcomedies,andofthesethefourwhichattainedoutstandingsuccessare
    VolponeTheSilentWomanTheAlchemistandBartholomewFair.Twootherimportantcomediesofhis,
    whichillustratehistheoryofhumourareEveryManinHisHumourandEveryManOutofHumour.
    TheAlchemist,whichisthemostperfectinstructure,isalsothemostbrilliantrealisticElizabethancomedy.
    Volponeisasatiricalstudyofavariceontheheroicscale.BartholomewFairpresentsatruepictureof
    Elizabethanlowlife.TheSilentWoman,whichiswritteninalightermood,approachesthecomedyof
    manners.BenJonsonwrotetwotragicplays.SejanusandCatalineontheclassicalmodel,buttheywere
    notsuccessful.

    BenJonsonwasaprofoundclassicalscholarwhowantedtoreformtheElizabethandrama,andintroduce
    formandmethodinit.Heresolvedtofightagainstcheapromanticeffects,andlimithisartwithinthe
    boundsofreasonandcommonsense.HewasanintellectualandsatiricalwriterunlikeShakespearewho
    wasimaginativeandsympathetic.Hischiefcontributiontodramatictheorywashispracticetoconstruct
    playsbasedonhumour,orsomemasterpassion.Inthiswayhecreatedanewtypeofcomedyhavingits
    ownmethods,scopeandpurpose.Thoughhedrewhisprinciplesfromtheancients,hedepictedthe
    contemporarylifeinhisplaysinamostrealisticmanner.InthiswayJonsonbrokefromtheRomantic
    tendencyofElizabethandrama.

    (Continued)
    __________________
    Thereisacrackineverything.That'showthelightgetsin.

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    (b)ElizabethanPoetry

    PoetryintheRenaissanceperiodtookanewtrend.Itwasthepoetryofthenewageofdiscovery,
    enthusiasmandexcitement.UndertheimpactoftheRenaissance,thepeopleofEnglandwereinfusedwith
    freshnessandvigour,andthesequalitiesareclearlyreflectedinpoetryofthatage.
    ThepoetryoftheElizabethanageopenswithpublicationsofavolumeknownasTottelsMiscellany
    (1577).ThisbookwhichcontainedtheverseofSirThomasWyatt(1503?1542)andtheEarlofSurrey,
    (1577?1547)marksthefirstEnglishpoetryoftheRenaissance.WyattandSurreywroteanumberof
    songs,especiallysonnetswhichadheredtothePetrarcanmodel,andwhichwaslateradoptedby
    Shakespeare.TheyalsoattemptedtheblankversewhichwasimproveduponbyMarloweandthen
    perfectedbyShakespeare.TheyalsoexperimentedagreatvarietyofmetreswhichinfluencedSpenser.
    ThusWyattandSurreystandinthesamerelationtothegloryofElizabethanpoetrydominatedbySpenser
    andShakespeare,asThomsonandCollinsdotoRomanticpoetrydominatedbyWordsworthandShelley.
    AnotheroriginalwriterbelongingtotheearlyElizabethangroupofpoetswhoweremostlycourtiers,was
    ThomasSackville(15361608).InhisMirrorforMagistrateshehasgivenapowerfulpictureofthe
    underworldwherethepoetdescribeshismeetingswithsomefamousEnglishmenwhohadbeenthevictims
    ofmisfortunes.Sackville,unlikeWyattandSurrey,isnotacheerfulwriter,butheissuperiortothemin
    poetictechnique.

    ThegreatestoftheseearlyElizabethanpoetswasSirPhilipSidney(15541586).Hewasamanysided
    personandaversatilegeniussoldier,courtierandpoetanddistinguishedhimselfinallthesecapacities.
    LikeDr.JohnsonandByronhestoodinsymbolicrelationtohistimes.Hemaybecalledtheideal
    Elizabethan,representinginhimselfthegreatqualitiesofthatgreatageinEnglishhistoryandliterature.
    QueenElizabethcalledhimoneofthejewelsofhercrown,andattheageoftwentythreehewas
    consideredoneoftheripeststatesmenoftheage.

    Asaliteraryfigure,Sidneymadehismarkinproseaswellasinpoetry.HisproseworksareArcadiaand
    theApologieforPoetrie(1595).WithArcadiabeginsanewkindofimaginativewriting.Thoughwrittenin
    proseitisstrewnwithlovesongsandsonnets.TheApologieforPoetrieisfirstoftheseriesofrareand
    veryusefulcommentarieswhichsomeEnglishpoetshavewrittenabouttheirart.Hisgreatestwork,of
    course,isinpoetrythesequenceofsonnetsentitledAstrophelandStella,inwhichSidneycelebratedthe
    historyofhisloveforPenelopeDevereax,sisteroftheEarlofEssex,alovewhichcametoasadend
    throughtheinterventionofQueenElizabethwithwhomSidneyhadquarrelled.Asanexampleoflyrical
    poetryexpressingdirectlyinthemostsinceremanneranintimateandpersonalexperienceofloveinits
    deepestpassion,thissonnetsequencemarksanepoch.Theirgreatestmeritistheirsincerity.Thesequence
    ofthepoetsfeelingsisanalysedwithsuchvividnessandminutenessthatweareconvincedoftheirtruth
    andsincerity.Herewefindthefruitofexperience,dearlybought:
    DesiredesireIhavetoodearlybought

    Withpriceofmangledmind.Thyworthlessware.
    Toolong,toolong,asleepthouhastmebrought,
    Whoshouldmymindtohigherprepare.

    Besidesthesepersonalandsinceretouches,sometimesthepoetgivesaloosereigntohisimagination,and
    givesusfantasticimagerywhichwasacharacteristicofElizabethanpoetry.

    Spenser(15521599)

    ThegreatestnameinnondramaticElizabethanpoetryisthatofSpenser,whomaybecalledthepoetof
    chivalryandMedievalallegory.TheElizabethanAgewastheageoftransition,whenthetimehonoured
    institutionsofchivalry,closelyalliedtoCatholicritualwerebeingattackedbythezealoftheProtestant
    reformerandtheenthusiasmforlattersoftheEuropeanhumanists.AsSpenserwasinsympathywithboth
    theoldandthenew,hetriedtoreconcilethesedivergentelementsinhisgreatestpoeticworkTheFaerie
    Queene.Writtenintheformofanallegory,thoughonthesurfaceitappearstobedealingwiththepetty
    intrigues,corruptdealingsandclevermanipulationsofpoliticiansinthecourtofElizabeth,yetwhenseen
    fromahigherpointofview,itbringsbeforeusthegloryofthemedievaltimesclothedinanatmosphereof
    romance.Weforgettheharshrealitiesoflife,andliftedintoafairylandwhereweseetheknights
    performingchivalricdeedsforthesakeofthehonourQueenGloriana.Wemeetwithshepherds,sylvan
    nymphsandsatyrs,andbreathetheairofromance,phantasyandchivalry.

    ThoughSpensersfamerestsmainlyonTheFaerieQueene,healsowrotesomeotherpoemsofgreatmerit.
    HisShepherdsCalendar(1579)isapastoralpoemwritteninanartificialclassicalstylewhichhadbecome
    popularinEuropeonaccountoftherevivaloflearning.Consistingoftwelveparts,eachdevotedtoa
    monthoftheyear,herethepoetgivesexpressiontohisunfruitfulloveforacertainunknownRosalind,
    throughthemouthofshepherdstalkingandsinging.Italsodealswithvariousmoralquestionsandthe
    contemporaryreligiousissues.ThesametypeofconventionalpastoralimagerywasusedbySpenserin
    Astrophel(1586),anelegywhichhewroteonthedeathofSidneytowhomhehaddedicatedtheCalendar.
    FourHymnswhicharecharacteriedbymelodiousversewerewrittenbySpenserinhonourofloveand
    beauty.HisAmoretti,consistingof88sonnets,writteninthePetrarcanmannerwhichhadbecomevery
    popularinthosedaysundertheinfluenceofItalianliterature,describesbeautifullytheprogressofhislove
    forElizabethBoylewhomhemarriedin1594.HisEpithalamionisthemostbeautifulmarriagehymninthe
    Englishlanguage.

    ThegreatnessofSpenserasapoetrestsonhisartisticexcellence.Thoughhispoetryissurchargedwith
    nobleideasandloftyideals,heoccupiesanhonouredplaceinthefrontrankofEnglishpoetsasthepoetof
    beauty,musicandharmony,throughwhichhebroughtaboutareconciliationbetweenthemedievalandthe
    modernworld.Thereisnoharshnoteinallhispoetry.Hecomposedhispoemsinthespiritofagreat
    painter,agreatmusician.Aboveall,hewasthepoetofimagination,who,bymeansofhisart,gavean
    enduringtotheoffspringsofhisimagination.AsametristhisgreatestcontributiontoEnglishpoetryisthe
    Spenserianstanzawhichisadmirablysuitedtodescriptiveorreflectivepoetry.ItisusedbyThomsonin
    TheCastleofIndolence,byKeatsinTheEveofSt.Agnes,byShelleyinTheRevoltofIslamandbyByron
    inChildeHaroldsPilgrimage.Onaccountofallthesefactors,Spenserhasbeenapotentinfluenceonthe
    Englishpoetsofallages,andthereisnoexaggerationintheremarkmadebyCharlesLambthatSpenseris
    thepoetspoet.

    (c)ElizabethanProse

    TheElizabethanperiodwasalsotheperiodoftheoriginofmodernEnglishprose.Duringthereignof
    Elizabethprosebegantobeusedasavehicleofvariousformsofamusementandinformation,andits
    popularityincreasedonaccountoftheincreasedfacilityprovidedbytheprintingpress.Booksonhistory,
    travel,adventures,andtranslationsofItalianstoriesappearedinalargenumber.Thoughtherewerealarge
    numberofprosewriters,therewereonlytwoSidneyandLylywhowereconsciousoftheirart,andwho
    madesolidcontributionstotheEnglishprosestylewhenitwasinitsinfancy.TheElizabethanpeoplewere
    intoxicatedwiththeuseoftheEnglishlanguagewhichwasbeingenrichedbyborrowingsfromancient
    authors.Theytookdelightintheuseofflowerywordsandgraceful,grandiloquentphrases.Withthenew
    waveofpatriotismandnationalprestigetheEnglishlanguagewhichhadbeenpreviouslyeclipsedbyLatin,
    andrelegatedtoalowerposition,nowcametoitsown,anditwasfullyexploited.TheElizabethansloved
    decorativemodesofexpressionandflowerystyle.

    JohnLyly(15541606)

    ThefirstauthorwhowroteproseinthemannerthattheElizabethanswanted,wasLyly,whoseEuphues,
    popularizedahighlyartificialanddecorativestyle.Itwasreadandcopiedbyeverybody.Itsmaximsand
    phraseswerefreelyquotedinthecourtandthemarketplace,andthewordEuphuismbecameacommon
    descriptionofanartificialandflamboyantstyle.

    ThestyleofEuphueshasthreemaincharacteristics.Inthefirstplace,thestructureofthesentenceisbased
    onantithesisandalliteration.Inotherwords,itconsistsoftwoequalpartswhicharesimilarinsoundbut
    withadifferentsense.Forexample,Euphuesisdescribedasayoungmanofmorewitthanwealth,yetof
    morewealththanwisdom.Thesecondcharacteristicofthisstyleisthatnofactisstatedwithoutreference
    tosomeclassicalauthority.Forexample,whentheauthormakesamentionoffriendship,hequotesthe
    friendshipthatexistedbetweenDavidandJonathan.Besidestheseclassicalallusions,thereisalsoan
    abundanceofallusiontonaturalhistory,mostlyofafabulouskind,whichisitsthirdcharacteristic.For
    example,Thebullbeingtiedtothefigtreelosethhistalethewholeherdofdearstandatgazeifthey
    smellsweetapple.

    ThepurposeofwritingEuphueswastoinstructthecourtiersandgentlemenhowtolive,andsoitisfullof
    gravereflectionsandweightymorals.Initthereisalsocriticismofcontemporarysociety,especiallyits
    extravagantfashions.ThoughPuritanicintone,itinculcates,onthewhole,aliberalandhumaneoutlook.
    SidneysArcadiaisthefirstEnglishexampleofprosepastoralromance,whichwasimitatedbyvarious
    Englishauthorsforabouttwohundredyears.ThestoryrelatedinArcadiainthemidstofpastoral
    surroundingwhereeverythingispossible,islongenoughtocovertwentymodernnovels,butitsmain
    attractionliesinitsstylewhichishighlypoeticalandexhaustive.Onewordisusedagainandagainin
    differentsensesuntilitsallmeaningsareexhausted.Itisalsofullofpatheticfallacywhichmeans
    establishingtheconnectionbetweentheappearanceofnaturewiththemoodoftheartist.Onthewhole,
    ArcadiagoesonedegreebeyondEuphuesinthedirectionofSfreedomandpoetry.

    Twootherimportantwriterswho,amongothers,influencedElizabethanprosewere:MaloryandHakluyt.
    MalorywroteagreatproseromanceMortedeArthurdealingwiththeromantictreasuresoftheMiddle
    Ages.Itwasbyvirtueofthesimpledirectnessofthelanguage,thatitprovedanadmirablemodeltothe
    prosestorytellersoftheRenaissanceEngland.RichardHakluytsVoyagesandothersuchbooks
    describingseaadventureswerewritteninsimpleandunaffecteddirectness.Thewriterwasconsciousof
    onlythathehadsomethingtotellthatwasworthtelling.

    ThePuritanAge(16001660)

    TheLiteratureoftheSeventeenthCenturymaybedividedintotwoperiodsThePuritanAgeortheAgeof
    Milton(16001660),whichisfurtherdividedintotheJacobeanandCarolineperiodsafterthenamesofthe
    ruledJamesIandCharlesI,whorulesfrom1603to1625and1625to1649respectivelyandthe
    RestorationPeriodortheAgeofDryden(16601700).

    TheSeventeenthCenturywasmarkedbythedeclineoftheRenaissancespirit,andthewriterseither
    imitatedthegreatmastersofElizabethanperiodorfollowednewpaths.Wenolongerfindgreat
    imaginativewritersofthestatureofShakespeare,SpenserandSidney.Thereisamarkedchangein
    temperamentwhichmaybecalledessentiallymodern.ThoughduringtheElizabethanperiod,thenewspirit
    oftheRenaissancehadbrokenawaywiththemedievaltimes,andstartedanewmoderndevelopment,in
    factitwasintheseventeenthcenturythatthistaskofbreakingawaywiththepastwascompletely
    accomplished,andthemodernspirit,inthefullestsenseoftheterm,cameintobeing.Thisspiritmaybe
    definedasthespiritofobservationandofpreoccupationwithdetails,andasystematicanalysisoffacts,
    feelingsandideas.Inotherwords,itwasthespiritofsciencepopularizedbysuchgreatmenasNewton,
    BaconandDescartes.Inthefieldofliteraturethisspiritmanifesteditselfintheformofcriticism,whichin
    EnglandisthecreationoftheSeventeenthCentury.DuringtheSixteenthCenturyEnglandexpandedinall
    directionsintheSeventeenthCenturypeopletookstockofwhathadbeenacquired.Theyalsoanalysed,
    classifiedandsystematisedit.ForthefirsttimethewritersbeganusingtheEnglishlanguageasavehicle
    forstoringandconveyingfacts.

    Oneveryimportantandsignificantfeatureofthisnewspiritofobservationandanalysiswasthe
    popularisationoftheartofbiographywhichwasunknownduringtheSixteenthCentury.Thuswhereaswe
    havenorecordedinformationaboutthelifeofsuchaneminentdramatistasShakespeare,intheseventeenth
    centurymanyauthorslikeFullerandAubreylaboriouslycollectedandchronicledthesmallestfactsabout
    thegreatmenoftheirownday,oroftheimmediatepast.Autobiographyalsocameinthewakeof
    biography,andlateronkeepingofdiariesandwritingofjournalsbecamepopular,forexamplePepys
    DiaryandFoxsJournal.Allthesenewliterarydevelopmentsweremeanttomeetthegrowingdemandfor
    analysisofthefeelingsandtheintimatethoughtsandsensationsofrealmenandwomen.Thisnewly
    awakenedtasteinrealismmanifesteditselfalsointheCharacter,whichwasabriefdescriptiveessayona
    contemporarytypelikeatobaccoseller,oranoldshoemaker.Indramatheportrayalofthefoiblesofthe
    fashionablecontemporarysocietytookaprominentplace.Insatire,itwerenotthecommonfaultsofthe
    peoplewhichwereridiculed,butactualmenbelongingtooppositepoliticalandreligiousgroups.The
    readerswhoalsohadbecomecriticaldemandedfactsfromtheauthors,sothattheymightjudgeandtake
    sidesincontroversialmatters.

    TheSeventeenthCenturyupto1660wasdominatedbyPuritanismanditmaybecalledthePuritanAgeor
    theAgeofMiltonwhowasthenoblestrepresentativeofthePuritanspirit.Broadlyspeaking,thePuritan
    movementinliteraturemaybeconsideredasthesecondandgreaterRenaissance,markedbytherebirthof
    themoralnatureofmanwhichfollowedtheintellectualawakeningofEuropeinthefifteenthandsixteenth
    centuries.ThoughtheRenaissancebroughtwithitculture,itwasmostlysensuousandpagan,anditneeded
    somesortofmoralsobrietyandprofunditywhichwerecontributedbythePuritanmovement.Moreover,
    duringtheRenaissanceperioddespotismwasstilltheorderoftheday,andinpoliticsandreligion
    unscrupulousnessandfanaticismwererampant.ThePuritanmovementstoodforlibertyofthepeoplefrom
    theshacklesofthedespoticruleraswellastheintroductionofmoralityandhighidealsinpolitics.Thusit
    hadtwoobjectspersonalrighteousnessandcivilandreligiousliberty.Inotherwords,itaimedatmaking
    menhonestandfree.

    ThoughduringtheRestorationperiodthePuritansbegantobelookeddownuponasnarrowminded,
    gloomydogmatists,whowereagainstallsortsofrecreationsandamusements,infacttheywerenotso.
    Moreover,thoughtheywereprofoundlyreligious,theydidnotformaseparatereligioussect.Itwouldbea
    gravetravestyoffactsifwecallMiltonandCromwell,whofoughtforlibertyofthepeopleagainstthe
    tyrannicalruleofCharlesI,asnarrowmindedfanatics.Theyweretherealchampionsoflibertyandstood
    fortoleration.

    ThenamePuritanwasatfirstgiventothosewhoadvocatedcertainchangesintheformofworshipofthe
    reformedEnglishChurchunderElizabeth.AsKingCharlesIandhiscouncillors,aswellassomeofthe
    clergymenwithBishopLaudastheirleader,wereopposedtothismovement,Puritanismincourseoftime
    becameanationalmovementagainstthetyrannicalruleoftheKing,andstoodforthelibertyofthepeople.
    OfcoursetheextremistsamongPuritanswerefanaticsandstern,andthelong,protractedstruggleagainst
    despotismmadeeventhemilderoneshardandnarrow.SowhenCharlesIwasdefeatedandbeheadedin
    1649andPuritanismcameouttriumphantwiththeestablishmentoftheCommonwealthunderCromwell,
    severelawspassed.Manysimplemodesofrecreationandamusementwerebanned,andanausterestandard
    oflivingwasimposedonanunwillingpeople.ButwhenwecriticizethePuritanforhisrestrictionson
    simpleandinnocentpleasuresoflife,weshouldnotforgetthatitwasthesameveryPuritanwhofoughtfor
    libertyandjustice,andwhothroughselfdisciplineandausterewayoflivingoverthrewdespotismand
    madethelifeandpropertyofthepeopleofEnglandsafefromthetyrannyofrulers.

    InliteratureofthePuritanAgewefindthesameconfusionaswefindinreligionandpolitics.Themedieval
    standardsofchivalry,theimpossiblelovesandromanceswhichwefindinSpenserandSidney,have
    completelydisappeared.Astherewerenofixedliterarystandards,imitationsofolderpoetsand
    exaggerationofthemetaphysicalpoetsreplacedtheoriginal,dignifiedandhighlyimaginative
    compositionsoftheElizabethanwriters.Theliteraryachievementsofthissocalledgloomyagearenotofa
    highorder,butithadthehonourofproducingonesolitarymasterofversewhoseworkwouldshedlustre
    onanyageorpeopleJohnMilton,whowasthenoblestandindomitablerepresentativeofthePuritan
    spirittowhichhegaveamostloftyandenduringexpression.

    (a)PuritanPoetry

    ThePuritanpoetry,alsocalledtheJacobeanandCarolinePoetryduringthereignsofJamesIandCharlesI
    respectively,canbedividedintothreeparts(i)PoetryoftheSchoolofSpenser(ii)Poetryofthe
    MetaphysicalSchool(iii)PoetryoftheCavalierPoets.

    (i)TheSchoolofSpenser

    TheSpenserianswerethefollowersofSpenser.Inspiteofthechangingconditionsandliterarytasteswhich
    resultedinareactionagainstthediffuse,flamboyant,ItalianatepoetrywhichSpenserandSidneyhadmade
    fashionableduringthesixteenthcentury,theypreferredtofollowSpenserandconsideredhimastheir
    master.

    ThemostthoroughgoingdisciplesofSpenserduringthereignofJamesIwerePhineasFletcher(1582
    1648)andGilesFletcher(15831623).TheywerebothpriestsandFellowsofCambridgeUniversity.
    PhineasFletcherwroteanumberofSpenserianpastoralsandallegories.HismostambitiouspoemThe
    PurpleIsland,portraysinaminutelydetailedallegorythephysicalandmentalconstitutionofman,the
    strugglebetweenTemperanceandhisfoes,thewillofmanandSatan.Thoughthepoemfollowsthe
    allegoricalpatternoftheFaerieQueene,itdoesnotliftustotherealmofpureromanceasdoesSpensers
    masterpiece,andattimesthestrainoftheallegorybecomestounbearable.

    GilesFletcherwasmorelyricalandmysticalthanhisbrother,andhealsomadeahappierchoiceof
    subjects.HisChristsVictorieandTriumphinHeavenandEarthoverandafterDeath(1610),whichisan
    allegoricalnarrativedescribinginalyricalstraintheAtonement,Temptation,Crucifixion,andResurrection
    ofChrist,isalinkbetweenthereligiouspoetryofSpenserandMilton.Itiswritteninaflamboyant,diffuse
    styleofSpenser,butitsethicalaspectisinkeepingwiththeseventeenthcenturytheologywhichconsidered
    manasapunycreatureinthedivineschemeofsalvation.

    OtherpoetswhowroteundertheinfluenceofSpenserwereWilliamBrowne(15901645).GeorgeWither
    (15881667)andWilliamDrummond(15851649).

    BrownesimportantpoeticalworkisBritanniasPastoralswhichshowsallthecharacteristicsof
    Elizabethanpastoralpoetry.ItisobviouslyinspiredbySpensersFaerieQueeneandSidneysArcadiaasit
    combinesallegorywithsatire.Itisastoryofwooingandadventure,ofthenymphswhochangeinto
    streamsandflowers.Italsosingsthepraiseofvirtueandofpoetsanddeadandliving.

    ThesamedidactictoneandlyricalstrainarenoticedinthepoetryofGeorgeWither.Hisbestknownpoems
    areTheShepherdsHuntingaseriesofpersonaleuloguesFidellaanheroicepistleofovertwelvehundred
    linesandFairVirtue,theMistressofPhilarete,asustainedanddetailedlyricaleulogyofanidealwoman.
    MostofWitherspoetryispastoralwhichisusedbyhimtoconveyhispersonalexperience.Hewritesinan
    easy,andhomelystylefreefromconceits.Heoftendwellsonthecharmsofnatureandconsolation
    providedbysongs.InhislateryearsWitherwrotedidacticandsatiricalverse,whichearnedforhimthe
    titleofourEnglishJuvenal.

    DrummondwhowasaScottishpoet,wroteanumberofpastorals,sonnets,songs,elegiesandreligious
    poems.Hispoetryistheproductofascholarofrefinednature,highimaginativefaculty,andmusicalear.
    HisindebtednesstoSpenser,SidneyandShakespeareinthematteroffinephraseologyisquiteobvious.
    Thegreatestandoriginalqualityofallhispoetryisthesweetnessandmusicalevolutioninwhichhehas
    fewrivalsevenamongtheElizabethanlyricists.HiswellknownpoemsareTearsontheDeathofMaliades
    (anelegy),Sonnets,FlowersofSionandPastorals.

    (ii)ThePoetsoftheMetaphysicalSchool

    ThemetaphysicalpoetswereJohnDonne,Herrick,ThomasCarew,RichardCrashaw,HenryVaughan,
    GeorgeHerbetandLordHerbertofCherbury.TheleaderofthisschoolwasDonne.Theyarecalledthe
    metaphysicalpoetsnotbecausetheyarehighlyphilosophical,butbecausetheirpoetryisfullofconceits,
    exaggerations,quibblingaboutthemeaningsofwords,displayoflearningandfarfetchedsimilesand
    metaphors.ItwasDr.JohnsonwhoinhisessayonAbrahamCowleyinhisLivesofthePoetsusedtheterm
    metaphysical.Therehewrote:

    Aboutthebeginningoftheseventeenthcenturyappearedaraceofwritersthatmaybetermedthe
    metaphysicalpoets.Themetaphysicalpoetsweremenoflearning,andtoshowtheirlearningwastheir
    wholeendeavour:but,unluckilyresolvingtoshowitinrhyme,insteadofwritingpoetry,theyonlywrote
    versesandveryoftensuchversesasstoodthetrialofthefingerbetterthanoftheearforthemodulation
    wassoimperfectthattheywereonlyfoundtobeversesbycountingthesyllables.

    ThoughDr.JohnsonwasprejudicedagainsttheMetaphysicalschoolofpoets,andtheabovestatementis
    fullofexaggeration,yethepointedoutthesalientcharacteristicsofthisschool.Oneimportantfeatureof
    metaphysicalschoolwhichDr.Johnsonmentionedwastheirdiscoveryofoccultresemblancesinthings
    apparentlyunlike.Moreover,hewasabsolutelyrightwhenhefurtherremarkedthattheMetaphysical
    poetswereperverselystrangeandstrained:Themostheterogeneousideasareyokedbyviolencetogether
    natureandartareransackedforillustrations,comparisons,andallusionsTheirwishwasonlytosaywhat
    hadneverbeensaidbefore.

    Dr.Johnson,however,didnotfailtonoticethatbeneaththesuperficialnoveltyofthemetaphysicalpoets
    layafundamentaloriginality:

    Iftheyfrequentlythrewawaytheirwituponfalseconceits,theylikewisesometimesstruckoutunexpected
    truthiftheconceitswerefarfetched,theywereoftenworththecarriage.Towriteontheirplan,itwasat
    leastnecessarytoreadandthink,Nomancouldbebornametaphysicalpoet,norassumetodignityofa
    writer,bydescriptionscopiedfromdescriptions,byimitationsborrowedfromimitations,bytraditional
    imagery,andvolubilityofsyllables.

    Themetaphysicalpoetswerehonest,originalthinkers.Theytriedtoanalysetheirfeelingsandexperience
    eventheexperienceoflove.Theywerealsoawareofthelife,andwereconcernedwithdeath,burial
    descentintohelletc.Thoughtheyhopedforimmortality,theywereobsessedbytheconsciousnessof
    mortalitywhichwasoftenexpressedinamoodofmawkishdisgust.

    JohnDonne(15371631),

    TheleaderoftheMetaphysicalschoolofpoets,hadaverychequeredcareeruntilbebecametheDeanof
    St.Paul.Thoughhismainworkwastodeliverreligioussermons,hewrotepoetryofaveryhighorder.His
    bestknownworksareTheProgressoftheSoulAnAnatomyoftheWorld,anelegyandEpithalamium.
    Hispoetrycanbedividedintothreeparts:(1)Amorous(2)Metaphysical(3)Satirical.Inhisamorouslyrics
    whichincludehisearliestwork,hebrokeawayfromthePetrarcanmodelsopopularamongtheElizabethan
    poets,andexpressedtheexperienceofloveinarealisticmanner.Hismetaphysicalandsatiricalworks
    whichfromamajorportionofhispoetry,werewritteninlateryears.TheProgressoftheSouland
    Metempsychosis,inwhichDonnepursuesthepassageofthesoulthroughvarioustransmigrations,
    includingthoseofabirdandfish,isafineillustrationofhismetaphysicalpoetry.Agoodillustrationofhis
    satireishisfourthsatiredescribingthecharacterofabore.Theywerewritteninrhymedcouplet,and
    influencedbothDrydenandPope.

    DonnehasoftenbeencomparedtoBrowningonaccountofhismetricalroughness,obscurity,ardent
    imagination,tasteformetaphysicsandunexpecteddivergenceintosweetanddelightfulmusic.Butthereis
    oneimportantdifferencebetweenDonneandBrowning.DonneisapoetofwitwhileBrowningisapoetof
    ardentpassion.DonnedeliberatelybrokeawayfromtheElizabethantraditionofsmoothsweetnessof
    verse,andintroducedaharshandstuccatomethod.Hisinfluenceonthecontemporarypoetswasfarfrom
    beingdesirable,becausewhereastheyimitatedhisharshness,theycouldnotcomeuptothelevelofhis
    originalthoughtandsharpwit.LikeBrowning,Donnehasnosympathyforthereaderwhocannotfollow
    hiskeenandincisivethought,whilehispoetryismostdifficulttounderstandbecauseofitscareless
    versificationandexcessiveterseness.

    ThuswithDonne,theElizabethanpoetrywithitsmellifluousness,andrichlyobservantimagination,came
    toanend,andtheCarolinepoetrywithitsharshnessanddeeplyreflectiveimaginationbegan.Though
    ShakespeareandSpenserstillexertedsomeinfluenceonthepoets,yetDonnesinfluencewasmore
    dominant.

    RobertHerrick(15911674)wroteamorousaswellasreligiousverse,butitisonaccountofthepoemsof
    theformertypelovepoems,forwhichheisfamous.HehasmuchincommonwiththeElizabethansong
    writers,butonaccountofhispensivefantasy,andameditativestrainespeciallyinhisreligiousverse,
    HerrickisincludedinthemetaphysicalschoolofDonne.

    ThomasCarew(15981639),onwhomtheinfluenceofDonnewasstronger,wasthefinestlyricwriterof
    hisage.ThoughhelacksthespontaneityandfreshnessofHerrick,heissuperiortohiminfine
    workmanship.Moreover,thoughpossessingthestrengthandvitalityofDonnesverse,Carewsverseis
    neitherruggednorobscureasthatofthemaster.HisPersuasionsofLoveisafinepieceofrhythmic
    cadenceandharmony.

    RichardCrashaw(1613?1649)possessedatemperamentdifferentfromthatofHerrickorCarew.Hewas
    afundamentallyreligiouspoet,andhisbestworkisTheFlamingHeart.Thoughlessimaginativethan
    Herrick,andintellectuallyinferiortoCarew,attimesCrashawreachestheheightsofrareexcellenceinhis
    poetry.

    HenryVaughan(16221695),thoughamysticlikeCrashaw,wasequallyathomeinsacredaswellas
    secularverse.ThoughlackingthevigourofCrashaw,Vaughanismoreuniformandclear,tranquiland
    deep.

    GeorgeHerbert(15931633)isthemostwidelyreadofallthepoetsbelongingtothemetaphysicalschool,
    except,ofcourse,Donne.Thisisduetotheclarityofhisexpressionandthetransparencyofhisconceits.In
    hisreligiousversethereissimplicityaswellasnaturalearnestness.Mixedwiththedidacticstrainthereis
    alsoacurrentofquainthumourinhispoetry.

    LordHerbertofCherburyisinferiorasaversewritertohisbrotherGeorgeHerbert,butheisbest
    rememberedastheauthorofanautobiography.Moreover,hewasthefirstpoettousethemetrewhichwas
    madefamousbyTennysoninInMemoriam.

    OtherpoetswhoarealsoincludedinthegroupofMetaphysicalsareAbrahanmCowley(16181667),
    AndrewMarvel(16211672)andEdmundWaller(16061687).CowleyisfamousforhisPindaricOdes,
    whichinfluencedEnglishpoetrythroughouttheeighteenthcentury.Marvelisfamousforhisloyal
    friendshipwithMilton,andbecausehispoetryshowstheconflictbetweenthetwoschoolsofSpenserand
    Donne.WallerwasthefirsttousetheclosedcoupletwhichdominatedEnglishpoetryforthenext
    century.

    TheMetaphysicalpoetsshowthespiritualandmoralfervourofthePuritansaswellasthefrankamorous
    tendencyoftheElizabethans.SometimesliketheElizabethanstheysingofmakingthebestoflifeasitlasts
    GatheryeRosebudswhileyemayandatothertimestheyseekmorepermanentcomfortinthedelightof
    spiritualexperience.

    (iii)TheCavalierPoets

    WhereasthemetaphysicalpoetsfollowedtheleadofDonne,thecavalierpoetsfollowedBenJonson.
    Jonsonfollowedtheclassicalmethodinhispoetryasinhisdrama.HeimitatedHoracebywriting,likehim,
    satires,elegies,epistlesandcomplimentaryverses.Butthoughhisversepossessclassicaldignityandgood
    sense,itdoesnothaveitsgraceandease.HislyricsandsongsalsodifferfromthoseofShakespeare.
    WhereasShakespearessongsarepastoral,popularandartless,Jonsonsaresophisticated,particularised,
    andhaveintellectualandemotionalrationality.

    Likethemetaphysical,thelabelCavalierisnotcorrect,becauseaCavaliermeansaroyalistonewho
    foughtonthesideofthekingduringtheCivilWar.ThefollowersofBenJonsonwerenotallroyalists,but
    thislabelonceusedhasstucktothem.Moreover,thereisnotmuchdifferencebetweentheCavalierand
    Metaphysicalpoets.SomeCavalierpoetslikeCarew,SucklingandLovelacewerealsodisciplesofDonne.
    Evensometypicalpoems,ofDonneandBenJonsonareverymuchalike.Theseare,therefore,nottwo
    distinctschools,buttheyrepresentedtwogroupsofpoetswhofollowedtwodifferentmastersDonneand
    BenJonson.Poetsofboththeschools,ofcourse,turnedawayfromthelong,Oldfashionedworksofthe
    Spenserians,andconcentratedtheireffortsonshortpoemsandlyricsdealingwiththethemesofloveof
    womanandtheloveorfearofGod.TheCavalierpoetsnormallywroteabouttrivialsubjects,whilethe
    Metaphysicalpoetswrotegenerallyaboutserioussubjects.

    TheimportantCavalierpoetswereHerrick,Lovelace,SucklingandCarew.Thoughtheywrotegenerallyin
    alightervein,yettheycouldnotcompletelyescapethetremendousseriousnessofPuritanism.Wehave
    alreadydealtwithCarewandHerrickamongthemetaphysicalgroupofpoets.SirJohnSuckling(1609
    1642),acourtierofCharlesI,wrotepoetrybecauseitwasconsideredagentlemansaccomplishmentin
    thosedays.Mostofhispoemsaretrivialwrittenindoggerelverse.SirRichardLovelace(16181658)was
    anotherfollowerofKingCharlesI.HisvolumeoflovelyricsLucastaareonahigherplanethan
    Sucklingswork,andsomeofhispoemslikeToLucasta,andToAlthea,fromPrison,havewona
    secureplaceinEnglishpoetry.

    (iv)JohnMilton(16081674)

    MiltonwasthegreatestpoetofthePuritanage,andhestandsheadandshouldersaboveallhis
    contemporaries.ThoughhecompletelyidentifiedhimselfwithPuritanism,hepossessedsuchastrong
    personalitythathecannotbetakentorepresentanyonebuthimself.Payingajusttributetothedominating
    personalityofMilton,Wordsworthwrotethefamousline:
    Theysoulwaslikeastar,anddweltapart.
    ThoughMiltonpraisedSpenser,Shakespeare,andBenJonsonaspoets,hewasdifferentfromthemall.We
    donotfindtheexuberanceofSpenserinhispoetry.UnlikeShakespeareMiltonissuperblyegoistic.Inhis
    verse,whichisharmoniousandmusical,wefindnotraceoftheharshnessofBenJonson.Inallhispoetry,
    Miltonsingsabouthimselfandhisownloftysoul.Beingadeeplyreligiousmanandalsoendowedwith
    artisticmeritofahighdegree,hecombinedinhimselfthespiritsoftheRenaissanceandtheReformation.
    InfactnootherEnglishpoetwassoprofoundlyreligiousandsomuchanartist.

    MiltonwasagreatscholarofclassicalaswellasHebrewliterature.HewasalsoachildoftheRenaissance,
    andagreathumanist.AsanartisthemaybecalledthelastElizabethan.Fromhisyoungdayshebeganto
    lookuponpoetryasaseriousbusinessoflifeandhemadeuphismindtodedicatehimselftoit,and,in
    courseoftime,writeapoemwhichtheworldwouldnotletdie.

    Miltonsearlypoetryislyrical.Theimportantpoemsoftheearlyperiodare:TheHymnontheNativity
    (1629)LAllegro,IlPenseroso(1632)Lycidas(1637)andComus(1934).TheHymn,writtenwhen
    Miltonwasonlytwentyone,showsthathislyricalgeniuswasalreadyhighlydeveloped.The
    complementarypoems,LAllegoandIlPenseroso,arefullofverypleasingdescriptionsofruralscenesand
    recreationsinSpringandAutumn.LAllegrorepresentsthepoetinagayandmerrymoodanditpaintsan
    idealisedpictureofrusticlifefromdawntodusk.IlPenserosoiswritteninseriousandmeditativestrain.In
    itthepoetpraisesthepassivejoysofthecontemplativelife.Thepoetextolsthepensivethoughtsofa
    reclusewhospendshisdayscontemplatingthecalmerbeautiesofnature.Inthesetwopoems,thelyrical
    geniusofMiltonisatitsbest.

    LycidasisapastoralelegyanditisthegreatestofitstypeinEnglishliterature.Itwaswrittentomournthe
    deathofMiltonsfriend,EdwardKing,butitisalsocontainsseriouscriticismofcontemporaryreligionand
    politics.

    ComusmarksthedevelopmentoftheMiltonsmindfromthemerelypastoralandidyllictothemore
    seriousandpurposivetendency.ThePuritanicelementantagonistictotheprevailingloosenessinreligion
    andpoliticsbecomesmoreprominent.Butinspiteofitsseriousanddidacticstrain,itretainsthelyrical
    tonewhichissocharacteristicofMiltonsearlypoetry.

    BesidesthesepoemsafewgreatsonnetssuchasWhentheAssaultwasintendedtotheCity,alsobelongto
    Miltonsearlyperiod.Fullofdeeplyfeltemotions,thesesonnetsareamongthenoblestintheEnglish
    language,andtheybridgethegulfbetweenthelyricaltoneofMiltonsearlypoetry,andthedeeplymoral
    anddidactictoneofhislaterpoetry.

    WhentheCivilWarbrokeoutin1642,MiltonthrewhimselfheartandsoulintothestruggleagainstKing
    CharlesI.Hedevotedthebestyearsofhislife,whenhispoeticalpowerswereattheirpeak,tothisnational
    movement.FindinghimselfunfittofightasasoldierhebecametheLatinSecretarytoCromwell.This
    workhecontinuedtodotill1649,whenCharlesIwasdefeatedandCommonwealthwasproclaimedunder
    Cromwell.Butwhenhereturnedtopoetrytoaccomplishtheidealhehadinhismind,Miltonfoundhimself
    completelyblind.Moreover,afterthedeathofCromwellandthecomingofCharlesIItothethrone,Milton
    becamefriendless.Hisownwifeanddaughtersturnedagainsthim.Butundauntedbyallthesemisfortunes,
    MiltongirdeduphisloinsandwrotehisgreatestpoeticalworksParadiseLost,ParadiseRegainedand
    SamsonAgonistes.
    ThesubjectmatterofParadiseLostconsistsofthecastingoutfromHeavenofthefallenangels,their
    planningofrevengeinHell,Satansflight,Manstemptationandfallfromgrace,andthepromiseof
    redemption.AgainstthisvastbackgroundMiltonprojectshisownphilosophyofthepurposesofhuman
    existence,andattemptstojustifythewaysofGodtomen.Onaccountoftherichnessandprofusionofits
    imagery,descriptionsofstrangelandsandseas,andtheuseofstrangegeographical,names,ParadiseLost
    iscalledthelastgreatElizabethanpoem.Butitsperfectlyorganizeddesign,itsfirmoutlinesandLatinised
    dictionmakeitessentiallyaproductoftheneoclassicalortheAugustanperiodinEnglishLiterature.In
    ParadiseLostthemostprominentisthefigureofSatanwhopossessesthequalitiesofMiltonhimself,and
    whorepresentstheindomitableheroismofthePuritansagainstCharlesI.
    Whatthoughthefieldbelost?

    Allisnotlosttheunconquerablewill,
    Andstudyofrevenge,immortalhate,
    Andcouragenevertosubmitoryield
    Andwhatiselse,nottobeovercome.

    ItiswritteninblankverseoftheElizabethandramatist,butitishardenedandstrengthenedtosuitthe
    requirementsofanepicpoet.

    ParadiseRegainedwhichdealswithsubjectofTemptationintheWildernessiswritten,unlikeParadise
    Lost,intheformofdiscussionandnotaction.NotsosublimeasParadiseLost,Ithasaquieteratmosphere,
    butitdoesnotbetrayadeclineinpoeticpower.Themoodofthepoethasbecomedifferent.Thecentral
    figureisChrist,havingthePuritanicaustereandstoicqualitiesratherthanthetendernesswhichisgenerally
    associatedwithhim.

    InSamsonAgonistesMiltondealswithanancientHebrewlegendofSamson,themightychampionof
    Israel,nowblindandscorned,workingasaslaveamongPhilistines.Thistragedy,whichiswrittenonthe
    Greekmodel,ischargedwiththetremendouspersonalityofMiltonhimself,whointhecharacterofthe
    blindgiant,Samson,surroundedbyenemies,projectshisownunfortunateexperienceinthereignof
    CharlesII.

    EyelessinGazaattheMillwithslaves.

    Themagnificentlyricsinthistragedy,whichexpresstheheroicfaithofthelongsufferingPuritans,
    representthesummitoftechnicalexcellenceachievedbyMilton.

    (Continued)
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    (b)JacobeanandCarolineDrama

    AfterShakespearethedramainEnglandsufferedandadeclineduringthereignsofJamesIandCharlesI.
    TheheightsreachedbyShakespearecouldnotbekeptbylaterdramatists,anddramainthehandsof
    BeaumontandFletcherandothersbecame,whatmaybecalled,decadent.Inotherwords,therealspiritof
    theElizabethandramadisappeared,andonlytheoutwardshowandtrappingsremained.Forexample,
    sentimenttooktheplaceofcharactereloquentandmovingspeeches,insteadofbeingsubservienttothe
    revelationofthefineshadesofcharacter,becameimportantinthemselvesdreadfuldeedsweredescribed
    notwithaviewtothrowinglightontheworkingofthehumanheartaswasdonebyShakespeare,butto
    producerhetoricaleffectontheaudience.Moreover,insteadoffortitudeandcourage,andsternerqualities,
    whichwereheldinhighesteembytheElizabethandramatists,resignationtofateexpressedintheformof
    brokenaccentsofpathosandwoe,becamethemaincharacteristicsofthehero.WhereasShakespeareand
    otherElizabethandramatiststookdelightinactionandtheemotionsassociatedwithit,theJacobeanand
    Carolinedramatistsgaveexpressiontopassivesufferingandlackofmentalandphysicalvigour.Moreover,
    whereastheElizabethandramatistsweresometimes,coarseandshowedbadtaste,theselaterdramatists
    werepositivelyanddeliberatelyindecent.Insteadofdevotingalltheircapacitytofullyilluminatingthe
    subjectinhand,theymadeitasaninstrumentofexercisingtheirownpowerofrhetoricandpedantry.Thus
    inthehandsofthesedramatistsoftheinferiortypetheromanticdramawhichhadachievedgreatheights
    duringtheElizabethanperiod,sufferedaterribledecline,andwhenthePuritansclosedthetheatresin1642,
    itdiedanaturaldeath.
    ThegreatestdramatistoftheJacobeanperiodwasBenJonsonwhohasalreadybeendealtwithinthe
    RenaissancePeriod,asmuchofhisworkbelongstoit.TheotherdramatistsoftheJacobeanandCaroline
    periodsareJohnMarston(15751634)ThomasDekker(15701632)ThomasHeywood(15751650)
    ThomasMiddleton(15801627)CyrilTourneur(15751626)JohnWebster(15751625?)JohnFletcher
    (15791625)FrancisBeaumont(15841616)PhilipMassinger(15831640)JohnFord(15861639)and
    JamesShirley(15961666).

    JohnMarstonwroteinaviolentandextravagantstyle.HismelodramasAntoniaandMellidaand
    AntoniasRevengearefullofforcefulandimpressivepassages.InTheMalcontent,TheDutchCourtezan,
    andParasitaster,orFawne,Marstoncriticisedthesocietyinanironicandlyricalmanner.Hisbestplayis
    EastwardHoe,anadmirablecomedyofmanners,whichportraysrealisticallythelifeofatradesman,the
    innerlifeofamiddleclasshousehold,thesimplehonestyofsomeandthevanityofothers.

    ThomasDekker,unlikeMarston,wasgentleandfreefromcoarsenessandcynicism.Someofhisplays
    possessgraceandfreshnesswhicharenottobefoundevenintheplaysofBenJonson.Heismoreofa
    populardramatistthananyofhiscontemporaries,andheisathisbestwhenportrayingscenesfromlife,
    anddescribinglivingpeoplewithanirresistibletouchofromanticism.ThegayestofhiscomediesisThe
    ShoemakersHoliday,inwhichthehero,SimonEyre,ajovialLondonshoemaker,andhisshrewishwife
    arevividlydescribed.InOldFortunatesDekkerspoeticalpowersareseenattheirbest.Thesceneinwhich
    thegoddessFortuneappearswithhertrainofcrownedbeggarsandkingsinchains,isfullofgrandeur.His
    bestknownwork,however,isTheHonestWhore,inwhichthecharacterofanhonestcourtesanis
    beautifullyportrayed.Themostoriginalcharacterintheplayisheroldfather,OrlandoFriscoboldo,a
    roughdiamond.Thisplayischaracterisedbyliveliness,puresentimentsandpoetry.

    ThomasHeywoodresemblesverymuchDekkerinhisgentlenessandgoodtemper.Hewrotealarge
    numberofplaystwohundredandtwentyofwhichonlytwentyfourareextant.Mostofhisplaysdeal
    withthelifeofthecities.InTheFourePrenticesofLondon,withtheConquestofJerusalem,heflattersthe
    citizensofLondon.ThesamenoteappearsinhisEdwardVI,TheTroublesofQueeneElizabethandThe
    FairMaidoftheExchange.IntheFairMaidoftheWest,whichiswritteninapatrioticvein,sea
    adventuresandthelifeofanEnglishportaredescribedinalivelyfashion.HisbestknownplayisA
    WomanKildewithKindness,adomestictragedywritteninasimpleform,inwhichhegivesusagentle
    pictureofahappyhomedestroyedbythewifestreachery,thehusbandssufferingandhisbanishmentof
    hiswife,herremoseandagony,anddeathatthemomentwhenthehusbandhasforgivenher.Insteadofthe
    spiritofvengeanceasgenerallyprevailsinsuchdomesticplays,itisfreefromanyharshnessand
    vindictiveness.InTheEnglishTravellerwefindthesamegenerosityandkindliness.Onaccountofhis
    instinctivegoodnessandwidepiety,HeywoodwascalledbyLambasasortofproseShakespeare.

    ThomasMiddleton,likeDekkerandHeywood,wroteaboutthecityofLondon.Butinsteadflatteringthe
    citizens,hecriticisedandridiculedtheirfollieslikeBenJonson.Heismainlythewriterofcomedies
    dealingtheseamysideofLondonlife,andthebestknownofthemare:MichaelmasTermsATrickto
    CatchtheOldOne,AMadWorld,MyMasters,YourFiveGallants,AChasteMaydinCheapside.Theyare
    fullofswindlersanddupes.Thedramatistshowsakeenobservationofreallifeandadmirabledexterityin
    presentingit.InhislateryearsMiddletonturnedtotragedy.WomenbewareWomendealswiththe
    scandalouscrimesoftheItaliancourtesanBiancaCapello.SometragediesorromanticdramasasAFaire
    Quarrel,TheChangelingandTheSpanishGipsie,werewrittenbyMiddletonincollaborationwiththe
    actorWilliamRowley.

    CyrilTourneurwrotemostlymelodramasfullofcrimesandtorture.Histwogloomydramasare:The
    RevengeTragedies,andTheAtheistsTragedie,which,writteninaclearandrapidstyle,haveanintense
    dramaticeffect.

    JohnWebsterwroteanumberofplays,someincollaborationwithothers.HisbestknownplaysareThe
    WhiteDevilorVittoriaCorombonaandtheDuchessofMalfiwhicharefullofphysicalhorrors.Inthe
    formerplaythecrimesoftheItalianbeautyCittoriaAccorambonaaredescribedinamostfascinating
    manner.TheDuchessofMalfiisthetragedyoftheyoungwidowedduchesswhoisdriventomadnessand
    deathbyhertwobrothersbecauseshehasmarriedherstewardAntonio.Theplayisfullofpathosand
    touchesoffinepoetry.Thoughamelodramafullofhorrorandunbearablesuffering,ithasbeenraisedtoa
    loftyplanebythetrulypoeticgiftofthedramatistwhohasaknackofcoiningunforgettablephrases.
    JohnFletcherwroteafewplayswhichmadehimfamous.Hethenexploitedhisreputationtothefullest
    extentbyorganisingakindofworkshopinwhichhewroteplaysmorerapidlyincollaborationwithother
    dramatistsinordertomeetthegrowingdemand.TheplayswhichhewroteincollaborationwithFrancis
    BeaumontarethecomediessuchasTheScornfulLadieandTheKnightoftheBurningPestletragi
    comedieslikePhilasterpuretragediessuchasTheMaidesTragedyandAKingandnoKing.TheKnight
    oftheBurningPestleisthegayestandliveliestcomedyofthattimeandithassuchfreshnessthatitseems
    tohavebeenwrittenonlyyesterday.PhilasterandTheMaidesTragedyarewritteninShakespeareanstyle,
    buttheyhavemoreoutwardcharmthanrealmerit.

    FletcheralonewroteanumberofplaysofwhichthebestknownareTheTragediesofVanentinian,The
    TragedieofBonduca,TheLoyalSubject,TheHumorousLieutenant.HisMonsieurThomasandTheWild
    GooseChasearefinecomedies.

    PhilipMassingerwrotetragediesasThierryandTheodoretandTheFalseOnecomediesasTheLittle
    FrenchLawyer,TheSpanishCurateandTheBeggarsBush,incollaborationwithFletcher.Massinger
    combinedhisintellectualismwithFletcherslivelyease.ItwasMassingerwhodominatedthestageafter
    Fletcher.Hewrotethirtysevenplaysofwhicheighteenareextant.Inhiscomedieswefindthe
    exaggerationsoreccentricitieswhicharethecharacteristicsofBenJonson.Inhistragedieswenoticethe
    romanticismofFletcher.ButthemostindividualqualityofMassingersplaysisthattheyareplaysofideas,
    andhelovestostageoratoricaldebatesandlongpleadingsbeforetribunals.HisbestcomediesareANew
    WaytoPayOldDebts,TheCityMadamandTheGuardianhisimportantseriousplaysareTheFatal
    Dowry,TheDukeofMillaine,TheUnnaturalCombat.TheMainofHonour,TheBondMan,The
    Renegado,TheRomanActor,andThePicture.OfalltheseANewWaytoPayOldDebtsishismost
    successfulplay,inwhichthechiefcharacter,theusurer,SirCharlesOverreachremindsusofBenJonsons
    Volpone.AlltheplaysofMassingershowcarefulworkmanship,thoughagreatdeteriorationhadcreptin
    theartofdramaatthetimewhenhewaswriting.Whennotinspiredhebecomesmonotonous,butheis
    alwaysaconscientiouswriter.

    JohnFord,whowasthecontemporaryofMassinger,collaboratedwithvariousdramatists.Hewasatrue
    poet,butafatalist,melancholyandgloomyperson.Besidesthehistoricalplay,PerkinWarbeck,hewrote
    TheLoversMelancholy,TisPitySheesaWhore,TheBrokenHeartandLovesSacrifice,allofwhich
    showaskilfulhandlingofemotionsandgraceofstyle.Hisdecadentattitudeisseeninthedelighthetakes
    indepictingsuffering,butheoccupiesahighplaceasanartist.

    JamesShirley,whoasLambcalledhim,thelastofagreatrace,thoughaprolificwriter,showsno
    originality.HisbestcomediesareTheTraytor,TheCardinall,TheWedding,Changes,HydePark,The
    GamesterandTheLadyofPleasure,whichrealisticallyrepresentthecontemporarymanners,modesand
    literarystyles.Healsowrotetragicomediesorromanticcomedies,suchasYoungAdmirall,The
    Opportunitie,andTheImposture.InalltheseShirleycontinuedthetraditionformedbyFletcher,Tourneur
    andWebster,buthebrokenonewground.

    Besidesthesetherewereanumberofminordramatists,butthedramasufferedaserioussetbackwhenthe
    theatreswereclosedin1642bytheorderoftheParliamentcontrolledbythePuritans.Theywereopened
    onlyaftereighteenyearslaterattheRestoration.

    (c)JacobeanandCarolineProse

    Thisperiodwasrichinprose.ThegreatprosewriterswereBacon,Burton,Milton,SirThomasBrowne,
    JeremyTaylerandClarendon.Englishprosewhichhadbeenformedintoaharmoniousandpliable
    instrumentbytheElizabethans,begantobeusedinvariousways,asnarrativeaswellasavehiclefor
    philosophicalspeculationandscientificknowledge.Forthefirsttimethegreatscholarsbegantowritein
    EnglishratherthanLatin.ThegreatestsingleinfluencewhichenrichedtheEnglishprosewasthe
    AuthorisedVersionoftheBible(EnglishtranslationoftheBible),whichwastheresultoftheeffortsof
    scholarswhowroteinaforceful,simpleandpureAngloSaxontongueavoidingallthatwasrough,foreign
    andaffected.SotheBiblebecamethesupremeexampleofearlierEnglishprosestylesimple,plainand
    natural.Asitwasreadbythepeopleingeneral,itsinfluencewasallpervasive.

    FrancisBacon(15611628).BaconbelongsbothtotheElizabethanandJacobeanperiods.Hewasalawyer
    possessinggreatintellectualgifts.BenJonsonwroteofhim,nomanevercoughedorturnedasidefrom
    himwithoutaloss.Asaprosewriterheisthemasteroftheaphoristicstyle.Hehastheknackof
    compressinghiswisdominepigramswhichcontainthequintessenceofhisrichexperienceoflifeinamost
    concentratedform.Hisstyleisclear,lucidbutterseandthatiswhyonehastomakeanefforttounderstand
    hismeaning.Itlacksspaciousness,easeandrhythm.Thereaderhasalwaystobealertbecauseeach
    sentenceispackedwithmeaning.

    BaconisbestknownforhisEssays,inwhichhehasgivenhisviewsabouttheartofmanagingmenand
    gettingonsuccessfullyinlife.Theymaybeconsideredasakindofmanualforstatesmenandprinces.The
    toneoftheessayisthatofaworldlymanwhowantstosecurematerialsuccessandprosperity.Thatiswhy
    theirmoralstandardisnothigh.

    BesidestheEssays,BaconwroteHenryVIIthefirstpieceofscientifichistoryintheEnglishlanguageand
    TheAdvancementofLearningwhichisabrilliantpopularexpositionofthecauseofscientificinvestigation.
    ThoughBaconhimselfdidnotmakeanygreatscientificdiscovery,hepopularizedsciencethroughhis
    writings.Onaccountofhisbeingtheintellectualgiantofhistime,heiscreditedwiththeauthorshipofthe
    playsofShakespeare.

    RobertBurton(15771640)isknownforhisTheAnatomyofMelancholy,whichisabookofitsowntype
    intheEnglishlanguage.Inithehasanalysedhumanmelancholy,describeditseffectandprescribedits
    cure.Butmorethanthatthebookdealswithalltheillsthatfleshisheirto,andtheauthordrawshis
    materialfromwriters,ancientaswellasmodern.Itiswritteninastraightforward,simpleandvigorous
    style,whichattimesismarkedwithrhythmandbeauty.

    SirThomasBrowne(16051682)belongedentirelytoadifferentcategory.Withhimthemannerof
    writingismoreimportantthanthesubstance.Heis,therefore,thefirstdeliberatestylistintheEnglish
    language,theforerunnerofCharlesLambandStevenson.Beingaphysicianwithaflairforwriting,he
    wroteReligioMediciinwhichhesetdownhisbeliefsandthoughts,thereligionofthemedicalman.Inthis
    book,whichiswritteninanamusing,personalstyle,theconflictbetweentheauthorsintellectandhis
    religiousbeliefs,givesitapeculiarcharm.EverysentencehasthestampofBrownesindividuality.His
    otherimportantproseworkisHydriotaphiaorTheUrnBurial,inwhichmeditatingontimeandantiquity
    Brownereachestheheightsofrhetoricalsplendour.Heisgreaterasanartistthanathinker,andhisproseis
    highlycomplexinitsstructureandalmostpoeticinrichnessoflanguage.

    Otherwritersofhisperiod,whowere,likeBrowne,themastersofrhetoricalprose,wereMilton,Jeremy
    TaylorandClarendon.MostofMiltonsprosewritingsareconcernedwiththequestionsatissuebetween
    theParliamentandtheKing.Beingthechampionoffreedomineveryform,hewroteaforcefultractOnthe
    DoctrineandDisciplineofDivorce,inwhichhestronglyadvocatedtherighttodivorce.Hismostfamous
    proseworkisAreopagiticawhichwasoccasionedbyaparliamentaryorderforsubmittingthepressto
    censorship.HereMiltonvehementlycriticisedthebureaucraticcontrolovergenius.Thoughasa
    pamphleteerMiltonattimesindulgesindownrightabuse,andhelackshumourandlightnessoftouch,yet
    thereisthatinherentsublimityinhisprosewritings,whichweassociatewithhimasapoetandman.When
    hetouchesanoblethought,thewingsofhisimaginationlifthimtomajesticheights.

    OpposedtoMilton,thegreatestwriterintheparliamentarystrugglewastheEarlofClarendon(16091674).
    Hisproseisstately,andhealwayswriteswithabiaswhichisratheroffensive,aswefindinhisHistoryof
    theRebellionandCivilWarsinEngland.

    JeremyTaylor(16131667),abishop,madehimselffamousbyhisliterarysermons.Onaccountofthe
    gentlecharmofhislanguage,therichnessofhisimages,andhisprofoundlyhumanimagination,Tayloris
    consideredasoneofthemastersofEnglisheloquence.Hisbestprosefamousbookofdevotionamong
    Englishmenandwomen.

    ThusduringthisperiodwefindEnglishprosedevelopingintoagrandiloquentandrichinstrumentcapable
    ofexpressingalltypesofideasscientific,religious,philosophic,poetic,andpersonal.
    TheRestorationPeriod(16601700)

    AftertheRestorationin1660,whenCharlesIIcametothethrone,therewasacompleterepudiationofthe
    Puritanidealsandwayofliving.InEnglishliteraturetheperiodfrom1660to1700iscalledtheperiodof
    Restoration,becausemonarchywasrestoredinEngland,andCharlesII,thesonofCharlesIwhohadbeen
    defeatedandbeheaded,camebacktoEnglandfromhisexileinFranceandbecametheKing.

    ItiscalledtheAgeofDryden,becauseDrydenwasthedominatingandmostrepresentativeliteraryfigure
    oftheAge.AsthePuritanswhowerepreviouslycontrollingthecountry,andweresupervisingherliterary
    andmoralandsocialstandards,werefinallydefeated,areactionwaslaunchedagainstwhatevertheyheld
    sacred.Allrestraintsanddisciplinewerethrowntothewinds,andawaveoflicentiousnessandfrivolity
    sweptthecountry.CharlesIIandhisfollowerswhohadenjoyedagaylifeinFranceduringtheirexile,did
    theirbesttointroducethattypeoffopperyandloosenessinEnglandalso.Theyrenouncedoldidealsand
    demandedthatEnglishpoetryanddramashouldfollowthestyletowhichtheyhadbecomeaccustomedin
    thegaietyofParis.InsteadofhavingShakespeareandtheElizabethansastheirmodels,thepoetsand
    dramatistsoftheRestorationperiodbegantoimitateFrenchwritersandespeciallytheirvices.

    TheresultwasthattheoldElizabethanspiritwithitspatriotism,itsloveofadventureandromance,its
    creativevigour,andthePuritanspiritwithitsmoraldisciplineandloveofliberty,becamethingsofthe
    past.Foratimeinpoetry,dramaandprosenothingwasproducedwhichcouldcomparesatisfactorilywith
    thegreatachievementsoftheElizabethans,ofMilton,andevenofminorwritersofthePuritanage.But
    thenthewritersoftheperiodbegantoevolvesomethingthatwascharacteristicofthetimesandtheymade
    twoimportantcontributionstoEnglishliteratureintheformofrealismandatendencytopreciseness.
    Inthebeginningrealismtookanuglyshape,becausethewriterspaintedtherealpicturesofthecorrupt
    societyandcourt.Theyweremoreconcernedwithvicesratherthanwithvirtues.Theresultwasacoarse
    andinferiortypeofliterature.Laterthistendencytorealismbecamemorewholesome,andthewriterstried
    toportrayrealisticallyhumanlifeastheyfoundititsgoodaswellasbadside,itsinternalaswellas
    externalshape.

    ThetendencytoprecisenesswhichultimatelybecamethechiefcharacteristicoftheRestorationperiod,
    madealastingcontributiontoEnglishliterature.Itemphasiseddirectnessandsimplicityofexpression,and
    counteractedthetendencyofexaggerationandextravagancewhichwasencouragedduringtheElizabethan
    andthePuritanages.Insteadofusinggrandiloquentphrases,involvedsentencesfullofLatinquotations
    andclassicalallusions,theRestorationwriters,undertheinfluenceofFrenchwriters,gaveemphasisto
    reasoningratherthanromanticfancy,andevolvedanexact,precisewayofwriting,consistingofshort,
    clearcutsentenceswithoutanyunnecessaryword.TheRoyalSociety,whichwasestablishedduringthis
    periodenjoinedonallitsmemberstouseaclose,naked,naturalwayofspeakingandwriting,asnearthe
    mathematicalplainnessastheycan.Drydenacceptedthisruleforhisprose,andforhispoetryadoptedthe
    easiesttypeofverseformtheheroiccouplet.Underhisguidance,theEnglishwritersevolvedastyle
    precise,formalandelegantwhichiscalledtheclassicalstyle,andwhichdominatedEnglishliteraturefor
    morethanacentury.

    (a)RestorationPoetry

    JohnDryden(16311700).TheRestorationpoetrywasmostlysatirical,realisticandwrittenintheheroic
    couplet,ofwhichDrydenwasthesuprememaster.HewasthedominatingfigureoftheRestorationperiod,
    andhemadehismarkinthefieldsofpoetry,dramaandprose.Inthefieldofpoetryhewas,infact,the
    onlypoetworthmentioning.InhisyouthhecameundertheinfluenceofCowley,andhisearlypoetryhas
    thecharacteristicconceitsandexaggerationsofthemetaphysicalschool.Butinhislateryearshe
    emancipatedhimselffromthefalsetasteandartificialstyleofthemetaphysicalwriters,andwroteinaclear
    andforcefulstylewhichlaidthefoundationoftheclassicalschoolofpoetryinEngland.

    ThepoetryofDrydencanbeconvenientlydividedunderthreeheadsPoliticalSatires,DoctrinalPoems
    andTheFables.Ofhispoliticalsatires,AbsolemandAchitophelandTheMedalarewellknown.In
    AbsolemandAchitophel,whichisoneofthegreatestpoliticalsatiresintheEnglishlanguage,Dryden
    defendedtheKingagainsttheEarlofShaftesburywhoisrepresentedasAchitophel.Itcontainspowerful
    characterstudiesofShaftesburyandoftheDukeofBuckinghamwhoisrepresentedasZimri.TheMedalis
    anothersatiricalpoemfullofinvectiveagainstShaftesburyandMacFlecknoe.Italsocontainsascathing
    personalattackonThomasShadwellwhowasonceafriendofDryden.

    ThetwogreatdoctrinalpoemsofDrydenareReligioLaiciandTheHindandthePanther.Thesepoemsare
    neitherreligiousnordevotional,buttheologicalandcontroversial.ThefirstwaswrittenwhenDrydenwasa
    Protestant,anditdefendstheAnglicanChurch.ThesecondwrittenwhenDrydenhadbecomeaCatholic,
    vehementlydefendsCatholicism.They,therefore,showDrydenspowerandskillofdefendingany
    positionhetookup,andhismasteryinpresentinganargumentinverse.

    TheFables,whichwerewrittenduringthelastyearsofDrydenslife,shownodecreaseinhispoetic
    power.Writtenintheformofanarrative,theyentitleDrydentorankamongthebeststorytellersinverse
    inEngland.ThePalamonandArcite,whichisbasedonChaucersKnightsTale,givesusanopportunity
    ofcomparingthemethodandartofafourteenthcenturypoetwithonebelongingtotheseventeenth
    century.OfthemanymiscellaneouspoemsofDryden,AnnusMirabilisisafineexampleofhissustained
    narrativepower.HisAlexandersFeastisoneofthebestodesintheEnglishlanguage.

    ThepoetryofDrydenpossessallthecharacteristicsoftheRestorationperiodandisthereforethoroughly
    representativeofthatage.Itdoesnothavethepoeticglow,thespiritualfervour,themoralloftinessand
    philosophicaldepthwhichweresadlylackingintheRestorationperiod.Butithastheformalism,the
    intellectualprecision,theargumentativeskillandrealismwhichwerethemaincharacteristicsofthatage.
    ThoughDrydendoesnotreachgreatpoeticheights,yethereandtherehegivesuspassagesofwonderful
    strengthandeloquence.Hisreputationliesinhisbeinggreatasasatiristandreasonerinverse.Infactin
    thesetwocapacitiesheisstillthegreatestmasterinEnglishliterature.Drydensgreatestcontributionto
    Englishpoetrywashisskilfuluseoftheheroiccouplet,whichbecametheacceptedmeasureofserious
    Englishpoetryformanyyears.

    (b)RestorationDrama

    In1642thetheatreswereclosedbytheauthorityoftheparliamentwhichwasdominatedbyPuritansandso
    nogoodplayswerewrittenfrom1642tilltheRestoration(comingbackofmonarchyinEnglandwiththe
    accessionofCharlesIItothethrone)in1660whenthetheatreswerereopened.ThedramainEnglandafter
    1660,calledtheRestorationdrama,showedentirelynewtrendsonaccountofthelongbreakwiththepast.
    Moreover,itwasgreatlyaffectedbythespiritofthenewagewhichwasdeficientinpoeticfeeling,
    imaginationandemotionalapproachtolife,butlaidemphasisonproseasthemediumofexpression,and
    intellectual,realisticandcriticalapproachtolifeanditsproblems.Asthecommonpeoplestillunderthe
    influenceofPuritanismhadnoloveforthetheatres,thedramatistshadtocatertothetasteofthe
    aristocraticclasswhichwashighlyfashionable,frivolous,cynicalandsophisticated.Theresultwasthat
    unliketheElizabethandramawhichhadamassappeal,haditsrootsinthelifeofthecommonpeopleand
    couldbelegitimatelycalledthenationaldrama,theRestorationdramahadnoneofthesecharacteristics.Its
    appealwasconfinedtotheupperstrataofsocietywhosetastewasaristocratic,andamongwhichthe
    prevailingfashionsandetiquetteswereforeignandextravagant.

    Asimaginationandpoeticfeelingswereregardedasvulgarenthusiasmbythedictatorsofthesociallife.
    Butasactuallifemeantthelifeofthearistocraticclassonly,theplaysofthisperioddonotgiveusa
    pictureofthewholenation.ThemostpopularformofdramawastheComedyofMannerswhichportrayed
    thesophisticatedlifeofthedominantclassofsocietyitsgaiety,foppery,insolenceandintrigue.Thusthe
    basisoftheRestorationdramawasverynarrow.Thegeneraltoneofthisdramawasmostaptlydescribed
    byShelley:

    Comedylosesitsidealuniversality:witsucceedshumourwelaughfromselfcomplacencyandtriumph
    insteadofpleasure,malignity,sarcasmandcontempt,succeedtosympatheticmerrimentwehardlylaugh,
    butwesmile.Obscenity,whichiseverblasphemyagainstthedivinebeautyoflife,becomes,fromthevery
    veilwhichitassumes,moreactiveiflessdisgustingitisamonsterforwhichthecorruptionofsocietyfor
    everbringsforthnewfood,whichitdevoursinsecret.

    ThesenewtrendsincomedyareseeninDrydensWildGallant(1663),Etheredges(16351691)The
    ComicalRevengeorLoveinaTub(1664),WycherleysTheCountryWifeandThePlainDealer,andthe
    playsofVanbrughandFarquhar.ButthemostgiftedamongalltheRestorationdramatistwasWilliam
    Congreve(16701720)whowroteallhisbestplayshewasthirtyyearsofage.Hewellknowncomediesare
    LoveforLove(1695)andTheWayoftheWorld(1700).

    ItismainlyonaccountofhisremarkablestylethatCongreveisputattheheadoftheRestorationdrama.
    NoEnglishdramatisthasevenwrittensuchfineproseforthestageasCongrevedid.Hebalances,polishes
    andsharpenshissentencesuntiltheyshinelikechiselledinstrumentsforanelectricalexperiment,through
    whichpassesthecurrentintheshapeofhisincisiveandscintillatingwit.AstheplaysofCongrevereflect
    thefashionsandfoiblesoftheupperclasseswhosemoralstandardshadbecomelax,theydonothavea
    universalappeal,butassocialdocumentstheirvalueisverygreat.Moreover,thoughthesecomedieswere
    subjectedtoaveryseverecriticismbytheRomanticslikeShelleyandLamb,theyarenowagainingreat
    demandandthereisarevivalofinterestinRestorationcomedy.

    Intragedy,theRestorationperiodspecialisedinHeroicTragedy,whichdealtwiththemesofepic
    magnitude.Theheroesandheroinespossessedsuperhumanqualities.Thepurposeofthistragedywas
    didactictoinculcatevirtuesintheshapeofbraveryandconjugallove.Itwaswrittenintheheroic
    coupletinaccordancewiththeheroicconventionderivedfromFrancethatheroicmetreshouldbeused
    insuchplays.Initdeclamationtooktheplaceofnaturaldialogue.Moreover,itwascharacterisedby
    bombast,exaggerationandsensationaleffectswhereverpossible.Asitwasnotbasedontheobservationsof
    life,therewasnorealisticcharacterisation,anditinevitablyendedhappily,andvirtuewasalways
    rewarded.

    ThechiefprotagonistandwriterofheroictragedywasDryden.Underhisleadershiptheheroictragedy
    dominatedthestagefrom1660to1678.HisfirstexperimentinthistypeofdramawashisplayTyrannic
    love,andinTheConquestofGranadahebroughtittoitsculminatingpoint.Butthenasevere
    condemnationofthisgrandmannerofwritingtragedywasstartedbycertaincriticsandplaywrights,of
    whichDrydenwasthemaintarget.IthasitseffectonDrydenwhoinhisnextplayAurangzebexercised
    greaterrestraintanddecorum,andintheProloguetothisplayheadmittedthesuperiorityofShakespeares
    method,andhisownwearinessofusingtheheroiccoupletwhichisunfittodescribehumanpassions
    adequately:Heconfessesthathe:

    GrowswearyofhislonglovedmistressRhyme,
    Passionstoofiercetobeinfettersbound,
    AndNatureflieshimlikeenchantedground
    Whatversecando,hehasperformedinthis
    Whichhepresumesthemostcorrectofhis
    Butspiteofallhispride,asecretshame

    InvadeshisbreastatShakespearessacredname.

    DrydensalteredattitudeisseenmoreclearlyinhisnextplayAllforLove(1678).Thushewritesinthe
    preface:InmystyleIhaveprofessedtoimitateShakespearewhichthatImightperformmorefreely,I
    havedisencumberedmyselffromrhyme.Heshiftshisgroundfromthetypicalheroictragedyinthisplay,
    dropsrhymeandquestionsthevalidityoftheunitiesoftime,placeandactionintheconditionsofthe
    Englishstage.HealsogivesuptheliteraryrulesobservedbyFrenchdramatistsandfollowsthelawsof
    dramaformulatedbythegreatdramatistsofEngland.AnotherimportantwayinwhichDrydenturns
    himselfawayfromtheconventionsoftheheroictragedy,isthathedoesnotgiveahappyendingtothis
    play.

    (c)RestorationProse

    TheRestorationperiodwasdeficientinpoetryanddrama,butinproseitholdsitsheadmuchhigher.Of
    course,itcannotbesaidthattheRestorationproseenjoysabsolutesupremacyinEnglishliterature,because
    onaccountofthefallofpoeticpower,lackofinspiration,preferenceofthemerelypracticalandprosaic
    subjectsandapproachtolife,itcouldnotreachthoseheightswhichitattainedintheprecedingperiodin
    thehandsofMiltonandBrowne,orinthesucceedingagesinthehandsofLamb,Hazlitt,Ruskinand
    Carlyle.ButithastobeadmittedthatitwasduringtheRestorationperiodthatEnglishprosewasdeveloped
    asamediumforexpressingclearlyandpreciselyaverageideasandfeelingsaboutmiscellaneousmatters
    forwhichproseisreallymeant.Forthefirsttimeaprosestylewasevolvedwhichcouldbeusedforplain
    narrative,argumentativeexpositionofintricatesubjects,andthehandlingofpracticalbusiness.The
    elaborateElizabethanprosewasunsuitedtotellingaplainstory.TheepigrammaticstyleofBacon,the
    grandiloquentproseofMiltonandthedreamyharmoniesofBrownecouldnotbeadaptedtoscientific,
    historical,politicalandphilosophicalwritings,and,aboveall,tonovelwriting.Thuswiththechangeinthe
    temperofthepeople,anewtypeofprose,aswasdevelopedintheRestorationperiod,wasessential.

    Asinthefieldsofpoetryanddrama,Drydenwasthechiefleaderandpractitionerofthenewprose.Inhis
    greatestcriticalworkEssayofDramaticPoesy,Drydenpresentedamodelofthenewprose,whichwas
    completelydifferentfromtheproseofBacon,MiltonandBrowne.Hewroteinaplain,simpleandexact
    style,freefromallexaggerations.HisFablesandthePrefacetothemarefineexamplesoftheprosestyle
    whichDrydenwasintroducing.Thisstyleis,infact,themostadmirablysuitedtostrictlyprosaicpurposes
    correctbutnottame,easybutnotslipshod,forciblebutnotunnatural,eloquentbutnotdeclamatory,
    gracefulbutnotlackinginvigour.Ofcourse,itdoesnothavecharmandanatmospherewhichweassociate
    withimaginativewriting,butDrydenneverprofessedtoprovidethatalso.Onthewhole,forgeneral
    purposes,forwhichprosemediumisrequired,thestyleofDrydenisthemostsuitable.

    Otherwriters,oftheperiod,whocameundertheinfluenceofDryden,andwroteinaplain,simplebut
    precisestyle,wereSirWilliamTemple,JohnTillotsonandGeorgeSavillebetterknownasViscount
    Halifax.AnotherfamouswriteroftheperiodwasThomasSpratwhoisbetterknownforthedistinctness
    withwhichheputthedemandfornewprosethanforhisownwritings.Beingamanofsciencehimselfhe
    publishedhisHistoryoftheRoyalSociety(1667)inwhichheexpressedthepublicdemandfora
    popularisedstylefreefromthisviciousabundanceofphrase,thistrickofmetaphors,thisvolubilityof
    tongue.TheSocietyexpectedfromallitsmembersaclose,naturalwayofspeakingpositive
    expressions,clearsenses,anativeeasinessbringingallthingsasnearthemathematicalplainnessasthey
    can,andpreferringthelanguageofartisans,countrymenandmerchantsbeforethatofwitsandscholars.
    ThoughthesewriterswroteundertheinfluenceofDryden,theyalso,toacertainextent,helpedinthe
    evolutionofthenewprosestylebytheirownindividualapproach.ThatiswhytheproseoftheRestoration
    periodisfreefrommonotony.

    JohnBunyan(16281688).NexttoDryden,Bunyanwasthegreatestprosewriteroftheperiod.Like
    Milton,hewasimbuedwiththespiritofPuritanism,andinfact,ifMiltonisthegreatestpoetofPuritanism,
    Bunyanisitsgreateststoryteller.TohimalsogoesthecreditofbeingtheprecursoroftheEnglishnovel.
    HisgreatestworkisThePilgrimsProgress.JustasMiltonwrotehisParadiseLosttojustifythewaysto
    Godtomen,BunyansaiminThePilgrimsProgresswastoleadmenandwomenintoGodsway,the
    wayofsalvation,throughasimpleparablewithhomelycharactersandexcitingevents.LikeMilton,
    Bunyanwasendowedwithahighlydevelopedimaginativefacultyandartisticinstinct.Bothweredeeply
    religious,andboth,thoughtheydistrustedfiction,werethemastersoffiction.ParadiseLostandThe
    PilgrimsProgresshavestillsurvivedamongthousandsofequallyferventreligiousworksofthe
    seventeenthcenturybecausebothofthemaremasterpiecesofliteraryart,whichinstructaswellplease
    eventhosewhohavenofaithinthoseinstructions.

    InThePilgrimsProgress,BunyanhasdescribedthepilgrimageoftheChristiantotheHeavenlyCity,the
    trials,tribulationsandtemptationswhichhemeetsinthewayintheformofeventsandcharacters,who
    abstractandhelphim,andhisultimatelyreachingthegoal.Itiswrittenintheformofallegory.Thestyleis
    terse,simpleandvivid,anditappealstotheculturedaswellastotheunlettered.AsDr.Johnsonremarked:
    Thisisthegreatmeritofthebook,thatthemostcultivatedmancannotfindanythingtopraisemore
    highly,andthechildknowsnothingmoreamusing.ThePilgrimsProgresshasallthebasicrequirements
    ofthetraditionaltypeofEnglishnovel.Ithasagoodstorythecharactersareinterestingandpossess
    individualityandfreshnesstheconversationisarrestingthedescriptionsarevividthenarrative
    continuouslymovestowardsadefiniteend,aboveall,ithasaliterarystylethroughwhichthewriters
    personalityclearlyemanates.ThePilgrimsProgressisaworkofsuperbliterarygenius,anditis
    unsurpassedasanexampleofplainEnglish.

    Bunyansotherworksare:GraceAboundingtotheChiefofSinners(1666),akindofspiritual
    autobiographyTheHolyWar,whichlikeThePilgrimsProgressisanallegory,butthecharactersareless
    alive,andthereislessvarietyTheLifeandDeathofMr.Badman(1680)writtenintheformofarealistic
    novel,givesapictureoflowlife,anditissecondinvalueandliterarysignificancetoThePilgrims
    Progress.

    TheproseofBunyanshowsclearlytheinfluenceoftheEnglishtranslationoftheBible(TheAuthorized
    Version).Hewasneitherascholar,nordidhebelongtoanyliteraryschoolallthatheknewandlearned
    wasderivedstraightfromtheEnglishBible.Hewasanunletteredcountrytinkerbelievinginrighteousness
    andindisgustwiththecorruptionanddegradationthatprevailedallaroundhim.Whathewrotecame
    straightfromhisheart,andhewroteinthelanguagewhichcamenaturaltohim.Thushisworksbornof
    moralearnestnessandextremesincerityhaveacquiredtrueliterarysignificanceandwideandenduring
    popularity.Itisquitetruetocallhimthepioneerofthemodernnovel,becausehehadthequalitiesofthe
    greatstoryteller,deepinsightintocharacter,humour,pathos,andthevisualisingimaginationofadramatic
    artist.

    (Continued)
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    EighteenthCenturyLiterature

    TheEighteenthCenturyinEnglandiscalledtheClassicalAgeortheAugustanAgeinliterature.Itisalso
    calledtheAgeofGoodSenseortheAgeofReason.ThoughDrydenbelongedtotheseventeenthcentury,
    heisalsoincludedintheClassicalorAugustanAge,asduringhistimethecharacteristicsofhisagehad
    manifestedthemselvesandhehimselfrepresentedthemtoagreatextent.Othergreatliteraryfigureswho
    dominatedthisagesuccessivelywerePopeandDr.Johnson,andsotheClassicalAgeisdividedintothree
    distinctperiodstheAgesofDryden,PopeandDr.Johnson.Inthischapterwhichisdevotedtothe
    eighteenthcenturyliteratureinEngland,wewilldealwiththeAgesofPopeandJohnson.TheAgeof
    Drydenhasalreadybeendealtwithintheprecedingchapter,entitledTheRestorationPeriod.

    TheEighteenthCenturyiscalledtheClassicalAgeinEnglishliteratureonaccountofthreereasons.Inthe
    firstplace,thetermclassic,refersingeneral,appliestowritersofthehighestrankinanynation.This
    termwasfirstappliedtotheworksofthegreatGreekandRomanwriters,likeHomerandVirgil.Asthe
    writersoftheeighteenthcenturyinEnglandtriedtofollowthesimpleandnoblemethodsofthegreat
    ancientwriters,theybegantobecalledClassicalwriters.Inthesecondplace,ineverynationalliterature
    thereisaperiodwhenalargenumberofwritersproduceworksofgreatmeritsuchaperiodisoftencalled
    theClassicalPeriodorAge.Forexample,thereignofAugustusiscalledtheClassicalAgeofRomeand
    theAgeofDanteiscalledtheClassicalAgeofItalianliterature.Asduringtheeighteenthcenturyin
    Englandtherewasanabundanceofliteraryproductions,thecriticsnamedittheClassicalAgeinEnglish
    literature.Inthethirdplace,duringthisperiodtheEnglishwritersrebelledagainsttheexaggeratedand
    fantasticstyleofwritingprevalentduringtheElizabethanandPuritanages,andtheydemandedthatpoetry,
    dramaandproseshouldfollowexactrules.InthistheywereinfluencedbyFrenchwriters,especiallyby
    BoileauandRapin,whoinsistedonprecisemethodsofwritingpoetry,andwhoprofessedtohave
    discoveredtheirrulesintheclassicsofHoraceandAristotle.TheeighteenthcenturyiscalledtheClassical
    Age,becausethewritersfollowedtheclassicismoftheancientwriters,whichwastakeninanarrowsense
    toimplyfinepolishandexternalelegance.ButastheeighteenthcenturywritersinEnglandfollowedthe
    ancientclassicalwritersonlyintheirexternalperformance,andlackedtheirsublimityandgrandeur,their
    classicismiscalledpseudoclassicismi.,e.,afalseorshamclassicism.

    AsthetermClassicalAgeis,therefore,toodignifiedforwritersoftheeighteenthcenturyinEngland,who
    imitatedonlytheoutwardtrappingoftheancientclassicalwriters,andcouldnotgetattheirinnerspirit,
    thisageispreferablycalledtheAugustanAge.Thistermwaschosenbythewritersoftheeighteenth
    centurythemselves,whosawinPope,Addison,Swift,JohnsonandBurkethemodernparallelstoHorace,
    Virgil,Cicero,andotherbrilliantwriterswhomadeRomanliteraturefamousduringthereignofEmperor
    Augustus.Ofcourse,totermthisastheAugustanAgeisalsonotjustifiedbecausethewritersofthisperiod
    couldnotcomparefavourablewiththoseoftheAugustanAgeinLatinliterature.Butthesetermsthe
    ClassicalAgeandtheAugustanAgehavebecomecurrent,andsothisageisgenerallycalledbythese
    terms.

    TheeighteenthcenturyisalsocalledtheAgeofReasonortheAgeofGoodSense,becausethepeople
    thoughtthattheycouldstandontheirownlegsandbeguidedintheconductoftheiraffairsbythelightof
    theirownreasonuncloudedbyrespectforAncientprecedent.Theybegantothinkthatunduerespectfor
    authorityoftheAncientswasagreatsourceoferror,andthereforeineverymattermanshouldapplyhis
    ownreasonandcommonsense.Eveninliteraturewheretheprespectforclassicalartformsandtherulesfor
    writinginthoseformsgavethedefendersoftheAncientsadecidedadvantages,criticscoulddeclarethat
    thevalidityoftherulesofartwasderivedfromReasonratherthanfromAncientAuthority.Thoughinthe
    seventeenthcenturySirThomasBrownewhostoodagainstAncientAuthorityinsecularmatters,declared
    thatinreligionhaggardandunreclaimedReasonmuststoopuntothelureofFaith.JohnLocke,thegreat
    philosopher,hadopinedthattherewasnowarbetweenFaithandReason.HedeclaredinAnEssay
    ConcerningHumaneUnderstanding(1690),Faithisnothingbutafirmassentofthemindwhichifitbe
    regulatedasisourduty,cannotbeaffordedtoanythingbutupongoodreasonandsocannotbeoppositeto
    it.

    Itwaswidelyassumedduringtheeighteenthcenturythatsinceeverymaniscompetenttodecide,by
    referencetohisownreason,onanypointofnaturalormoralphilosophy,everymanbecomeshisown
    philosopher.Sotheneedoftheexpertorspecialistvanishes.Moreover,asallmenwereassumedtobe
    equallyendowedwiththepowerofreasoning,itfollowedthatwhentheyreasonedonanygivenpremises
    theymustreachthesameconclusion.Thatconclusionwasbelievedtohaveuniversalvalueanddirect
    appealtoeveryonebelongingtoanyraceorage.Moreover,itshouldbetheconclusionreachedbyearlier
    generationsincereasonmustworkthesamewayineveryperiodofhistory.WhenPopesaidofwitthatitis
    Naturetoadvantagedressd,whatoftwasthoughtbutnersowellexpressd,andwhenDr.Johnson
    remarkedaboutGraysElegythatitaboundswithimageswhichfindamirrorineverymind,andwith
    sentimentstowhicheverybosomreturnsanecho,theyweresimplygivingtheliteraryapplicationofthis
    beliefthatthehighesttypeofartisthatwhichcanbeunderstoodimmediately,whichhasthewidestappeal,
    whichisfreefromtheexpressionofpersonalidiosyncrasy,andwhichdealswithwhatisgeneraland
    universalratherthanwithwhatisindividualandparticular.
    Thiswasthetemperoftheeighteenthcentury.IfitiscalledTheAgeofReasonorTheAgeofGoodSense,
    itisbecauseinthisageitwasassumedthatinreasoningpowerallmenareandhavealwaysbeenequal.It
    wasanagewhichtookalegitimateprideinmoderndiscoveriesbaseduponobservationandreason,and
    whichdelightedtoreflectthatthosediscoverieshadconfirmedtheancientbeliefsthatthereisanorderand
    harmonyintheuniverse,thatitisworkedonrationalprinciples,thateachcreatedthinghasitsallowed
    positionandmovedinitsappointedspheres.Itwas,inshort,anagewhichimplicitlybelievedinthe
    Biblicalsaying:GodsaweverythingthatHehadmade,andbeholditwasverygood.

    Nowletusconsidertheliterarycharacteristicsofthisage.Inthepreviousageswhichwehavedealtwith,it
    werethepoeticalworkswhichweregivenprominence.Now,forthefirsttimeinthehistoryofEnglish
    literature,proseoccupiesthefrontposition.Asitwastheageofsocial,politicalreligiousandliterary
    controversiesinwhichtheprominentwriterstookanactivepart,andalargenumberofpamphlets,journals
    andmagazineswerebroughtoutinordertocatertothegrowingneedofthemasseswhohadbeguntoread
    andtakeinterestinthesecontroversialmatters,poetrywasconsideredinadequateforsuchatask,andhence
    therewasarapiddevelopmentofprose.Infacttheprosewritersofthisageexcelthepoetsineveryrespect.
    ThegracefulandelegantproseofAddisonsessays,thetersestyleofSwiftssatires,theartisticperfection
    ofFieldingsnovels,thesonorouseloquenceofGibbonshistory,andtheoratoricalstyleofBurke,haveno
    equalinthepoeticalworksoftheage.Infact,poetryalsohadbecomeprosaic,becauseitwasnolonger
    usedforloftyandsublimepurposes,but,likeprose,itssubjectmatterhadbecomecriticism,satire,
    controversyanditwasalsowrittenintheformoftheessaywhichwasthecommonliteraryfrom:Poetry
    becamepolished,wittyandartificial,butitlackedfire,finefeelings,enthusiasm,thepoeticglowof
    ElizabethanAgeandthemoralearnestnessofPuritanism.Infact,itbecamemoreinterestedintheportrayal
    ofactuallife,anddistrustedinspirationandimagination.Thechiefliterarygloryoftheagewas,therefore,
    notpoetry,butprosewhichinthehandsofgreatwritersdevelopedintoanexcellentmediumcapableof
    expressingclearlyeveryhumaninterestandemotion.

    ThetwomaincharacteristicsoftheRestorationperiodRealismandPrecisionwerecarriedtofurther
    perfectionduringtheeighteenthcentury.TheyarefoundintheirexcellentforminthepoetryofPope,who
    perfectedtheheroiccouplet,andintheproseofAddisonwhodevelopeditintoaclear,preciseandelegant
    formofexpression.Thethirdcharacteristicofthisagewasthedevelopmentofsatireasaformofliterature,
    whichresultedfromtheunfortunateunionofpoliticswithliterature.ThewingsandtheToriesmembers
    oftwoimportantpoliticalpartieswhichwereconstantlycontendingtocontrolthegovernmentofthe
    countryusedandrewardedthewritersforsatirisingtheirenemiesandunderminingtheirreputation.
    Moreover,asasatireisconcernedmainlywithfindingfaultwiththeopponents,andisdestructiveinits
    intention,itcannotreachthegreatliteraryheights.Thustheliteratureoftheage,whichismainlysatirical
    cannotbefavourablycomparedwithgreatliterature.Onefeelsthatthesewriterscouldhavedonebetterif
    theyhadkeptthemselvesclearofthetopicalcontroversies,andhaddevotedtheirenergiestomattersof
    universalimport.

    Anotherimportantfeatureofthisagewastheoriginanddevelopmentofthenovel.Thisnewliteraryform,
    whichgainedgreatpopularityinthesucceedingages,andwhichatpresentholdstheprominentplace,was
    fedandnourishedbygreatmasterslikeDefoe,Richardson,Fielding,Smolletandotherswholaiditssecure
    foundations.Therealismoftheageandthedevelopmentofanexcellentprosestylegreatlyhelpedinthe
    evolutionofthenovelduringtheeighteenthcentury.

    Theeighteenthcenturywasdeficientindrama,becausetheoldPuritanicprejudiceagainstthetheatre
    continued,andthecourtalsowithdrewitspatronage.GoldsmithandSheridanweretheonlywriterswho
    producedplayshavingliterarymerit.

    Anotherimportantthingwhichistobeconsideredwithregardtotheeighteenthcenturyliteratureisthatit
    wasonlyduringtheearlypartofittheAgeofPope,thattheclassicalrulesandidealsreignedsupreme.In
    thelaterpartofittheAgeofJohnsoncracksbegantoappearintheedificeofclassicism,intheformof
    revoltsagainstitsideals,andarevivaloftheRomantictendencywhichwascharacteristicofthe
    Elizabethanperiod.

    Astheeighteenthcenturyisalongperiod,itwillbedealtwithindifferentchaptersentitledTheAgeof
    Pope,TheAgeofJohnson,EighteenthCenturyNovelandEighteenthCenturyDrama.
    TheAgeofPope(17001744)

    TheearlierpartoftheeighteenthcenturyortheAugustanAgeinEnglishliteratureiscalledtheAgeof
    Pope,becausePopewasthedominatingfigureinthatperiod.Thoughtherewereanumberofother
    importantwriterslikeAddisonandSwift,butPopewastheonlyonewhodevotedhimselfcompletelyto
    literature.Moreover,herepresentedinhimselfallthemaincharacteristicsofhisage,andhispoetryserved
    asamodeltoothers.

    (a)Poetry

    ItwastheClassicalschoolofpoetrywhichdominatedthepoetryoftheAgeofPope.Duringthisagethe
    peopleweredisgustedwiththeprofligacyandfrivolityoftheRestorationperiod,andtheyinsistedupon
    thoseelementarydecenciesoflifeandconductwhichwerelookedatwithcontemptbythepreceding
    generation.Moreover,theyhadnosympathyforthefanaticismandreligiouszealofthePuritanswhowere
    outtobaneventhemostinnocentmeansofrecreation.Sotheywantedtofollowthemiddlepathin
    everythingandsteerclearoftheemotionalaswellasmoralexcesses.Theyinsistedontheroleof
    intelligenceineverything.Thepoetsofthisperiodaredeficientonthesideofemotionandimagination.
    Dominatedbyintellect,poetryofthisageiscommonlydidacticandsatirical,apoetryofargumentand
    criticism,ofpoliticsandpersonalities.

    Inthesecondplace,thepoetsofthisagearemoreinterestedinthetown,andtheculturalsociety.They
    havenosympathyforthehumbleraspectsoflifethelifeofthevillagers,theshepherdsandnolovefor
    nature,thebeautifulflowers,thesongsofbirds,andlandscapeaswefindinthepoetsoftheRomantic
    period.Thoughtheypreachedavirtuouslife,theywouldnotdisplayanyfeelingwhichsmackedof
    enthusiasmandearnestness.NaturallytheyhadnoregardforthegreatpoetsofthehumanheartChaucer,
    ShakespeareandMilton.TheyhadnoattachmentfortheMiddleAgesandtheirtalesofchivalry,adventure
    andvisionaryidealism.Spenser,therefore,didnotfindfavourwiththem.

    Inthepoetryofthisage,formbecamemoreimportantthansubstance.Thisloveofsuperficialpolishledto
    theestablishmentofahighlyartificialandconventionalstyle.Theclosedcoupletbecametheonlypossible
    formforseriousworkinverse.Naturallypoetrybecamemonotonous,becausethecoupletwastoonarrow
    andinflexibletobemadethevehicleofhighpassionandstrongimagination.Moreover,asgreatemphasis
    waslaidontheimitationofancientwriters,originalitywasdiscouraged,andpoetrylosttouchwiththereal
    lifeofthepeople.

    Prosebeingtheprominentmediumofexpression,therulesofexactness,precisionandclarity,whichwere
    insistedinthewritingofprose,alsobegantobeappliedtopoetry.Itwasdemandedofthepoettosayall
    thathehadtosayinaplainsimpleandclearlanguage.Theresultwasthatthequalityofsuggestiveness
    whichaddssomuchtothebeautyandworthofpoetrywassadlylackinginthepoetryofthisage.The
    meaningofpoetrywasallonthesurface,andtherewasnothingwhichrequireddeepstudyandvaried
    interpretation.

    AlexandarPope(16881744).PopeisconsideredasthegreatestpoetoftheClassicalperiod.Heisprince
    ofclassicismasProf.Ettoncallshim.Hewasaninvalid,ofsmallsatureanddelicateconstitution,whose
    badnervesandcruelheadachesmadehislife,inhisownphrase,alongdisease.Moreover,beinga
    Catholichehadtolabourundervariousrestrictions.Butthewonderisthatinspiteofhismanifold
    handicaps,thissmall,uglymanhasleftapermanentmarkontheliteratureofhisage.Hewashighly
    intellectual,extremelyambitiousandcapableoftremendousindustry.Thesequalitiesbroughthimtothe
    frontrankofmenofletters,andduringhislifetimehewaslookeduponasamodelpoet.

    ThemainqualityofPopespoetryisitscorrectness.Itwasattheageoftwentythreethathepublishedhis
    EssayonCriticism(1711)andsincethentilltheendofhislifeheenjoyedprogidiousreputation.Inthis
    essayPopeinsistsonfollowingtherulesdiscoveredbytheAncients,becausetheyareinharmonywith
    Nature:

    Thoserulesofolddiscovered,notdevised
    AreNaturestill,butNaturemethodised.

    Popesnextwork,TheRapeoftheLock,isinsomewayshismasterpiece.Itismockheroicpoemin
    whichhecelebratedthethemeofthestealth,byLordPetreoflockofhairfromtheheadofMissArabella.
    Thoughthepoemiswritteninajestanddealswithaveryinsignificantevent,itisgiventheformofan
    epic,investingthisfrivolouseventwithmockseriousnessanddignity.

    BythistimePopehadperfectedtheheroiccouplet,andhemadeuseofhistechnicalskillintranslating
    HomersIlliadandOdysseywhichmeantelevenyearsveryhardwork.ThereputationwhichPopenow
    enjoyedcreatedahostofjealousrivalswhomheseverelycriticisedandridiculedinTheDunciad.Thisis
    Popesgreatestsatireinwhichheattackedallsortsofliteraryincompetence.Itisfullofcruelandinsulting
    coupletsonhisenemies.HisnextgreatpoemwasTheEssayonMan(173234),whichisfullofbrilliant
    oftquotedpassagesandlines.HislaterworksImitationsofHoraceandEpistlearealsosatiresand
    containbitingattacksonhisenemies.

    ThoughPopeenjoyedatremendousreputationduringhislifetimeandforsomedecadesafterhisdeath,he
    wassobitterlyattackedduringthenineteenthcenturythatitwasdoubtedwhetherPopewasapoetatall.
    Butinthetwentiethcenturythisreactionsubsided,andnowitisadmittedbygreatcriticsthatthoughmuch
    thatPopewroteisprosaic,notofaveryhighorder,yetapartofhispoetryisundoubtedlyindestructible.
    Heisthesuprememasteroftheepigrammaticstyle,ofcondensinganideaintoalineorcouplet.Ofcourse,
    thethoughtsinhispoetryarecommonplace,buttheyaregiventhemostappropriateandperfectexpression.
    TheresultisthatmanyofthemhavebecomeproverbialsayingsintheEnglishlanguage.Forexample:
    Whoshalldecidewhendoctorsdisagree?
    Thouwertmyguide,philosopher,andfriend.
    Knowthenthyself,presumenotGodtoscan
    Theproperstudyofmankindisman.

    Hopespringseternalinthehumanbreast
    Manneveris,butalwaystobe,blest.

    MinorPoetsoftheAgeofPope.DuringhisagePopewasbyfarthegreatestofallpoets.Therewereafew
    minorpoetsMatthewPrior,JohnGay,EdwardYoung,ThomasPernellandLadyWinchelsea.

    MatthewPrior(16641721),whowasadiplomatandactivepoliticianwrotetwolongpoems:Solomonon
    theVanityofTheWorldandAlmaortheProgressoftheMind.Theseareseriouspoems,butthereputation
    ofPriorrestsonlightversedealingwithtriflingmatters.Heisnotmerelyalightheartedjester,butatrue
    humanist,withsenseoftearsaswellaslaughterasisseenintheLineswritteninthebeginningof
    MezeralysHistoryofFrance.

    JohnGay(16851732)isthemasterofvividdescriptionorruralscenesaswellofthedelightsofthetown.
    LikePriorheisfullofhumourandgoodtemper.Asawriteroflyrics,andinthehandlingofthecouplet,he
    showsconsiderabletechnicalskill.Hisbestknownworksare:RuralSportsTrivia,ortheArtofWalking
    theStreetsofLondonBlackEyedSusanandsomeFables.

    PriorandGaywerethefollowersofPope,andafterPope,theyarethetwoexcellentguidestothelifeof
    eighteenthcenturyLondon.Theotherminorpoets,EdwardYoung,ThomasParnellandLadyWinchelsea,
    belongedmoretothenewRomanticspiritthantotheclassicalspiritintheirtreatmentofexternalnature,
    thoughtheywereunconsciousofit.

    EdwardYoung(16831765)ishisUniversalPassionsshowedhimselfasskilfulasatiristasPope.His
    bestknownworkisTheNightThoughtswhich,writteninblankverse,showsconsiderabletechnicalskill
    anddeepthought.

    ThomasParnell(16791718)excelledintranslations.HisbestknownworksaretheTheNightPieceon
    DeathandHymntoContentment,whichhaveafreshnessofoutlookandmetricalskill.

    LadyWinchelsea(16601725),thoughafollowerofPope,showedmoresincerityandgenuinefeelingfor
    naturethananyotherpoetofthatage.HerNocturnalReveriemaybeconsideredasthepioneerofthe
    naturepoetryofthenewRomanticage.

    Tosumup,thepoetryoftheageofPopeisnotofahighorder,butithasdistinctmeritsthefinishedartof
    itssatiresthecreationofatechnicallybeautifulverseandtheclarityandsuccinctnessofitsexpression.

    (b)ProseoftheAgeofPope

    ThegreatprosewritersoftheAgeofPopewereDefoe,Addison,SteeleandSwift.Theproseofthisperiod
    exhibitstheClassicalqualitiesclearness,vigouranddirectstatement.

    DanielDefoe(16611731)istheearliestliteraryjournalistintheEnglishlanguage.Hewroteonallsortsof
    subjectssocial,political,literary,andbroughtoutabout250publications.Heoweshisimportance,in
    literature,however,mainlytohisworksoffictionwhichweresimplytheoffshootsofhisgeneral
    journalisticenterprises.Asajournalisthewasfondofwritingaboutthelivesoffamouspeoplewhohad
    justdied,andofnotoriousadventurersandcriminals.Attheageofsixtyheturnedhisattentiontothe
    writingofprosefiction,andpublishedhisfirstnovelRobinsonCrusothebookbywhichheis
    universallyknown.ItwasfollowedbyotherworksoffictionTheMemoirsofaCavalier,Captain
    Singleton,MollFlanders,ColonelJack,RoxanaandJournalofthePlagueYear.

    IntheseworksoffictionDefoegavehisstoriesanairofrealityandconvincedhisreadersoftheir
    authenticity.ThatiswhytheyareappropriatelycalledbySirLeslieStephenasFictitiousbiographiesor
    HistoryminustheFacts.AllDefoe'sfictionsarewritteninthebiographicalform.Theyfollownosystem
    andarenarratedinahaphazardmannerwhichgivethemasemblanceofrealityandtruth.Hisstories,told
    intheplain,matteroffact,businesslikeway,appropriatetostoriesofactuallife,hencetheypossess
    extraordinaryminuterealismwhichistheirdistinctfeature.Herehishomelyandcolloquialstylecameto
    hishelp.OnaccountofallthesequalitiesDefoeiscreditedwithbeingtheoriginatoroftheEnglishnovel.
    Asawriterofprosehisgiftofnarrativeanddescriptionismasterly.Asheneverwrotewithanydeliberate
    artisticintention,hedevelopedanaturalstylewhichmadehimoneofthemastersofEnglishprose.

    JonathanSwift(16671745)wasthemostpowerfulandoriginalgeniusofhisage.Hewashighly
    intellectualbutonaccountofsomeradicaldisorderinhissystemandtherepeatedfailureswhichhehadto
    faceintherealisationofhisambitiontoriseinpubliclife,madehimabitter,melancholyandsardonic
    figure.Hetookdelightinfloutingconventions,andunderminingthereputationofhisapponents.Hisbest
    knownwork,GulliversTravels,whichisaverypopularchildrensbook,isalsoabitterattackon
    contemporarypoliticalandsociallifeinparticular,andonthemeannessandlittlenessofmaningeneral.
    TheTaleofaTubwhich,likeGulliversTravels,iswrittenintheformofanallegory,andexposesthe
    weaknessofthemainreligiousbeliefsopposedtoProtestantreligion,isalsoasatireuponallscienceand
    philosophy.HisJournaltoStellawhichwaswrittentoEstherJohnsonwhomSwiftloved,isnotonlyan
    excellentcommentaryoncontemporarycharactersandpoliticalevents,byoneofthemostpowerfuland
    originalmindsoftheage,butinlovepassages,andpurelypersonaldescriptions,itrevealsthereal
    tendernesswhichlayconcealedinthedepthsofhisfierceanddomineeringnature.

    Swiftwasaprofoundpessimist.Hewasessentiallyamanofhistimeinhiswantofspiritualquality,inhis
    distrustofthevisionaryandtheextravagant,andinhisthoroughlymaterialisticviewoflife.Asamasterof
    prosestyle,whichissimple,directandcolloquial,andfreefromtheornateandrhetoricalelements,Swift
    hasfewrivalsinthewholerangeofEnglishliterature.Asasatiristhisgreatestandmosteffectiveweapon
    isirony.Thoughapparentlysupportingacausewhichheisreallyapposing,hepoursridiculeuponridicule
    onituntilitsveryfoundationsareshaken.Thefinestexample,ofironyistobefoundinhispamphletThe
    BattleofBooks,inwhichhechampionedthecauseoftheAncientsagainsttheModerns.Themockheroic
    descriptionofthegreatbattleintheKingsLibrarybetweentherivalhostsisamasterpieceofitskind.

    JosephAddison(16721719)andSirRichardSteele(16721729)whoworkedincollaboration,werethe
    originatorsoftheperiodicalessay.SteelewhowasmoreoriginalledthewaybyfoundingTheTatler,the
    firstofthelonglineofeighteenthcenturyperiodicalessays.Thiswasfollowedbythemostfamousofthem
    TheSpectator,iswhichAddison,whohadformerlycontributedtoSteelesTatler,nowbecamethechief
    partner.ItbeganonMarch1,1711,andrantillDecember20,1714withabreakofabouteighteenmonths.
    Initscompleteformitcontains635essays.OftheseAddisonwrote274andSteele240theremaining121
    werecontributedbyvariousfriends.

    TheCharactersofSteeleandAddisonwerecuriouslycontrasted.Steelewasanemotional,fullblooded
    kindofman,recklessanddissipatedbutfundamentallyhonestandgoodhearted.Whatthereisofpathos
    andsentiment,andmostofwhatthereisofhumourintheTatlerandtheSpectatorarehis.Addison,onthe
    otherhand,wasanurbane,polishedgentlemanofexquisiterefinementoftaste.Hewasshy,austere,pious
    andrighteous.Hewasaquietandaccurateobserverofmannersoffashionsinlifeandconversation.
    ThepurposeofthewritingsofSteeleandAddisonwasethical.Theytriedtoreformsocietythroughthe
    mediumoftheperiodicalessay.Theysetthemselvesasmoralistictobreakdowntwoopposedinfluences
    thatoftheprofligateRestorationtraditionoflooselivingandloosethinkingontheonehand,andthatof
    Puritanfanaticismandbigotryontheother.Theyperformedthisworkinagentle,goodhumouredmanner,
    andnotbybitterinvective.Theymadethepeoplelaughattheirownfolliesandthusgetridofthem.So
    theywere,toagreatextent,responsibleforreformingtheconductoftheircontemporariesinsocialand
    domesticfields.Theiraimwasmoralaswellaseducational.Thustheydiscussedinalightheartedand
    attractivemannerart,philosophy,drama,poetry,andinsodoingguidedanddevelopedthetasteofthe
    people.Forexample,itwasbyhisseriesofeighteenarticlesonParadiseLost,thatAddisonhelpedthe
    EnglishreadershaveabetterappreciationofMiltonandhiswork.

    InanotherdirectiontheworkofAddisonandSteeleprovedofmuchuse.Theircharacterstudiesinthe
    shapeofthemembersoftheSpectatorClubSirRogerdeCoverleyandotherspresentedactualmen
    movingamidrealscenesandtakingpartinvariousincidentsandthishelpedinthedevelopmentofgenuine
    novel.

    BothSteeleandAddisonweregreatmastersofprose.Theiressaysareremarkableasshowingthegrowing
    perfectionoftheEnglishlanguage.Ofthetwo,Addisonwasagreatermasterofthelanguage.Hecultivated
    ahighlyculturedandgracefulstyleastylewhichcanserveasamodel.Dr.Johnsonveryaptlyremarked:
    WhoeverwishestoattainanEnglishstyle,familiarbutnotcoarse,andelegantbutnotostentatious,must
    givehisdaysandnightstothevolumesofAddison.Andagainhesaid:Givenightsanddays,Sir,tothe
    studyofAddisonifyoumeantobeagoodwriter,orwhatismoreworth,anhonestman.

    (Continued)
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    TheAgeofJohnson(17441784)

    Thelaterhalfoftheeighteenthcentury,whichwasdominatedbyDr.SamuelJohnson,iscalledtheAgeof
    Johnson.Johnsondiedin1784,andfromthattimetheClassicalspiritinEnglishliteraturebegantogive
    placetotheRomanticspirit,thoughofficiallytheRomanticAgestartedfromtheyear1798when
    WordsworthandColeridgepublishedthefamousLyricalBallads.EvenduringtheAgeofJohnson,which
    waspredominantlyclassical,crackshadbeguntoappearinthesolidwallofclassicismandtherewereclear
    signsofrevoltinfavouroftheRomanticspirit.Thiswasspeciallynoticeableinthefieldofpoetry.Mostof
    thepoetsbelongingtotheAgeofJohnsonmaybetermedastheprecursorsoftheRomanticRevival.Thatis
    whytheAgeofJohnsonisalsocalledtheAgeofTransitioninEnglishliterature.

    (a)PoetsoftheAgeofJohnson

    Ashasalreadybeenpointedout,theAgeofJohnsoninEnglishpoetryisanageoftransitionand
    experimentwhichultimatelyledtotheRomanticRevival.Itshistoryisthehistoryofthestrugglebetween
    theoldandthenew,andofthegradualtriumphofthenew.Thegreatestprotagonistofclassicismduring
    thisperiodwasDr.Johnsonhimself,andhewassupportedbyGoldsmith.Inthemidstofchangethesetwo
    heldfasttotheclassicalideals,andthecreativeworkofbothoftheminthefieldofpoetrywasimbued
    withtheclassicalspirit.AsMacaulaysaid,Dr.Johnsontookitforgrantedthatthekindofpoetrywhich
    flourishedinhisowntimeandwhichhehadbeenaccustomedtohearpraisedfromhischildhood,wasthe
    bestkindofpoetry,andhenotonlyuphelditsclaimsbydirectadvocacyofitscanons,butalsoconsistently
    opposedeveryexperimentinwhich,asintheballadrevival,hedetectedsignsofrevoltagainstit.
    Johnsonstwochiefpoems,LondonandTheVanityofHumanWishes,areclassicalonaccountoftheir
    didacticism,theirformal,rhetoricalstyle,andtheiradherencetotheclosedcouplet.

    Goldsmithwasequallyconvincedthattheclassicalstandardsofwritingpoetrywerethebestandthatthey
    hadattainedperfectionduringtheAugustanAge.Allthatwasrequiredofthepoetswastoimitatethose
    standards.AccordingtohimPopewasthelimitofclassicalliterature.Inhisoppositiontotheblank
    verse,Goldsmithshowedhimselffundamentallyhostiletochange.Histwoimportantpoems,TheTraveller
    andTheDesertedVillage,whichareversifiedpamphletsonpoliticaleconomy,areclassicalinspiritand
    form.Theyarewrittenintheclosedcouplet,aredidactic,andhavepompousphraseology.Thesepoems
    maybedescribedasthelastgreatworkoftheoutgoing,artificialeighteenthcenturyschool,thoughevenin
    them,ifwestudythemminutely,weperceivethesubtletouchesofthenewageofRomanticismespecially
    intheirtreatmentofnatureandrurallife.

    BeforeweconsiderthepoetsoftheAgeofJohnson,whobrokefromtheclassicaltraditionandfollowed
    thenewRomantictrends,letusfirstexaminewhatRomanticismstoodfor.Romanticismwasopposedto
    Classicismonallvitalpoints.Forinstance,themaincharacteristicsofclassicalpoetrywere:(i)itwas
    mainlytheproductofintelligenceandwasespeciallydeficientinemotionandimagination(ii)itwas
    chieflythetownpoetry(iii)ithadnoloveforthemysterious,thesupernatural,orwhatbelongedtothedim
    past(iv)itsstylewasformalandartificial(v)itwaswrittenintheclosedcouplet(vi)itwas
    fundamentallydidactic(vii)itinsistedonthewritertofollowtheprescribedrulesandimitatethestandard
    modelsofgoodwriting.Thenewpoetrywhichshowedromanticleaningswasopposedtoallthesepoints.
    Forinstance,itschiefcharacteristicswere:(i)itencouragedemotion,passionandimaginationinplaceof
    dryintellectuality(ii)itwasmoreinterestedinnatureandrusticliferatherthanintownlife(iii)itrevived
    theromanticspiritloveofthemysterious,thesupernatural,thedimpast(iv)itopposedtheartificialand
    formalstyle,andinsistedonsimpleandnaturalformsofexpression(v)itattackedthesupremacyofthe
    closedcoupletandencouragedallsortsofmetricalexperiments(vi)itsobjectwasnotdidacticbutthe
    expressionofthewritersexperienceforitsownsake(vii)itbelievedinthelibertyofthepoettochoose
    thethemeandthemannerofhiswriting.

    Thepoetswhoshowedromanticleanings,duringtheAgeofJohnson,andwhomaybedescribedasthe
    precursorsorharbingersoftheRomanticRevivalwereJamesThomson,ThomasGray,WilliamCollins,
    JamesMacpherson,WilliamBlake,RobertBurns,WilliamCowperandGeorgeCrabbe.

    JamesThomson(17001748)wastheearliesteighteenthcenturypoetwhoshowedromantictendencyin
    hiswork.Themainromanticcharacteristicinhispoetryishisminuteobservationofnature.InTheSeasons
    hegivesfinesympatheticdescriptionsofthefields,thewoods,thestreams,theshyandwildcreatures.
    Insteadoftheclosedcouplet,hefollowstheMiltonictraditionofusingtheblankverse.InTheCastleof
    Indolence,whichiswritteninformofdreamallegorysopopularinmedievalliterature,Thomsonusesthe
    Spenserianstanza.UnlikethedidacticpoetryoftheAugustans,thispoemisfullofdimsuggestions.

    ThomasGray(17161771)isfamousastheauthorofElegyWritteninaCountryChurchyard,thebest
    knownintheEnglishlanguage.Unlikeclassicalpoetrywhichwascharacterisedbyrestraintonpersonal
    feelingsandemotions,thispoemisthemanifestationofdeepfeelingsofthepoet.Itissuffusedwiththe
    melancholyspiritwhichisacharacteristicromantictrait.Itcontainsdeepreflectionsofthepoetonthe
    universalthemeofdeathwhichsparenoone.OtherimportantpoemsofGrayareTheProgressofPoesy
    andTheBard.OftheseTheBardismoreoriginalandromantic.Itemphasisestheindependenceofthe
    poet,whichbecamethechiefcharacteristicofromanticpoetry.AllthesepoemsofGrayfollowtheclassical
    modelsofarasformisconcerned,butinspirittheyareromantic.

    WilliamCollins(17211759).LikethepoetryofGray,Collinspoetryexhibitsdeepfeelingsof
    melancholy.Hisfirstpoem,OrientalEcloguesisromanticinfeeling,butiswrittenintheclosedcouplet.
    HisbestknownpoemsaretheodesToSimplicity,ToFear,TothePassions,thesmalllyricHowSleepThe
    Brave,andthebeautifulOdetoEvening.Inallthesepoemsthepoetvaluesthesolitudeandquietude
    becausetheyaffordopportunityforcontemplativelife.Collinsinhispoetryadvocatesreturntonatureand
    simpleandunsophisticatedlife,whichbecamethefundamentalcreedsoftheRomanticRevival.

    JamesMacpherson(17361796)becamethemostfamouspoetduringhistimebythepublicationof
    Ossianicpoems,calledtheWorksofOssian,whichweretranslationsofGaelicfolkliterature,thoughthe
    originalswereneverproduced,andsohewasconsideredbysomecriticsasaforger.Inspiteofthis
    MacphersonexertedaconsiderableinfluenceoncontemporarypoetslikeBlakeandBurnsbyhispoetry
    whichwasimpregnatedwithmoonlightmelancholyandghostlyromanticsuggestions.

    WilliamBlake(17571827).InthepoetryofBlakewefindacompletebreakfromclassicalpoetry.In
    someofhisworksasSongsofInnocenceandSongsofExperiencewhichcontainthefamouspoemsLittle
    Lambwhomadethee?andTiger,Tigerburningbright,weareimpressedbytheirlyricalquality.Inother
    poemssuchasTheBookofThel,MarriageofHeavenandHell,itisthepropheticvoiceofBlakewhich
    appealstothereader.InthewordsofSwinburne,Blakewastheonlypoetofsupremeandsimplepoetic
    geniusoftheeighteenthcentury,theonemanofthatagefit,onallaccounts,torankwiththeoldgreat
    masters.Someofhislyricsare,nodoubt,themostperfectandthemostoriginalsongsintheEnglish
    language.

    RobertBurns(175996),whoisthegreatestsongwriterintheEnglishlanguage,hadgreatlovefornature,
    andafirmbeliefinhumandignityandquality,bothofwhicharecharacteristicofromanticism.Hehas
    summeduphispoeticcreedinthefollowingstanza:
    GivemeasparkofNaturesfire,
    ThatisallthelearningIdesire

    Then,thoughItrudgethroughdubandmire
    Atploughorcart,

    MyMuse,thoughhomelyinattire,
    Maytouchtheheart.

    Thefresh,inspiredsongsofBurnsasTheCottersSaturdayNight,ToaMouse,ToaMountainDaisy,Man
    wasMadetoMournewentstraighttotheheart,andtheyseemedtobethesongsofthebirdsinspringtime
    afterthecoldandformalpoetryforaboutacentury.MostofhissongshavetheElizabethantouchabout
    them.

    WilliamCowper(17311800),wholivedatorturedlifeandwasdriventothevergeofmadness,hada
    genialandkindsoul.Hispoetry,muchofwhichisofautobiographicalinterest,describesthehomelyscenes
    andpleasuresandpainsofsimplehumanitythetwoimportantcharacteristicsofromanticism.Hislongest
    poem,TheTask,writteninblankverse,comesasareliefafterreadingtherhymedessaysandtheartificial
    coupletsoftheAgeofJohnson.Itisrepletewithdescriptionofhomelyscenes,ofwoodsandbrooksof
    ploughmenandshepherds.CowpersmostlaboriousworkisthetranslationofHomerinblankverse,buthe
    isbetterknownforhissmall,lovelylyricslikeOntheReceiptofMyMothersPicture,beginningwiththe
    famousline,Oh,thatthoselipshadlanguage,andAlexanderSelkirk,beginningwiththeoftquotedline,I
    ammonarchofallIsurvey.

    GeorgeCrabbe(17541832)stoodmidwaybetweentheAugustansandtheRomantics.Informhewas
    classical,butinthetemperofhismindhewasromantic.Mostofhispoemsarewrittenintheheroic
    couplet,buttheydepictanattitudetonaturewhichisWordsworthian.Tohimnatureisapresence,a
    motionandaspirit,andherealizestheintimateunionofnaturewithman.Hiswellknownpoem.The
    Village,iswithoutarivalasapictureoftheworkingmenofhisage.Heshowsthatthelivesofthe
    commonvillagerandlabourersarefullofromanticinterest.Hislaterpoems,TheParishRegister,The
    Borough,TalesinVerse,andTalesoftheHallareallwritteninthesamestrain.

    AnotherpoetwhomayalsobeconsideredastheprecursoroftheRomanticRevivalwasThomas
    Chatterton(175270),theBristolboy,whoseTheRowleyPoems,writteninpseudoChaucerianEnglish
    madeastrongappealofmedievalism.ThepublicationofBishopPercysReliquesofAncientPoetryin
    1765alsomadegreatcontributiontotheromanticmoodrevivinginterestinballadliterature.

    (b)ProseoftheAgeofJohnson

    IntheAgeofJohnsonthetraditionestablishedbyprosewritersoftheearlierpartoftheeighteenthcentury
    Addison,SteeleandSwiftwascarriedfurther.Theeighteenthcenturyiscalledtheageofaristocracy.
    Thisaristocracywasnolessinthesphereoftheintellectthaninthatofpoliticsandsociety.Theintellectual
    andliteraryclassformeditselfintoagroup,whichobservedcertainrulesofbehaviour,speechandwriting.
    Inthefieldofprosetheleadersofthisgroupestablishedaliterarystylewhichwasfoundedonthe
    principlesoflogicalandlucidthought.Itwasopposedtowhatwasslipshod,inaccurate,andtrivial.It
    avoidedallimpetuousenthusiasmandmaintainedanattitudeofaloofnessanddetachmentthatcontributed
    muchtoitsmoodofcynicalhumour.Thegreatprosewriters,thepillarsoftheAgeofJohnson,who
    representedinthemselves,thehighestachievementsofEnglishprose,wereJohnson,BurkeandGibbon.

    SamuelJohnson(17091784)wastheliterarydictatorofhisage,thoughhewasnotitsgreatestwriter.He
    wasamanwhostruggledheroicallyagainstpovertyandillhealthwhowasreadytotakeupcudgels
    againstanyonehoweverhighhemightbeplaced,butwhowasverykindandhelpfultothepoorandthe
    wretched.Hewasanintellectualgiant,andamanofsterlingcharacter,onaccountofallthesequalitieshe
    washonouredandlovedbyall,andinhispoorhousegatheredtheforemostartists,scholars,actors,and
    literarymenofLondon,wholookeduponhimastheirleader.

    JohnsonsbestknownworksarehisDictionaryandLivesofPoets.Hecontributedanumberofarticlesin
    theperiodicals,TheRambler,TheIdlerandRasselas.Inthemhisstyleisponderousandverbose,butin
    LivesofPoets,whichareveryreadablecriticalbiographiesofEnglishpoets,hisstyleissimpleandattime
    charming.ThoughintheprecedinggenerationsDryden,Addison,SteeleandSwiftwroteelegant,lucidand
    effectiveprose,noneofthemsetupanydefinitestandardtobefollowedbyothers.Whatwasnecessaryin
    thegenerationwhenJohnsonwrote,wassomecommandingauthoritythatmightsetstandardofprosestyle,
    laydowndefiniterulesandcompelotherstofollowthem.ThisiswhatwasactuallydonebyJohnson.He
    setamodelofprosestylewhichhadrhythm,balanceandlucidity,andwhichcouldbeimitiatedwithprofit.
    IndoingsohepreservedtheEnglishprosestylefromdegeneratingintotrivialityandfeebleness,which
    wouldhavebeentheinevitableresultofslavishlyimitatingtheprosestyleofgreatwriterslikeAddisonby
    ordinarywriterswhohadnotthesecretofAddisonsgenius.ThemodelwassetbyJohnson.

    ThoughJohnsonsownstyleisoftencondemnedasponderousandverbose,hecouldwriteinaneasyand
    directstylewhenhechose.ThisisclearfromLivesofPoetswheretheformaldignityofhismannerandthe
    ceremonialstatelinessofhisphraseologyaremixedwithtouchesofplayfulhumourandstingingsarcasm
    couchedinverysimpleandlucidprose.ThechiefcharacteristicofJohnsonsprosestyleisthatitgrewout
    ofhisconversationalhabit,andthereforeitisalwaysclear,forcefulandfrank.Wemaynotsometimeagree
    totheviewsheexpressesintheLives,butwecannotbutbeimpressedbyhisboldness,hiswit,widerange
    andbrilliancyofhisstyle.

    Burke(17291797)wasthemostimportantmemberofJohnsonscircle.Hewasamemberofthe
    Parliamentforthirtyyearsandassuchhemadehismarkasthemostforcefulandeffectiveoratorofhis
    times.Amanofvastknowledge,hewasthegreatestpoliticalphilosopherthateverspokeintheEnglish
    Parliament.

    Burkeschiefcontributionstoliteraturearethespeechesandwritingsofhispubliccareer.Theearliestof
    themwereThoughtsonthePresentDiscontent(1770).InthisworkBurkeadvocatedtheprincipleof
    limitedmonarchywhichhadbeenestablishedinEnglandsincetheGloriousRevolutionin1688,when
    JamesIIwasmadetoquitthethrone,andWilliamofOrangewasinvitedbytheParliamenttobecomethe
    kingofEnglandwithlimitedpowers.WhentheAmericancoloniesrevoltedagainstEngland,andthe
    Englishgovernmentwastryingtosuppressthatrevolt,BurkevehementlyadvocatedthecauseofAmerican
    independence.InthatconnectionhedeliveredtwofamousspeechesinParliament.OnAmericanTaxation
    (1774)andonConciliationwithAmerica,inwhichareembodiedtruestatesmanshipandpoliticalwisdom.
    ThegreatestspeechesofBurkewere,however,deliveredinconnectionwiththeFrenchRevolution,which
    werepublishedasTheReflectionsontheFrenchRevolution(1790).HereBurkeshowshimselfas
    prejudicedagainsttheidealsoftheRevolution,andattimehebecomesimmoderateandindulgesin
    exaggerations.ButfromthepointofviewofstyleandliterarymerittheReflectionsstandhigher,because
    theybroughtoutthepoetryofBurkesnature.Hislastspeechesdeliveredinconnectionwiththe
    impeachmentofWarrenHastingsfortheatrocitieshecommittedinIndia,showBurkeasthechampionof
    justiceandadeterminedfoeofcorruption,highhandednessandcruelty.

    ThepoliticalspeechesandwritingsofBurkebelongtothesphereofliteratureofahighorderbecauseof
    theiruniversality.Thoughhedealtinthemwitheventswhichhappenedduringhisday,hegaveexpression
    toideasandimpulseswhichweretruenotforoneagebutforalltimes.Inthesecondplacetheyoccupyan
    honourableplaceinEnglishliteratureonaccountofexcellenceoftheirstyle.TheproseofBurkeisfullof
    fireandenthusiasm,yetsupremelylogicaleloquentandyetrestrainedfearlessandyetorderlysteeredby
    everypopularmovementandyetdealingwithfundamentalprinciplesofpoliticsandphilosophy.Burkes
    style,inshort,isrestrained,philosophical,dignified,obedienttolawandorder,freefromexaggerationand
    pedantryaswellasfromvulgarityandsuperficiality.

    EdwardGibbon(17371794)wasthefirsthistorianofEnglandwhowroteinaliterarymanner.His
    greatesthistoricalworkTheDeclineandFalloftheRomanEmpire,whichisanauthoritativeandwell
    documentedhistory,canpasssuccessfullythetestofmodernresearchandscholarship.Butitsimportance
    inliteratureisonaccountofitsprosestylewhichistheveryclimaxofclassicism.Itisfinished,elegant,
    elaborateandexhaustive.Thoughhisstyleissometimesmarredbyaffectationsandundueelaboration,yet
    onaccountofhismassiveintellect,andunfailingsenseofliteraryproportion,hetowersaboveall
    competitorsasthemodelhistorian.
    TheEighteenthCenturyNovel

    Thechiefliterarycontributionoftheeighteenthcenturywasthediscoveryofthemodernnovel,whichat
    presentisthemostwidelyreadandinfluentialtypeofliterature.Thenovelinitselementaryformasawork
    offictionwritteninprosewasatfirstestablishedinEnglandbytwoauthorsBunyanandDefoe,whotook
    advantageofthepublicinterestinautobiography.ThebooksofBunyan,whethertheyaretoldinthefirst
    personornot,weremeanttobeautobiographicalandtheirinterestissubjective.Bunyanendeavoursto
    interesthisreadersnotinthecharacterofsomeotherpersonhehadimaginedorobserved,butinhimself,
    andhistreatmentofitischaracteristicoftheawakeningtalentforfictioninhistime.ThePilgrims
    Progressisbegunasanallegory,butincourseoftimetheauthorissomuchtakenupwiththetellingofthe
    story,thatheforgetsabouttheallegory,anditisthisfactwhichmakesBunyanthepioneerofthemodern
    novel.

    ButitwasDefoewhowastherealcreatorofautobiographicalfictionasaworkofart.Hewasthefirstto
    createpsychologicalinterestinthecharacterofthenarrator.Moreover,hewasthefirsttointroducerealism
    orverisimilitudebyobservinginhiswritingascrupulousandrealisticfidelityandappropriatenesstothe
    conditionsinwhichthestorywastold.Forexample,thereaderistoldaboutCrusosislandasgraduallyas
    Crusohimselfcomestoknowofit.Besidesintroducingtheelementsofautobiographyandrealism,Defoe
    alsofixedthepeculiarformofthehistoricalnovelthenarrativeofanimaginarypersoninahistorical
    settingasinhisMemoriesofaCavalier.OnaccountofallthesereasonsDefoeisrightlytermedthe
    originatorofthemodernnovel.

    Inspiteofthis,itcanbesafelysaidthatuntilthepublicationofRichardsonsPamelain1740,notruenovel
    hadappearedinEnglishliterature.Byatruenovelwemeansimplyaworkoffictionswhichrelatesthe
    storyofaplainhumanlife,understressofemotions,andtheinterestofwhichdoesnotdependonincident
    oradventure,butonitstruthtonature.DuringtheeighteenthcenturyanumberofEnglishnovelists
    Goldsmith,Richardson,Fielding,Smollett,Sternealldevelopedsimultaneouslytheformofthenovelas
    presentinglife,asitreallyis,intheformofastory.Thenewmiddleclasswhichwasrisingandgettinginto
    powerdemandedanewtypeofliterature,whichmustexpressthenewidealoftheeighteenthcentury,that
    is,thevalueandtheimportanceofindividuallife.Moreover,onaccountofthespreadofeducationandthe
    appearanceofnewspapersandmagazinestherewasanimmenseincreaseinthereadingpublictowhomthe
    novelistcoulddirectlyappealwithoutcaringforthepatronageofthearistocraticclasswhichwaslosing
    power.Itwasunderthesecircumstancesthatthenovelwasbornintheeighteenthcenturyexpressingthe
    sameidealsofpersonalityandofthedignityofcommandlifewhichbecamethechiefthemesofthepoets
    oftheRomanticRevival,andwhichwereproclaimedlaterbytheAmericanandFrenchRevolutions.The
    novelistsoftheeighteenthcenturytoldthecommonpeoplenotaboutthegrandlivesofknights,princesand
    heroes,butabouttheirownplainandsimplelives,theirordinarythoughtsandfeelings,andtheirdayto
    dayactionsandtheireffectsonthemandothers.Theresultwasthatsuchworkswereeagerlyreadbythe
    commonpeople,andthenovelbecameapopularformofliteratureappealingtothemasses,becauseit
    belongedtothemandreflectedtheirlives.

    DanielDefoe(16611731)was,ashasalreadybeenpointedout,theoriginatorofthenovel,thoughnoneof
    hisworkscanbeplacedunderthecategoryofnovelinthemodernsenseoftheterm.InRobinsonCruso,
    Defoe,hasdescribedtheexperiencesofAlexanderSelkirkwhospentfiveyearsinsolitudeintheislandof
    JuanFernandez.Thoughthewholestoryisfictitious,ithasbeendescribedmostrealisticallywiththe
    minuteaccuracyofaneyewitness.FromthatpointofviewwecansaythatinRobinsonCrusoDefoe
    broughttherealisticadventurestorytoaveryhighstageofitsdevelopment,betterthaninhisotherworks
    offictionCaptainSingleton,MollFlandersandRoxanawhicharejustlikepicaresquestories(currentat
    thattime,abouttheadventuresofrogues)towhichwereaddedunnaturalmoralisingandrepentance.But
    wecannotcallRobinsonCruso,strictlyspeaking,anovel,becauseheretheauthorhasnotproducedthe
    effectofsubordinatingincidenttothefaithfulportrayalofhumanlifeandcharacter,whichisthecriterion
    oftherealnovel.

    SamuelRichardson(16891761)iscreditedwiththewritingofthefirstmodernnovelPamelaorVirtue
    Rewarded.Ittellsthetrials,tribulationsandthefinalhappymarriageofayounggirl.Writtenintheformof
    FamiliarLetters,onhowtothinkandactjustlyandprudently,inthecommonconcernsofHumanLife,it
    issentimentalandboringonaccountofitswearisomedetails.Butthemeritofitliesinthefactthatitwas
    thefirstbookwhichtoldinarealisticmannertheinnerlifeofayounggirl.Itspsychologicalapproach
    madeitthefirstmodernnovelinEngland.Richardsonheregavetoomuchimportancetophysicalchastity,
    andprudencewhichwasthekeytothemiddleclasswayoflifeduringtheeighteenthcentury.Itenjoyed
    tremendouspopularityonaccountofbeingintunewiththecontemporarystandardsofmorality.

    Richardsonssecondnovel,ClarissaorTheHistoryofaYoungLady,isalsowrittenintheformofletters
    andisassentimentalasPamela.Intheheroineofthisnovel,Clarissa,Richardsonhaspaintedareal
    woman,portrayingtruthfullyherdoubts,scruples,griefsandhumiliations.Inhisnextnovel,SirCharles
    Grandison,whichisalsowrittenintheformofletters,Richardsontoldthestoryofanaristocratofideal
    mannersandvirtues.

    InallhisnovelsRichardsonspurposewasdidactic,butheachievedsomethingmore.Heprobedintothe
    innerworkingofthehumanmind.ItwasthisachievementthatmadeDr.JohnsonsayofRichardsonthathe
    enlargedtheknowledgeofhumannature,andtaughtthepassionstomoveatthecommandofvirtue.Of
    Clarissahesaidthatitwasthefirstbookintheworldfortheknowledgeitdisplaysofthehumanheart.
    RichardsonsmaincontributiontotheEnglishnovelwasthatforthefirsttimehetoldstoriesofhumanlife
    fromwithin,dependingfortheirinterestnotonincidentsoradventuresbutontheirtruthtohumannature.

    HenryFielding(17071754)wasthegreatestoftheeighteenthcenturynovelists.Hewrotehisfirstgreat
    novelJosephAndrewsinordertosatiriseandparodythefalsesentimentalityandconventionalvirtuesof
    Richardsonsheroine,Pamela.TheheroofthisnovelisasupposedbrotherofPamela,adomesticservant,
    whohasvowedtofollowtheexampleofhissister.Heisalsoexposedtothesamekindsoftemptations,but
    insteadofbeingrewardedforhisvirtues,heisdismissedfromservicebyhismistress.Thesatiricpurpose
    ofFieldingendshere,becausethenhedescribestheadventuresofJosephwithhiscompanionParson
    Adams,andtellsthestoryofavagabondlife,withaviewtolaughmenoutoftheirfollies.Insteadofthe
    sentimentalityandfemininenicetiesofRichardson,inFieldingsnovelwefindacoarse,vigorous,hilarious
    andevenvulgarapproachtolife.Theresultisbroadrealismnotintheportrayalofinnerlifebutofouter
    behaviourandmanners.Thecharactersinthenovelsaredrawnfromallclassesofsociety,andtheythrob
    withlife.

    Fieldingsnextnovel,JonathanWild,isatypicalpicaresquenovel,narratingthestoryofarogue.His
    greatestnovel,TheHistoryofTomJones,aFounding(17461749),hasepicaswellasdramaticqualities.It
    consistsofalargenumberofinvolvedadventures,whichareveryskillfullybroughttowardstheirclimax
    bythehandofadramatist.Behindallchancehappenings,improbabilitiesandincogruitiesthereexistsa
    definitepatternwhichgivesthecomplicatedplotofTomJonesaunitywhichwefindnowhereinEnglish
    novelordramaexceptinBenJonsonsTheAlchemists.Withoutmakingadeliberateeffortatmoralising
    likeRichardsonFieldingsuggestsadeepermorallessonthatoneshoulddogoodnotforrewardbutforthe
    satisfactionofdoingso.Itisthegenerousimpulses,rootedinunselfishnessandrespectforothers,which
    arethebestguaranteeofvirtue.

    Fieldingslastnovel,Amelia(1751),whichisthestoryofagoodwifeincontrastwithanunworthy
    husband,iswritteninamildertone.Hereinsteadofshowingadetachedandcoarseattitudetolife,Fielding
    becomessoftheartedandchampionsthecauseoftheinnocentandthehelpless.Itisalsowrittenina
    homelyandsimplenarrative.

    FieldingsgreatcontributiontotheEnglishnovelisthatheputitonastablefooting.Itbecamefreefromits
    slaverytofact,consciousofitspowerandpossibilities,andfirmlyestablishedasanindependentliterary
    form.HeiscalledtheFatheroftheEnglishnovel,becausehewasthefirsttogivegenuinepicturesofmen
    andwomenofhisage,withoutmoralisingovertheirvicesandvirtues.Itwasthroughhiseffortsthatthe
    novelbecameimmenselypopularwiththereadingpublic,andalargenumberofnovelspouredfromthe
    press.

    TobiasSmollett(17211771)followedtheexampleofFieldinginwritingpicaresquenovels,whicharefull
    ofintrigueandadventure.ButhelacksthegeniusofFielding,forhisnovelsarejustajumbleofadventures
    andincidentswithoutanyartisticunity.InsteadofFieldingsbroadhumourandhisinherentkindness,we
    findhorrorsandbrutalitiesinthenovelsofSmollett,whicharemistakenforrealism.

    SmollettsbestknownnovelsareRoderickRandom(1748)inwhichtheherorelatesaseriesofadventures:
    PeregrinePickle(1751)inwhicharerelatedtheworstexperiencesatseaandHumphreyClinker(1771)in
    whichisrelatedthejourneyofaWelshfamilythroughEnglandandScotland.InallthesenovelsSmollet
    excitescontinuouslaughterbyfarcicalsituationsandexaggerationinportrayinghumaneccentricities.
    UnliketherealisticandpurecomedywhichFieldingpresentsinhisnovels,Smolletistheoriginatorofthe
    funnynovel,whichwasbroughttoaclimaxbyDickensinhissatiricalandheartycaricatures.

    LawrenceSterne(17131768)wastheoppositeofSmolletinthesensethatwhereaswefindhorrorsand
    brutalitiesinthenovelsofSmollett,inSterneswefindwhims,vagariesandsentimentaltears.Hisbest
    knownnovelsareTristramShandyandASentimentalJourneythroughFranceandItaly.Theformerwas
    startedin1760itsninethvolumeappearedin1767,butthebookwasneverfinished.Initarerecordedina
    mostdigressiveandaimlessmannertheexperiencesoftheeccentricShandyfamily.Themain
    achievementsofthisbooklieinthebrilliancyofitsstyleandthecreationofeccentriccharacterslikeUncle
    TobyandCorporalTrim.TheSentimentalJourney,whichisastrangemixtureoffiction,descriptionsof
    travel,andanumberofessaysonallsortsofsubjects,isalsowritteninabrilliantstyle,andisstampedwith
    Sternesfalseandsentimentalattitudetolife.

    Thesenovelsarewritteninthefirstperson,andwhileSternespeaksofonething,itremindshimofanother,
    withwhichithasnoapparent,logicalconnection.Soheisforcedintodigression,andinthismannerhe
    followsthewaywardmovementsofhismind.ThismethodisverymuchlikethatoftheStreamof
    Consciousnessnovelists,thoughthereisadifference,becausetheheroinSternesnovelsisSternehimself.
    AnotherpeculiarityofSterneishispowerofsentimentality,whichalongwithhishumourandindecency,is
    partandparcelofhiswayofinterpretinglife.Wheneverhemakesussmile,hehopesthattherewillbea
    suspicionofatearaswell.InfactthemaincontributionofSternetotheEnglishnovelwashisdiscoveryof
    thedelightsofsensibility,thepleasuresofthefeelingheart,whichopenedupavastfieldofexperience,and
    whichwasfollowedbymanyeighteenthcenturywriters.

    OliverGoldsmith(17281774)wroteonlyonenovelTheVicarofWakefield.Thisisthebestnovelinthe
    Englishlanguage,inwhichdomesticlifehasbeengivenanenduringromanticinterest.Itisfreefromthat
    vulgarityandcoarsenesswhichwefindinthenovelsofSmollettandSterne.Initdomesticvirtuesand
    purityofcharacterareelevated.ItisthestoryofDr.Primrose,asimpleEnglishclergyman,whopasses
    throughvariousmisfortunes,butultimatelycomesouttriumphant,withhisfaithinGodandman
    reaffirmed.Withoutintroducingromanticpassion,intrigueandadventurewhichwerefreelyusedbyother
    novelists,GoldsmithbyrelatingasimplestoryinasimplemannerhaspresentedinTheVicarofWakefield
    thebestexampleofthenovel,thenewliteraryformwhichwasbecomingimmenselypopular.

    SummingupthedevelopmentoftheEnglishnovelduringtheeighteenthcentury,wecansaythatthenovel
    fromahumblebeginningevolvedintoafullydevelopedform.DefoegaveittherealistictouchRichardson
    introducedanalysisofthehumanheartFieldingmadeitfullofvitalityandanimalvigourSmollett
    introducedexaggeratedandeccentriccharactersSternecontributedsentimentalityandbrilliancyofstyle
    andGoldsmithemphasisedhighprinciplesandpurityofdomesticlife.Inthehandsoftheseearlymasters
    thenoveltookadefiniteshapeandcametoberecognisedasanimportantliteraryformwithvast
    possibilitiesoffurtherdevelopment.
    TheEighteenthCenturyDrama

    Thedramaticliteratureoftheeighteenthcenturywasnotofahighorder.Infacttherewasagradual
    deteriorationandduringthelastquarterofthecenturydramawasmovingtowardsitslowestebb.Oneof
    thereasonsofthedeclineofdramaduringtheeighteenthcenturywastheLicensingActof1737which
    curtailedthefreedomofexpressionofdramatists.TheresultwasthatanumberofwriterslikeFielding,
    whocouldmaketheirmarksasdramatists,leftthetheatreandturnedtowardsthenovel.Moreover,thenew
    commercialmiddleclasseswhichwerecomingintoprominenceimposedtheirowndullandstupidviews
    onthethemesthatwouldbeacceptabletothetheatre.Naturallythiswasnotlikedbyfirstratewriterswho
    wantedtowriteindependently.

    InthefieldoftragedytwoopposingtraditionsRomanticandClassicalexercisedtheirinfluenceonthe
    dramatists.TheRomantictraditionwastheElizabethanwayofwritingtragedy.Thosewhofollowedthis
    traditionmadeuseofintricateplotsandadmittedhorrorandviolenceontheopenstage.TheClassical
    traditionwhichwasmainlytheFrenchtraditionofwritingtragedywascharacterisedbytheunfoldingofa
    singleactionwithoutanysubplot,andlongdeclamatoryspeechesdeliveredbytheactors.Thetraditional
    EnglishpatternofdramawasexemplifiedbyOtwaysVenicePreserved,whiletheClassicaltraditionwas
    strictlyupheldinAddisonsCato(1713),whichiswritteninanunemotionalbutcorrectstyle,andhasa
    pronouncedmoralisingtone.OthertragedieswhichwerewrittenaccordingtotheClassicalpatternwere
    JamesThomsonsSophonisba(1729)andDr.JohnsonsIrene(1749).Butnoneofthesetragedies,whether
    followingtheRomanticortheClassicaltraditioncameuptoarespectabledramaticstandard,becausethe
    creativeimpulseseemstohavespentitself.Thoughaverylargenumberoftragedieswerewrittenduring
    theeighteenthcentury,theyhadliterary,butnodramaticvalue.Mostlytherewererevivalsofoldplays,
    whichwereadaptedbywriterswhowerenotdramatistsintherealsenseoftheterm.

    Inthefieldofcomedy,thesameprocessofdisintegrationwasnoticeable.Comedywasdeterioratinginto
    farce.Moreover,sentimentalitywhichwasopposedtotheauthorityofreason,cametooccupyanimportant
    placeincomedy.ThissentimentalcomedywhichgainedinpopularitywascriticisedbyGoldsmiththus:
    Anewspeciesofdramaticcompositionhasbeenintroducedunderthenameofsentimentalcomedy,in
    whichthevirtuesofprivatelifeareexhibited,ratherthanthevicesexposedandthedistressesratherthan
    thefaultsofmankindmakeourinterestinthepieces.Thesecomedieshavehadoflategreatsuccess,
    perhapsfromtheirnovelty,andalsofromtheirflatteringeverymaninhisfavouritefoible.Intheseplays
    almostallthecharactersaregoodandexceedinglygeneroustheyarelavishenoughoftheirtinmoneyon
    thestageandthoughtheywanthumour,haveabundanceofsentimentandfeeling.Iftheyhappentohave
    faultsorfoibles,thespectatoristaught,notonlytopardon,buttoapplaudthem,inconsiderationofthe
    goodnessoftheirheartssothatfolly,insteadofbeingridiculed,iscommended,andthecomedyaimsat
    touchingourpassionswithoutthepowerofbeingtrulypathetic.

    Steelewasthefirstexponentofthesentimentalcomedyintheeighteenthcentury.Inhisplays,suchasThe
    Funeral,TheLyingLover,TheTenderHusband,TheConsciousLovers,Steeleextolledthedomestic
    virtues.Hisobjectwasdidactic,andhetriedtoprovethatmoralityandsharpnessofintelligencecango
    together.Inhisplaysinwhichtearsofpityandemotionflowedprofusely,SteeleheldthatSimplicityof
    mind,Goodnature,FriendshipandHonourweretheguidingprinciplesofconduct.

    OtherdramatistswhowrotesentimentalcomedieswereColleyCibber,HughKelleyandRichard
    Cumberland.Intheirhandscomedywassomuchdrenchedinemotionsandsentimentsthatthegenuine
    humanissueswerecompletelysubmergedinthem.Thustherewasaneedtorescuethedramafromsuch
    depthstowhichithadfallen.

    Thetwogreatdramatistsoftheeighteenthcentury,wholedtherevoltagainstsentimentalcomedywere
    OliverGoldsmith(173074)andRichardSheridan(17511861).Thoughinhisnovel,TheVicarof
    Wakefield,andinhispoem,TheDesertedVillage,Goldsmithshowedclearmarksofasentimentalattitude
    tolife,inhisGoodNaturedManhecoversitwithridiculebyportrayingthecharacterofHoneywoodas
    unadulteratedgoodnature.Thoughtheplayisafeebleone,hisintentionsofmockingtheexcessoffalse
    charityareobvious.Hisnextplay,SheStoopstoConquer(1773),whichishismasterpiece,wasan
    immediatesuccess.IthasalwaysremainedoneofthehalfdozenmostpopularcomediesintheEnglish
    language.Inspiteoftheobviousimprobabilitiesoftheplot,theplaymovesnaturallyinahomely
    atmosphere,fullofgenuinehumourwhichprovokesunrestrainedlaughter.Herethereisnoartificialityof
    sentimentalcomedy.ThemaincharactersHardcastleandTonyLumpkinareveryclearlydelineated.
    Theyareatoncetypesandindividuals.Theyaretheimagesoftheirage,andyetrecognizableashuman
    figures.SheStoopstoConquerwentalongwayinrestoringcomedytoitsownprovinceofmirthand
    laughterandrescuingitfromtoomuchsentimentality.

    RichardBrinselySheridanisbestknownforhistwocomediesTheRivals(1775)andTheSchoolfor
    Scandal(1777).SheridanbroughtbackthebrillianceofthewittyandelegantRestorationcomedy,purged
    ofitsimpuritiesandnarrowness.Hecreated,instead,amoregenialandromanticatmosphereassociated
    withthecomediesofShakespeare.HischaractersareasclearlydrawnasthoseofBenJonson,butthey
    moveinagayeratmosphere.TheonlydefectthatwefindinthesecomediesofSheridanisthatthereisall
    gaiety,butnodepth,nonewinterpretationofhumannature.

    TheintrigueinTheRivals,thoughnotoriginal,isskilfullyconducted.Theaudienceheartilylaughat
    humoursofMrs.Malaprop,SirAnthony,andBabAcres.InTheSchoolforScandalSheridanshowed
    himselfasamaturedramatist.HerethedialoguehastheexquisiteCongrevelikeprecision,andwitreigns
    supreme.Eventhestupidcharacters,theservants,arewitty.Thoughthemaincharacters,thequarrelsome
    coupleandtheplottingbrothersthescandalclubofLadySneerwellandtheintrigueleadinginevitably
    tothethrillingresolutioninthefamousscreenscene,areallfamiliar,andcanbefoundinmanyotherplays,
    yettheyareinvestedwithnovelty.InboththeseplaysSheridanreversedthetrendofsentimentalismby
    introducingrealismtingedwiththegenialityofromance.Hehadnomessagetoconvey,exceptthatthe
    mostadmirablewayoflivingistobegenerousandopenhearted.

    (Continued)
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    TheRomanticAge(17981824)

    TheRomanticperiodisthemostfruitfulperiodinthehistoryofEnglishliterature.Therevoltagainstthe
    ClassicalschoolwhichhadbeenstartedbywriterslikeChatterton,Collins,Gray,Burne,Cowperetc.
    reacheditsclimaxduringthisperiod,andsomeofthegreatestandmostpopularEnglishpoetslike
    Wordsworth,Coleridge,Byron,ShelleyandKeatsbelongtothisperiod.

    Thisperiodstartsfrom1798withthepublicationoftheLyricalBalladsbyWordsworthandColeridge,and
    thefamousPrefacewhichWordsworthwroteasamanifestoofthenewformofpoetrywhichheand
    ColeridgeintroducedinoppositiontothepoetryoftheClassicalschool.InthePrefacetotheFirstEdition
    WordsworthdidnottouchuponanyothercharacteristicofRomanticpoetryexceptthesimplicityand
    naturalnessofitsdiction.Themajorityofthefollowingpoems,hewritesaretobeconsideredas
    experiments.Theywerewrittenchieflywithaviewtoascertaininghowfarthelanguageofconversationin
    themiddleandlowerclassesofsocietyisadoptedtothepurposesofpoeticpleasure.Inthelongerpreface
    tothesecondeditionoftheLyricalBallads,whereWordsworthexplainshistheoriesofpoeticimagination,
    heagainreturnstotheproblemoftheproperlanguageofpoetry.Thelanguagetoo,ofthesemen(thatis
    thoseinhumbleandrusticlife)hasbeenadoptedbecausefromtheirintercourse,beinglessunderthe
    influenceofsocialvanity,theyconveytheirfeelingsandnotionsinsimple,unelaboratedexpression.
    Wordsworthchosethelanguageofthecommonpeopleasthevehicleofhispoetry,becauseitisthemost
    sincereexpressionofthedeepestandrarestpassionsandfeelings.Thiswasthefirstpointofattackofthe
    artificialandformalstyleofClassicalschoolofpoetry.TheotherpointatwhichWordsworthattackedthe
    oldschoolwasitsinsistenceonthetownandtheartificialwayoflifewhichprevailedthere.Hewantedthe
    poettobreathefreshairofthehillsandbeautifulnaturalscenesandbecomeinterestedinrurallifeandthe
    simplefolklivinginthelapofnature.Alongingtoberidoftheprecisionandorderofeverydaylifedrove
    himtothemountains,where,ashedescribesinhisLineswrittenaboveTinternAbbey.
    Thesoundingcataract

    Hauntedmelikeapassionthetallrock,
    Themountain,andthedeepandgloomywood,
    Theircoloursandtheirforms,werethentome
    Anappetite.

    Byattackingthesupremacyoftheheroiccoupletastheonlyformofwritingpoetry,andsubstitutingitby
    simpleandnaturaldictionbydivertingtheattentionofthepoetfromtheartificialtownlifetothelifein
    thewoods,mountainsandvillagesinhabitedbysimplefolkandbyassertingtheinevitableroleof
    imaginationandemotionsinpoetryasagainstdryintellectualismwhichwasthechiefcharacteristicofthe
    Classicalschool,Wordsworthnotonlyemancipatedthepoetfromthetyrannyofliteraryrulesand
    conventionswhichcircumscribedhisfreedomofexpression,buthealsoopenedupbeforehimvastregions
    ofexperiencewhichintheeighteenthcenturyhadbeenclosedtohim.HisrevoltagainsttheClassical
    schoolwasinkeepingwiththepoliticalandsocialrevolutionsofthetimeastheFrenchRevolutionandthe
    AmericanWarofIndependencewhichbrokeawaywiththetyrannyofsocialandpoliticaldomination,and
    whichproclaimedthelibertyoftheindividualornationtobethemasterofitsowndestiny.Justasliberty
    oftheindividualwasthewatchwordoftheFrenchRevolution,libertyofanationfromforeigndomination
    wasthewatchwordoftheAmericanWarofIndependenceinthesamemannerlibertyofthepoetfromthe
    tyrannyoftheliteraryrulesandconventionswasthewatchwordofthenewliterarymovementwhichwe
    callbythenameofRomanticmovement.ItisalsotermedastheRomanticRevival,becauseallthese
    characteristicsthelibertyofthewritertochoosethethemeandformofhisliteraryproduction,the
    importancegiventoimaginationandhumanemotions,andabroadandcatholicoutlookonlifeinallits
    manifestationsintowns,villages,mountains,riversetc.belongedtotheliteratureoftheElizabethanAge
    whichcanbecalledasthefirstRomanticageinEnglishliterature.Buttherewasadifferencebetweenthe
    ElizabethanAgeandtheRomanticAge,becauseinthelattertheRomanticspiritwasconsideredas
    discoveryofsomethingwhichoncewas,buthadbeenlost.ThepoetsoftheRomanticperiods,therefore,
    alwayslookedbacktotheElizabethanmastersShakespeare,Spenserandotherandgotinspiration
    fromthem.Theywereunderthehauntinginfluenceoffeelingswhichhadalreadybeenexperienced,anda
    certaintypeoffreemorallifewhichhadalreadybeenlived,andsotheywantedtorecapturethememory
    andrescueitfromfadingawaycompletely.

    InthepoemswhichwerecontributedintheLyricalBalladsWordsworthdealtwitheventsofeverydaylife,
    bypreferenceinitshumblestform.Hetriedtoprovethatthecommonplacethingsoflife,thesimpleand
    insignificantaspectsofnature,iftreatedintherightmanner,couldbeasinterestingandabsorbingasthe
    grandandimposingaspectsoflifeandnature.TotheshareofColeridgefellsuchsubjectsaswere
    supernatural,whichhewastoinformwiththatsemblanceoftruthsufficienttoprocureforthoseshadows
    ofimaginationthatwillingsuspensionofdisbeliefforthemomentwhichconstitutespoeticfaith.
    WordsworthsnaturalismandColeridgessupernaturalismthusbecamethetwoimportantspearheadsof
    theRomanticMovement.

    Wordsworthsnaturalismincludedlovefornatureaswellformanlivinginsimpleandnatural
    surroundings.Thushespeaksforthelovethatisinhomeswherepoormenlive,thedailyteachingthatis
    in:

    Woodsandrills

    Thesilencethatisinthestarrysky

    Thesleepthatisamongthelonelyhills.

    Coleridgessupernaturalism,ontheotherhand,establishedtheconnectionbetweenthevisibleworldand
    theotherworldwhichisunseen.Hetreatedthesupernaturalinhismasterlypoem,TheAncientMariner,in
    suchamannerthatitlookedquitenatural.

    AssociatedwithWordsworthandColeridgeintheexplorationofthelessknownaspectsofhumanitywas
    SoutheywhomakesupwiththemthetrailofthesocalledLakePoets.Hedevotedhimselftotheexhibition
    ofallthemoreprominentandpoeticalformsofmythologywhichhaveatanytimeobtainedamong
    mankind.WalterScott,thoughhewasnotintimatelyassociatedwiththeLakepoets,contributedhislove
    forthepastwhichalsobecameoneoftheimportantcharacteristicsoftheRomanticRevival.

    Wordsworth,Coleridge,SoutheyandScottbelongtothefirstromanticgeneration.Thoughtheywerein
    theiryouthfilledwithgreatenthusiasmbytheoutburstoftheFrenchRevolutionwhichheldhighhopefor
    mankind,theybecameconservativesandgaveuptheirjuvenileideaswhentheFrenchRepublicconverted
    itselfintoamilitaryempireresultinginNapoleonicwarsagainstEnglandandotherEuropeancountries.
    Therevolutionaryardour,therefore,fadedaway,andthesepoetsinsteadofchampioningthecauseofthe
    oppressedsectionofmankind,turnedtomysticism,thegloryofthepast,loveofnaturalphenomena,and
    thenoblesimplicityofthepeasantraceattachedtothesoilandstillstickingtotraditionalvirtuesand
    values.Thusthesepoetsofthefirstromanticgenerationwerenotinconflictwiththesocietyofwhichthey
    wereapart.Theysangaboutthefeelingsandemotionswhichweresharedbyamajorityoftheir
    countrymen.

    ThesecondgenerationofRomanticwritersByron,Shelley,Keats,LeighHunt,Hazlittandothers
    whocametotheforefrontafterthedefeatofNapoleonatWaterlooin1815,revoltedfromthereactionary
    spiritwhichwasprevailingatthattimeinEnglandagainsttheidealsoftheFrenchRevolution.Theresult
    wasthatthesecondgenerationcameinconflictwiththesocialenvironmentwithwhichtheirpredecessors
    wereinmoralharmony.Moreover,thevictoriousstrugglewiththeFrenchempirehadleftEngland
    impoverished,andthepoliticalandsocialagitationswhichhadsubsidedonaccountofforeigndanger,
    againraisedtheirhead.Theresultwasthattherewasalotofturmoilandperturbationamongtherankand
    file,whichwasbeingsuppressedbythosewhowereinpower.Insuchanatmospheretheyoungerromantic
    generationrenewedtherevolutionaryardourandattackedtheestablishedsocialorder.ThusRomanticism
    inthesecondstagebecamealiteratureofsocialconflict.BothByronandShelleyrebelledagainstsociety
    andhadtoleaveEngland.

    ButbasicallythepoetsofthetwogenerationsofRomanticismsharedthesameliterarybeliefsandideals.
    Theywereallinnovatorsintheformswellasinthesubstanceoftheirpoetry.All,except,Byron,turnedin
    disgustfromthepseudoclassicalmodelsandcondemnedintheoryandpracticethepoeticaldiction
    prevalentthroughouttheeighteenthcentury.Theyrebelledagainstthetyrannyofthecouplet,whichthey
    onlyusedwithElizabethanfreedom,withoutcaringforthemechanicalwayinwhichitwasusedbyPope.
    Toittheyusuallypreferredeitherblankverseorstanzas,oravarietyofshorterlyricalmeasuresinspiredby
    popularpoetryaretrulyoriginal.

    TheprosewritersoftheRomanticRevivalalsobrokewiththeirimmediatepredecessors,anddiscardedthe
    shorterandlighterstyleoftheeighteenthcentury.Theyrevertedtotheponderous,floweryandpoetical
    proseoftheRenaissanceandofSirThomasBrowne,aswefindintheworksofLamb,andDeQuincey.
    MuchoftheproseoftheRomanticperiodwasdevotedtothecriticalstudyofliterature,itstheoryand
    practice.Wordsworth,Coleridge,Shelley,Lamb,Hazlitt,LeighHuntandDeQuinceyopenedupnew
    avenuesinthestudyofliterature,andgraduallypreparedthewayfortheunderstandingofthenewtypeof
    literaturewhichwasbeingproduced.

    AstheRomanticAgewascharacterisedbyexcessofemotions,itproducedanewtypeofnovel,which
    seemsratherhysterical,now,butwhichwasimmenselypopularamongthemultitudeofreaders,whose
    nervesweresomewhatexcited,andwhorevelledinextravagantstoriesofsupernaturalterror.Mrs.Anne
    Radcliffewasoneofthemostsuccessfulwritersoftheschoolofexaggeratedromances.SirWalterScott
    regaledthereadersbyhishistoricalromances.JaneAusten,however,presentsamarkedcontrasttothese
    extravagantstoriesbyherenduringworkinwhichwefindcharmingdescriptionsofeverydaylifeasinthe
    poetryofWordsworth.

    WhereastheClassicalagewastheageofprose,theRomanticagewastheageofpoetry,whichwasthe
    propermediumfortheexpressionofemotionsandimaginativesensibilityoftheartist.Themindofthe
    artistcameincontactwiththesensuousworldandtheworldofthoughtatcountlesspoints,asithad
    becomemorealertandalive.Thehumanspiritbegantoderivenewrichnessfromoutwardobjectsand
    philosophicalideas.Thepoetsbegantodrawinspirationfromseveralsourcesmountainsandlakes,the
    dignityofthepeasant,theterrorofthesupernatural,medievalchivalryandliterature,theartsand
    mythologyofGreece,theprophecyofthegoldenage.Alltheseproducedasenseofwonderwhichhadthe
    beproperlyconveyedinliteraryform.ThatiswhysomecriticscalltheRomanticRevivalasthe
    RenaissanceofWonder.Insteadoflivingadull,routinelifeinthetown,andspendingallhistimeand
    energyintomidstofartificialityandcomplexityofthecities,thepoetscalleduponmantoadopta
    healthierwayoflivinginthenaturalworldinwhichprovidencehasplantedhimofold,andwhichisfullof
    significanceforhissoul.Thegreatestpoetsoftheromanticrevivalstrovetocaptureandconveythe
    influenceofnatureonthemindandofthemindonnatureinterpenetratingoneanother.

    TheessenceofRomanticismwasthatliteraturemustreflectallthatisspontaneousandunaffectedinnature
    andinman,andbefreetofollowitsownfancyinitsownway.TheyresultwasthatduringtheRomantic
    periodtheyoungenthusiaststurnedasnaturallytopoetryasahappymantosinging.Thegloryoftheageis
    thepoetryofWordsworth,Coleridge,Scott,Byron,ShelleyandKeats.Infact,poetrywassopopularthat
    Southeyhadtowriteinverseinordertoearnmoney,whatheotherwisewouldhavewritteninprose.
    SummingupthechiefcharacteristicsofRomanticismasopposedtoClassicism,wecansaythatClassicism
    laidstressupontheimpersonalaspectsofthelifeofthemindthenewliterature,ontheotherhand,openly
    shiftsthecentreofart,bringingitbacktowardswhatismostproperandparticularineachindividual.Itis
    theproductofthefusionoftwofacultiesoftheartisthissensibilityandimagination.TheRomanticspirit
    canbedefinedasanaccentuatedpredominanceofemotionallife,andRomanticliteraturewasfedby
    intenseemotioncoupledwiththeintensedesiretodisplaythatemotionthroughappropriateimagery.Thus
    Romanticliteratureisagenuinelycreativeliteraturecallingintoplaythehighestcreativefacultyofman.

    RomanticPoetry

    RomanticpoetrywhichwastheantithesisofClassicalpoetryhadmanycomplexities.UnlikeClassical
    poetswhoagreedonthenatureandformofpoetry,andtherolethatthepoetiscalledupontoplay,the
    Romanticpoetshelddifferentviewsonallthesesubjects.Theartisticandphilosophicprinciplesofneo
    classicalpoetrywerecompletelysummarisedbyPope,andtheycouldbeappliedtothewholeofAugustan
    poetry.ButitisdifficulttofindacommondenominatorwhichlinkssuchpoetsasWordsworth,Coleridge,
    Scott,Byron,Shelley,andKeats.Thereasonofthiswasthattherewasabundanceandvarietyofgenius.No
    ageinEnglishliteratureproducedsuchgreatgiantsinthefieldofpoetry.Moreover,itwastheageof
    revolutionarychange,notonlyintheviewofthecharacterandfunctionofpoetrybutinthewhole
    conceptionofthenatureofmanandoftheworldinwhichhefoundhimself.Theevenness,equanimityand
    uniformityoftheClassicalagewasbroken,anditwasreplacedbystrongcurrentsofchangeflowingin
    variousdirections.Onepoetreactedtoaparticularcurrentmorestronglyorsympatheticallythantheother
    poet.ThuseachpoetoftheRomanticperiodstandsforhimself,andhashisownwelldefinedindividuality.
    Theonlycommoncharacteristicthatwefindinthemistheirintensefaithinimagination,whichcouldnot
    becontrolledbyanyrulesandregulations.

    InfactthemostdistinctivemarkwhichdistinguishedtheRomanticpoetsfromtheClassicalpoetswasthe
    emphasiswhichtheformerlaidonimagination.Intheeighteenthcenturyimaginationwasnotacardinal
    pointinpoeticaltheory.ForPope,JohnsonandDrydenthepoetwasmoreaninterpreterthanacreator,
    moreconcernedwithshowingtheattractionsofwhatwealreadyknowthanwithexpeditionsintothe
    unfamiliarandtheunseen.Theywerelessinterestedinthemysteriesoflifethaninitsfamiliarappearances,
    andtheythoughtthattheirtaskwastodisplaythiswithasmuchcharmandtruthastheycouldcommand.
    ButfortheRomanticsimaginationwasfundamental,becausetheythoughtthatwithoutthatpoetrywas
    impossible.Theywereconsciousofawonderfulcapacitytocreateimaginaryworlds,andtheycouldnot
    believethatthiswasidleorfalse.Onthecontrary,theythoughtthattocurbitwastodenysomething
    vitallynecessarytothewholebeing.

    WhereastheClassicalpoetsweremoreinterestedinthevisibleworld,theRomanticpoetsobeyedaninner
    calltoexploremorefullytheworldofthespirit.Theyendeavouredtoexplorethemysteriesoflife,and
    thusunderstanditbetter.ItwasthissearchfortheunseenworldthatawoketheinspirationoftheRomantics
    andmadepoetsofthem.Theyappealednottothelogicalmind,buttothecompleteself,inthewholerange
    ofintellectualfaculties,sensesandemotions.

    ThoughalltheRomanticpoetsbelievedinanulteriorrealityandbasedtheirpoetryonit,theyfoundeditin
    differentwaysandmadedifferentusesofit.Theyvariedinthedegreeofimportancewhichtheyattachedto
    thevisibleworldandintheirinterpretationofit.Coleridgeconceivedoftheworldoffactsasaninanimate
    coldworld,inwhichobject,asobjects,areessentiallyfixedanddead.Itwasthetaskofthepoetto
    transformitbyhispowerofimagination,tobringthedeadworldbacktolife.WhenweturntoTheAncient
    MarinerandChristableitseemsclearthatColeridgethoughtthatthetaskofpoetryistoconveythe
    mysteryoflifebythepowerofimagination.Hewasfascinatedbythenotionofunearthlypowersatwork
    intheworld,anditwasthisinfluencewhichhesoughttocatch.Theimaginationofthepoetishiscreative,
    shapingspirit,anditresemblesthecreativepowerofGod.JustasGodcreatesthisuniverse,thepoetalso
    createsauniverseofhisownbyhisimagination.

    WordsworthalsothoughtwithColeridgethattheimaginationwasthemostimportantgiftthatthepoetcan
    have.HeagreedwithColeridgethatthisactivityresemblesthatofGod.ButaccordingtoWordsworth
    imaginationisacomprehensivefacultycomprisingmanyfaculties.Soheexplainsthattheimagination:
    Isbutanothernameforabsolutepower
    Andclearestinsight,amplitudeofmind

    AndReasoninhermostexaltedmood.

    WordsworthdiffersfromColeridgeinhisconceptionoftheexternalworld.Forhimtheworldisnotdead
    butlivingandhasitsownsoul.Manstaskistoenterintocommunionwiththissoul.Naturewasthesource
    ofhisinspiration,andhecouldnotdenytoitanexistenceatleastaspowerfulasmans.Butsincenature
    liftedhimoutofhimself,hesoughtforahigherstateinwhichthesoulofnatureandthesoulofmancould
    beunitedinasingleharmony.

    Shelleywasnolessattachedtotheimaginationandgaveitnolessaplaceinhistheoryofpoetry.Hesaw
    thatthetaskofreasonissimplytoanalyseagiventhingandtoactasaninstrumentoftheimagination,
    whichusesitsconclusionstocreateasyntheticandharmoniouswhole.HecalledpoetrytheExpressionof
    theImagination,becauseinitdiversethingsarebroughttogetherinharmonyinsteadofbeingseparated
    throughanalysis.Shelleytriedtograspthewholeofthingsinitsessentialunity,toshowisrealandwhatis
    merelyphenomenal,andbydoingthistodisplayhowthephenomenaldependsonthereal.Forhimthe
    ultimaterealityistheeternalmind,andthisholdstheuniversetogether.Inthoughtandfeeling,in
    consciousnessandspirit,Shelleyfoundreality.Hebelievedthatthetaskoftheimaginationistocreate
    shapesbywhichthisrealitycanberevealed.

    Keatshadpassionateloveforthevisibleworldandattimeshisapproachwashighlysensuous.Buthehada
    convictionthattheultimaterealityistobefoundonlyintheimagination.Whatismeanttohimcanbeseen
    fromsomelinesinSleepandPoetry,inwhichheaskswhyimaginationhaslostitspowerandscope:

    Istheresosmallarange

    Inthepresentstrengthofmanhood,thatthehigh
    Imaginationcannotfreelyfly

    Asshewaswontofold?preparehersteeds
    Pawupagainstthelight,anddostrangedeeds
    Upontheclouds?Hasshenotshownusall?
    Fromtheclearspaceofether,tothesmall
    Breathofnewbudsunfolding?Fromthemeaning
    OfJoveseyebrow,tothetendergreening
    OfAprilmeadows.

    ThroughtheimaginationKeatssoughtanultimaterealitytowhichadoorwasopenedbyhisappreciation
    ofbeautythroughthesenses.Forhimimaginationisthatabsorbingandexaltingfacultywhichopensthe
    waytoanunseenspiritualorder.

    ThusthegreatRomanticpoetsagreedthattheirtaskwastofindthroughtheimaginationsome
    transcendentalorder,someinnerandultimaterealitywhichexplainstheoutwardappearanceofthingsin
    thevisibleworldandtheeffectwhichtheyproduceonus.Eachonegavehisowninterpretationofthe
    universe,therelationofGod,theconnectionbetweenthevisibleandtheinvisible,natureandman,ashe
    sawitthroughthepowerofhisimagination.Eachsetforthhisownvisionthroughthepowerofhis
    imagination.Eachsetforthhisownvisionthroughtherichnessofhispoetry,andgaveitaconcrete
    individualshape.Theyrefusedtoaccepttheideasofothermenontrustortosacrificeimaginationto
    argument.Bymeansoftheircreativearttheytriedtoawakentheimaginationofthereadertothereality
    thatliesbehindandinfamiliarthings,torousehimfromthedeadanddullroutineofcustom,andmakehim
    consciousoftheunfathomablemysteriesoflife.Theytriedtoshowthatmerereasonisnotsufficientto
    understandthefundamentalproblemsoflifewhatisrequiredisinspiredintuition.Thustheirviewoflife
    andpoetrywasmuchwideranddeeperthanthatoftheirpredecessorsintheeighteenthcentury,because
    theyappealedtothewholespiritualnatureofmanandnotmerelytohisreasonandcommonsensewhose
    scopeislimited.

    PoetsoftheRomanticAge

    ThepoetsoftheRomanticagecanbeclassifiedintothreegroups(i)TheLakeSchool,consistingof
    Wordsworth,ColeridgeandSouthey(ii)TheScottgroupincludingCampbellandMooreand(iii)The
    groupcomprisingByron,Shelley,andKeats.Thefirsttwogroupsweredistinctlyearlierthanthethird,so
    wehavetwoeightyearsfloodperiodsofsupremelygreatpoetry,namely17981806and18161824,
    separatedbyamiddleperiodwhenbycomparisoncreativeenergyhadebbed.

    (a)TheLakePoets

    TheLakePoetsformedaschoolinthesensethattheyworkedinclosecooperation,andtheirliveswere
    spentpartlyintheLakedistrict.OnlyWordsworthwasbornthere,butallthethreelivedthereforashorter
    orlongerperiod.Linkedtogetherbyfriendship,theywerestillfurtherunitedbythemutualardouroftheir
    revolutionaryideasinyouth,andbythecommonreactionwhichfollowedintheirriperyears.Theyheld
    manyofthepoeticbeliefsincommon.WordsworthandColeridgelivedtogetherforalongtimeand
    producedtheLyricalBalladsbyjointeffortin1798.Theyhadoriginalgeniusandwhattheyachievedin
    therealmofpoetrywassupportedbySoutheywhohimselfdidnotpossessmuchcreativeimagination.The
    literaryrevolutionwhichisassociatedwiththeirnamewasaccomplishedin1800,wheninthesecond
    editionoftheLyricalBallads,WordsworthandColeridgeexplainedfurthertheircriticaldoctrines.
    DescribingthegenesisofthepoemscontainedtheLyricalBallads,Coleridgewrotelaterinhisgreatest
    criticalworkBiographiaLiteraria(1817):

    DuringthefirstyearthatMr.WordsworthandIwereneighbours,ourconversationturnedfrequentlyon
    twocardinalpointsofpoetry,thepowerofexcitingthesympathyofthereaderbyafaithfuladherenceto
    thetruthofnature,andthepowerofgivingtheinterestofnoveltybythemodifyingcoloursof
    imaginationThethoughtsuggesteditselfthataseriesofpoemsmaybecomposedoftwosorts.Intheone,
    theincidentsandagentsweretobe,inpartatleast,supernaturalandtheexcellenceaimedatwasto
    consistintheinterestingoftheaffectionsbythedramatictruthofsuchemotionsaswouldnaturally
    accompanysuchsituations,supposingthemrealForthesecondclass,subjectsweretobechosenfrom
    ordinarylifethecharactersandincidents,weretobesuchaswillbefoundineveryvillageanditsvicinity,
    wherethereisameditativeandfeelingmindtoseekafterthem,ortonoticethem,whentheypresent
    themselves.InthisideaoriginatedtheplanofLyricalBallads,inwhichitwasagreedthatmyendeavour
    shouldbedirectedtopersonsandcharacterssupernaturalMr.Wordsworth,ontheotherhand,wasto
    givecharmofnoveltytothingsofeveryday.

    ThiswastheframeworkoftheLyricalBallads.Regardingthestyle,Wordsworthexplainedinthefamous
    preface:

    Thepoemswerepublishedwhich,Ihoped,mightbeofsomeusetoascertainhowfar,byfittingtometrical
    arrangement,aselectionofthereallanguageofmeninastateofvividsensation,thatsortofpleasureand
    thatquantityofpleasuremaybeimparted,whichapoetmayrationallyendeavourtoimpartLowand
    rusticlifewasgenerallychosen,becauseinthatconditiontheessentialpassionsoftheheartfindabetter
    soilinwhichtheycanattaintheirmaturity,arelessunderrestraint,andspeakaplainerandmore
    emphaticlanguage.

    Wordsworththusregisteredaprotestagainsttheartificialpoeticdictionoftheclassicalschool,whichwas
    separatedfromcommonspeech.Hedeclaredemphatically:Thereis,norcanbe,anyessentialdifference
    betweenthelanguageofproseandmetricalcomposition.Thusitwasinthespiritofacrusaderthat
    Wordsworthentereduponhispoeticcareer.Hisaimwastoliftpoetryfromitsdepravedstateandrestoreto
    ititsrightfulposition.

    WilliamWordsworth(17701850)wasthegreatestpoetoftheRomanticperiod.Thecreditoforiginating
    theRomanticmovementgoestohim.Herefusedtoabidebyanypoeticconventionandrules,andforged
    hisownwayintherealmofpoetry.Hestoodagainstmanygenerationsofgreatpoetsandcritics,like
    Dryden,PopeandJohnson,andmadewayforanewtypeofpoetry.Hedeclared:Apoetisaman
    endowedwithmorelivelysensibility,moreenthusiasmandtenderness,whohasagreaterknowledgeof
    humannature,andamorecomprehensivesoul,thanaresupposedtobecommonamongmankind.The
    truthofthisstatementstruckdowntheidealofliteraryconventionsbasedonreasonandrationality,which
    hadbeenblindlyworshippedforsolong.Bydefiningpoetryasthespontaneousoverflowofpowerful
    feelingherevoltedagainstthedryintellectualityofhispredecessors.Bygivinghisideasaboutthepoetic
    languageassimpleandnatural,heopposedthegaudinessandinanephraseologyoftheaffectedclassical
    style.

    Wordsworthwrotealargenumberandvarietyoflyrics,inwhichhecanstirthedeepestemotionsbythe
    simplestmeans.Therewefindtheaptnessofphraseandanabsolutenaturalnesswhichmakeapoemonce
    readasafamiliarfriend.Languagecanscarcelybeatoncemoresimpleandmorefulloffeelingthaninthe
    followingstanzafromoneoftheLucypoems:
    ThusNaturespokeTheworkwasdone,
    HowsoonmyLucysracewasrun.
    Shedied,andlefttome

    Thishealth,thiscalm,andquietscene,
    Thememoryofwhathasbeen,
    Andnevermorewillbe.

    BesideslyricsWordsworthwroteanumberofsonnetsofraremeritlikeToMilton,WestminsterBridge,
    TheWorldistoomuchwithus,inwhichthereisafinecombinationofthedignityofthoughtandlanguage.
    Inhisodes,asOdetoDutyandOdeontheIntimationsofImmortality,hegivesexpressiontohishigh
    idealsandphilosophyoflife.IntheImmortalityOde,Wordsworthcelebratesoneofhismostcherished
    beliefsthatourearliestintuitionsarethetruest,andthatthosearereallyhappywhoevenintheirmature
    yearskeepthemselvesintouchwiththeirchildhood:
    Hence,inaseasonofcalmweather,
    Thoughinlandfarwebe,

    Oursoulshavesightofthatimmortalsea
    Whichbroughtushither.

    Caninamomenttravelthither,

    Andseethechildrensportupontheshore,
    Andhearthemightywatersrollingevermore.

    ButWordsworthwasnotmerelyalyricalpoethejustlyclaimstobethepoetofManofNature,andof
    HumanLife.ThoughinhisyouthhecameundertheinfluenceoftheidealsoftheFrenchRevolution,he
    wassoondisillusionedonaccountofitsexcesses,andcametotheconclusionthattheemancipationofman
    cannotbeeffectedbypoeticalupheavals,butbyhislivingasimple,naturallife.Inthesimplepietiesof
    rusticlifehebegantofindasurerfoundationforfaithinmankindthaninthedazzlinghopescreatedbythe
    FrenchRevolution.Moreover,hediscoveredthatthereisaninnateharmonybetweenNatureandMan.Itis
    whenmanlivesinthelapofnaturethathelivestherighttypeoflife.Shehasanennoblingeffectonhim,
    andeventhesimplestthingsinnaturecantoucharesponsivecordinmansheart:
    Tomethemeanestflowerthatbloomscangive
    Thoughtsthatdooftenlietoodeepfortears.

    AccordingtoWordsworthmanisapartofNature.InhispoemResolutionandIndependencetheoldman
    andthesurroundingsmakeasinglepicture:
    Himselfhepropped,limbs,body,andpaleface,
    Uponalonggreystaffofshavenwood
    And,stillasIdrewnearwithgentlepace
    Uponthemarginofthatmoorishflood,
    Motionlesslikeacloudtheoldmanstood

    Thathearethnottheloudwindswhentheycall
    Andmovethalltogether,ifitmoveatall.

    BesidestheharmonybetweenManandNature,theharmonyofWordsworthsownspiritwiththeuniverse
    isthethemeofWordsworthsgreatestNaturepoems:LinescomposedafewmilesaboveTinternAbbey,
    YewTreesandTheSimpltonPass.

    Wordsworthisfamousforhislyrics,sonnets,odesandshortdescriptivepoems.Hislongerpoemscontain
    muchthatisprosyanduninteresting.Thegreaterpartofhiswork,includingThePreludeandThe
    Excursionwasintendedforaplaceinasinglegreatpoem,tobecalledTheRecluse,whichshouldtreatof
    nature,manandsociety.ThePrelude,treatingofthegrowthofpoetsmind,wastointroducethiswork.
    TheExcursion(1814)isthesecondbookofTheRecluseandthethirdwasnevercompleted.Inhislater
    years,Wordsworthwrotemuchpoetrywhichisdullandunimaginative.Butthereisnotasinglelineinhis
    poetrywhichhasnotgotthedignityandhighmoralvaluewhichweassociatewithWordsworthwho,
    accordingtoTennyson,utterednothingbase.

    SamuelTaylorColeridge(17721834).ThegeniusofColeridgewascomplementarytothatofWordsworth.
    WhileWordsworthdealtwithnaturalismwhichwasanimportantaspectoftheRomanticmovement,
    Coleridgemadethesupernaturalhisspecialdomain,whichwasanequallyimportantaspect.Inhisyouth
    ColeridgecameunderthespellofFrenchRevolutionandthehighhopewhichitheldoutforthe
    emancipationoftheoppressedsectionofmankind.Hegavepoeticexpressiontohispoliticalaspirationin
    ReligiousMusings,DestinyofNationsandOdetotheDepartingYear(1796).ButlikeWordsworth,healso
    begantothinkdifferentlyaftertheexcessesoftheRevolution.Thischangeofthoughtisshowninhis
    beautifulpoemFrance:anOde(1798)whichhehimselfcalledhisrecantation.Afterthathe,like
    Wordsworth,begantosupporttheconservativecause.

    Coleridgewasamanofgiganticgenius,buthislackofwillpowerandaddictiontoopiumpreventedhim
    fromoccomplishingmuchintherealmofpoetry.Whateverhehaswritten,thoughofhighquality,is
    fragmentary.Itwas,however,inthefieldsoftheology,philosophyandliterarycriticismthatheexerciseda
    tremendousandlastinginfluence.HistwobestknownpoemsareTheAncientMarinerandChristabel,
    whichrepresentthehighwatermarkofsupernaturalismassomeofthebestpoemsofWordsworthrepresent
    thetriumphofnaturalism,inEnglishpoetry.InthesetwopoemsColeridgesavedsupernaturalismfromthe
    coarsesensationalismtheninvoguebylinkingitwithpsychologicaltruth.Hehadabsorbedthespellsof
    medievalismwithinhimselfandinthesepoemstheyappearedrarelydistilledandinextricablyblindedwith
    poetsexquisiteperceptionofthemysteriesthatsurroundthecommonplacethingsofeverydaylife.
    IntheAncientMariner,whichisapoeticmasterpiece,Coleridgeintroducedthereadertoasupernatural
    realm,withaphantomship,acrewofdeadmen,theoverwhelmingcurseofthealbatross,thepolarspirit,
    themagicbreeze,andanumberofothersupernaturalthingsandhappenings,buthemanagestocreatea
    senseofabsoluterealityconcerningthesemanifestabsurdities.Withthatsupremeartwhicheverseems
    artless,Coleridgegivesusglimpsesfromtimetotimeoftheweddingfeasttowhichthemarinerhasbeen
    invited.ThewholepoemiswroughtwiththecolourandglamouroftheMiddleAgesandyetColeridge
    makesnoslavishattempttoreproducethepastinamechanicalmanner.Thewholepoemisthebaseless
    fabricofavisionafineproductoftheetherealandsubtlefancyofagreatpoet.Butinspiteofitswildness,
    itsmedievalsuperstitionsandirresponsiblehappening,TheAncientMarinerismadeactualandvitaltoour
    imaginationbyitsfaithfulpicturesofNature,itspsychologicalinsightandsimplehumanity.Initthepoet
    dealsinasuperbmannerwiththeprimalemotionsoflove,hate,pain,remorseandhope.Heprayethbest
    wholovethbestisnotanartificialendingofthepoemintheformofapopularsaying,butitisafine
    summingupinafewlinesofthespiritwhichunderliestheentirepoem.Itssimple,balladform,its
    exquisiteimagery,thesweetharmonyofitsverse,andtheaptnessofitsphraseology,allwoventogetherin
    anartisticwhole,makethispoemthemostrepresentativeoftheromanticschoolofpoetry.

    Christabel,whichisafragment,seemstohavebeenplannedasthestoryofapureyounggirlwhofell
    underthespellofasorcerintheshapeofthewomanGerldine.Thoughithasstrangemelodyandmany
    passagesofexquisitepoetry,andinsheerartisticpoweritisscarcelyinferiortoTheAncientMariner,ithas
    supernaturalterrorsofthepopularhystericalnovels.Thewholepoemissuffusedinmedievalatmosphere
    andeverythingisvagueandindefinite.LikeTheAncientMarineritiswritteninahomelyandsimple
    dictionandinastylewhichisspontaneousandeffortless.

    KublaKhanisanotherfragmentinwhichthepoethaspaintedagorgeousOrientaldreampicture.The
    wholepoemcametoColeridgeinadreamonemorningwhenhehadfallenasleep,anduponawakeninghe
    begantowritehastily,buthewasinterruptedafterfiftyfourlineswerewritten,anditwasneverfinished.
    ThoughColeridgewroteanumberofotherpoemsLove,TheDarkLadie,YouthandAge,Dejection:an
    Ode,whichhavegrace,tendernessandtouchesofpersonalemotion,andanumberofpoemsfullofvery
    minutedescriptionofnaturalscenes,yethisstrengthlayinhismarvellousdreamfaculty,andhisreputation
    asapoetrestonTheAncientMariner,ChristabelandKublaKhanwherehetouchedtheheightsof
    romanticpoetry.

    RobertSouthey(17741843)wasthethirdpoetofthegroupofLakePoets.UnlikeWordsworthand
    Coleridgehelackedhigherqualitiesofpoetry,andhisachievementasapoetisnotmuch.Hewasa
    voraciousreaderandvoluminouswriter.HismostambitiouspoemsThalaba,TheCurseofKehama,Madoc
    andRoderickarebasedonmythologyofdifferentnations.Healsowroteanumberofballadsandshort
    poems,ofwhichthebestknownisabouthisloveforbooks(MydaysamongtheDeadarepast.)Buthe
    wrotefarbetterprosethanpoetry,andhisadmirableLifeofNelsonremainsaclassic.Hewasmadethe
    PoetLaureatein1813,andafterhisdeathin1843Wordsworthheldthistitle.

    (b)TheScottGroup

    TheromanticpoetsbelongingtotheScottgroupareSirWalterScott,CampbellandThomasMoore.They
    bridgedtheyearswhichprecededthesecondoutburstofhighcreativeactivityintheRomanticperiod.
    SirWalterScott(17711832)wasthefirsttomakeromanticpoetrypopularamongthemasses.His
    MarmionandLadyoftheLakegainedgreaterpopularitythanthepoemsofWordsworthandColeridge
    whichwerereadbyaselectfew.Butinhispoetrywedonotfindthedeeplyimaginativeandsuggestive
    qualitywhichisattherootofpoeticexcellence.Itisthestoryelement,thenarrativepower,whichabsorbs
    thereadersattention.Thatiswhytheyaremorepopularwithyoungreaders.Moreover,Scottspoetry
    appealsonaccountofitsvigour,youthfulabandon,vividpictures,heroiccharacters,rapidactionand
    successionofadventures.HisbestknownpoemsareTheLadyoftheLastMinistrel,Marmion,TheLadyof
    theLake,Rokeby,TheLordoftheIsles.AllofthemrecapturetheatmosphereoftheMiddleAges,and
    breatheanairofsupernaturalismandsuperstitions.After1815Scottwrotelittlepoetryandturnedtoprose
    romanceintheformofthehistoricalnovelinwhichfieldheearnedgreatandenduringfame.
    ThomasCampbell(17741844)andThomasMoore(17791852)wereprominentamongahostofminor
    poetswhofollowingthevogueofScottwroteversifiedromance.CampbellwroteGertrudeofWyoming
    (1809)intheSpenserianstanza,whichdoesnotholdsomuchinteresttodayashispatrioticwarsongsYe
    MarinersofEngland,Hohenlinden,TheBattleoftheBaltic,andballadssuchasLordUllinsDaughter.
    ThepoemsofMoorearenowoldfashionedandhavelittleinterestforthemodernreader.Hewrotealong
    seriesofIrishMelodies,whicharemusicalpoems,vivaciousandsentimental.HisLallaRookhisa
    collectionofOrientaltalesinwhichheemploysluciousimagery.ThoughMooreenjoyedimmense
    popularityduringhistime,heisnowconsideredasaminorpoetoftheRomanticAge.

    (c)TheYoungerGroup

    TotheyoungergroupofromanticpoetsbelongByron,ShelleyandKeats.Theyrepresentthesecond
    FloweringofEnglishRomanticism,thefirstbeingrepresentedbyWordsworth,ColeridgeandSouthey.
    Thoughtheyoungergroupwasinmanywaysindebtedtotheoldergroupandwasinmanywaysakintoit,
    yetthepoetsoftheyoungergroupshowsomesharpdifferenceswiththepoetsofoldergroup,itwas
    becausetherevolutionaryidealswhichatfirstattractedWordsworth,ColeridgeandSoutheyandthen
    repelledthem,hadpassedintothebloodofByronandShelley.Theywerethechildrenoftherevolution
    andtheirhumanitarianardouraffectedevenKeatswhowasmoreofanartist.Moreover,comparedtothe
    poetsoftheoldergroup,thepoetsoftheyoungergroupwerenotonlylessnational,buttheywerealso
    againstthehistoricandsocialtraditionsofEngland.ItisnotwithoutsignificancethatByronandShelley
    livedtheirbestyears,andproducedtheirbestpoetryinItalyandKeatswasmoreinterestedinGreek
    mythologythaninthelifearoundhim.Incidentally,thesethreepoetsofsecondgenerationofRomanticism
    diedyoungByronattheageofthirtysix,Shelleythirty,andKeatstwentyfive.Sothespiritofyouthful
    freshnessisassociatedwiththeirpoetry.

    (i)LordGeorgeGordonByron(17881824)

    DuringhistimeByronwasthemostpopularofallRomanticpoets,andhewastheonlyonewhomadean
    impactonthecontinentbothinhisowndayandforalongtimeafterwards.Thiswasmainlyduetothe
    forceofhispersonalityandtheglamourofhiscareer,butashispoetrydoesnotpossessthehighexcellence
    thatwefindinShelleysandKeats,nowheisaccordedalowerpositionsinthehierarchyofRomantic
    poets.HeistheonlyRomanticpoetwhoshowedregardforthepoetsoftheeighteenthcentury,and
    ridiculedhisowncontemporariesinhisearlysatiricalpoem,EnglishBardsandScottishReviewers(1809).
    Thatiswhy,heiscalledtheRomanticParadox.

    Byronwhohadtravelledwidelycapturedtheimaginationofhisreadersbythepublicationsofthefirsttwo
    CantosofChildeHaroldPilgrimage(1812).Thisworkmadehiminstantlyfamous.Ashesaidhimself,I
    wokeonemorningandfoundmyselffamous.Inithedescribedtheadventuresofaglamorousbutsinister
    herothroughstrangelands.Healsogaveanairofauthenticitytotheseadventuresandasuggestionthathe
    himselfhadindulgedinsuchexploits.Suchahero,calledtheByronichero,becameverypopularamong
    thereadersandtherewasgreaterandgreaterdemandforsuchromancesdealingwithhisexploits.Under
    thepressureofthepopulardemandByronwroteanumberofromanceswhichbeganwithTheGiaor
    (1813),andinallofthemhedealtwiththeexploitsoftheByronichero.Butwhereastheseromancesmade
    hisreputationnotinEnglandalonebutthroughoutEurope,theprudersectionoftheEnglishsocietybegan
    tolookuponhimwithsuspicion,andconsideredhimadangerous,sinisterman.Theresultwasthatwhen
    hiswifelefthimin1816,ayearafterhismarriage,therewassuchaturninthetideofpublicopinion
    againsthimthatheleftEnglandunderacloudofdistrustanddisappointmentandneverreturned.

    ItwasduringtheyearsofhisexileinItalythatthebestpartofhispoetrywaswrittenbyhim.Thethirdand
    fourthcantosofChildeHarold(18161818)havemoresincerity,andareineverywaybetterexpressionsof
    Byronsgenius.HealsowrotetwosombreandselfconscioustragediesManfredandCain.Butthe
    greatnessofByronasapoetlies,however,notinthesepoemsandtragedies,butinthesatireswhichbegin
    withBeppo(1818)andincludeTheVisionofJudgment(1822)andDonJuan(181924).OftheseDon
    Juan,whichisascathingcriticismofthecontemporaryEuropeansociety,isoneofthegreatestpoemsin
    theEnglishlanguage.Inithumour,sentiment,adventureandpathosarethrowntogetherinahaphazard
    mannerasinreallife.Itiswritteninaconversationalstylewhichsubtlyproducescomicaswellassatirical
    effect.

    OfalltheromanticpoetsByronwasthemostegoistical.Inallhispoemshispersonalityobtrudesitself,and
    heattachesthegreatestimportancetoit.Oftheromantictraits,herepresentstherevolutionaryiconoclasm
    atitsworst,andthatiswhyhecameinopenconflictwiththeworldaroundhim.Hislastgreatact,dyingon
    hiswaytotakepartintheGreekWarofIndependence,wasatrulyheroicactanditvindicatedhisposition
    foralltimesandmadehimamartyrinthecauseoffreedom.

    Byrondoesnotenjoyahighreputationasapoetbecauseofhisslipshodandcarelessstyle.Hewastoo
    muchinahurrytorevisewhathehadwritten,andsothereismuchinhispoetrywhichisartistically
    imperfect.Moreoverhisrhetoricalstyle,whichwasadmirablysuitedtoconveytheforceandfireofhis
    personality,oftenbecomesdullandboring.

    (ii)PercyByssheShelley(17921822)

    WhereasByronwasthegreatestinterpreterofrevolutionaryiconoclasm,Shelleywastherevolutionary
    idealist,aprophetofhopeandfaith.HewasavisionarywhodreamedoftheGoldenAge.UnlikeByrons
    geniuswhichwasdestructive,ShelleyswasconstructiveandheincarnatedthataspectoftheFrench
    Revolutionwhichaimedatbuildingupanewandbeautifuledificeontheruinsoftheoldandtheugly.
    WhereasByronsmotiveimpulsewaspride,Shelleyswaslove.

    InhisearlydaysShelleycameundertheinfluenceofWilliamGodwinsPoliticalJustice.Hesawthatall
    establishedinstitutions,kingsandpriestswerediverseformsofevilandobstaclestohappinessand
    progress.Sohebegantoimaginethenewworldwhichwouldcomeintoexistencewhenalltheseformsof
    errorandhatredhaddisappeared.Theessenceofallhispoeticalworksishisprophecyofthenewbornage.
    Inhisfirstlongpoem,QueenMab,whichhewrotewhenhewaseighteen,hecondemnskings,
    governments,church,property,marriageandChristianity.TheRevoltofIslamwhichfollowedin1817,and
    isasortoftransfiguredpictureoftheFrenchRevolutionischargedwiththeyoungpoetshopesforthe
    futureregenerationoftheworld.In1820appearedPrometheusUnbound,thehymnofhumanrevolt
    triumphingovertheoppressionoffalsegods.Inthissuperblyricaldramawefindthefullestandfinest
    expressionofShelleysfaithandhope.HerePrometheusstandsforthastheprototypeofmankindinits
    longstruggleagainsttheforcesofdespotism,symbolisedbylove.AtlastPrometheusisunitedtoAsia,the
    spiritofloveandgoodnessinnature,andeverythinggivespromisethattheyshalllivetogetherhappyever
    afterwards.

    ShelleysothergreatpoemsareAlastor(1816),inwhichhedescribeshispursuitofanunattainableidealof
    beautyJulianandMeddalo(1818)inwhichhedrawshisownportraitcontrastedwithlastofByronThe
    Cenci,apoeticdramawhichdealswiththeterriblestoryofBeatricewho,thevictimoffatherslust,takes
    hislifeinrevengethelyricaldramaHallasinwhichhesingsoftheriseofGreeceagainsttheOttoman
    yokeEpipsychidioninwhichhecelebrateshisPlatonicloveforabeautifulyoungItaliangirl:Adonais,the
    bestknownofShelleyslongerpoems,whichisanelegydedicatedtothepoetKeats,andholdsitsplace
    withMiltonsLycidasandTennysonsInMemoriamasoneofthethreegreatestelegiesintheEnglish
    languageandtheunfinishedmasterpiece,TheTriumphofLife.

    Shelleysreputationasapoetliesmainlyinhislyricalpower.Heisinfactthegreatestlyricalpoetof
    England.Inallthesepoemsmentionedabove,itistheirlyricalrapturewhichinunique.Inthewholeof
    EnglishpoetrythereisnoutteranceasspontaneousasShelleysandnowheredoesthethoughtflowwith
    suchirresistablemelody.BesidestheselongerpoemsShelleywroteanumberofsmalllyricsofexquisite
    beauty,suchasToConstantiaSinging,theOzymandiassonnet,theLineswrittenamongtheEuganean
    Hills,theStanzaswritteninDejection,theOdetotheWestWind,Cloud,SkylarkOWorld!O
    life!Otime.Itisinfactonthefoundationofthesebeautifullyrics,whichareabsolutelyconsummateand
    unsurpassedthewholerangeofEnglishlyricalpoetry,thatShelleysrealreputationasapoetlies.
    AsthepoetofNature,Shelleywasinspiredbythespiritoflovewhichwasnotlimitedtomankindbut
    extendedtoeverylivingcreaturetoanimalsandflowers,toelements,tothewholeNature.Heisnot
    content,likeWordsworth,merelytoloveandrevereNaturehisverybeingisfusedandblendedwithher.
    He,therefore,holdspassionatecommunionwiththeuniverse,andbecomesonewiththelark(Toa
    Skylark),withthecloud(TheCloud),andwestwind(OdetotheWestWind)towhichheuttersforththis
    passionate,lyricalappeal:

    Makemethylyre,evenastheforestis

    Whatifmyleavesarefallinglikeitsown!
    Thetumultofthymightyharmonies

    Willtakefrombothadeep,autumnaltone,

    Sweetthoughinsadness.Bethou,spiritfierce,
    Myspirit!Bethoume,impetuousone.

    (iii)JohnKeats(179521)

    Ofalltheromanticpoets,Keatswasthepurepoet.Hewasnotonlythelastbutthemostperfectofthe
    Romanticists.Hewasdevotedtopoetryandhadnootherinterest.UnlikeWordsworthwhowasinterested
    inreformingpoetryandupholdingthemorallawunlikeShelleywhoadvocatedimpossiblereformsand
    phrophesiedaboutthegoldenageandunlikeByronwhomadehispoetryavehicleofhisstrongly
    egoisticalnatureandpoliticaldiscontentsofthetimeunlikeColeridgewhowasametaphysician,andScott
    whorelishedinstorytelling,Keatsdidnottakemuchnoticeofthesocial,politicalandliteraryturmoils,
    butdevotedhimselfentirelytotheworshipofbeauty,andwritingpoetryasitsuitedhistemperament.He
    was,aboutallthings,apoet,andnothingelse.Hisnaturewasentirelyandessentiallypoeticalandthe
    wholeofhisvitalenergywentintoart.

    UnlikeByronwhowasalord,andShelleywhobelongedtoanaristocraticfamily,Keatscameofapoor
    family,andatanearlyagehehadtoworkasadoctorsassistant.Buthismedicalstudiesdidnotstandin
    thewayofhispassionforwritingpoetrywhichwasrousedbyhisreadingofSpensersTheFaerieQueene,
    whichrevealedtohimthevastworldofpoetry.Healsobecameinterestedinthebeautyofnature.Hisfirst
    volumeofpoemsappearedin1817andhisfirstlongpoemEndymionin1818,whichopenedwiththe
    followingmemorablelines:

    Athingofbeautyisajoyforever

    Itslovelinessincreasesitwillnever

    Passintonothingnessbutstillwillkeep
    Abowerquietforusandsleep

    Fullofsweetdreams,andhealthy,andquietbreathing.

    Thispoemwasseverelycriticisedbycontemporarycritics,whichmusthaveshockedKeats.Besidesthisa
    numberofothercalamitiesengulfedhim.Hehadlosthisfatherwhenhewasonlyninehismotherand
    brotherdiedoftuberculosis,andhehimselfwassufferingfromthisdeadlydisease.Allthesemisfortunes
    wereintensifiedbyhisdisappointmentinloveforFannyBrawnewhomKeatslovedpassionately.Buthe
    remainedundaunted,andundertheshadowofdeathandinmidstofmostexcruciatingsufferingsKeats
    broughtouthislastvolumeofpoemsintheyear1820(whichiscalledtheLivingYearinhislife.)The
    Poemsof1820areKeatsenduringmonument.Theyincludethethreenarratives,Isabella,TheEveofSt.
    AgnesandLamia:theunfinishedepicHyperiontheOdes,LaBelleDameSansMerci,andafewsonnets.
    InIsabellaKeatsmadeanattempttoturnasomewhatrepellentandtragiclovestoryofIsabellaand
    Lorenzo,whowasmurderedbyIsabellasbrothers,intoathingofbeautybymeansoffinenarrativeskill
    andbeautifulphraseology.InLamiaKeatsnarratedthestoryofabeautifulenchantress,whoturnsfroma
    serpentintoagloriouswomanandfillseveryhumansensewithdelight,untilastheresultofthefoolish
    philosophyofoldApollonius,shevanishesforeverfromherloverssight.TheEveofSt.Agnes,whichis
    themostperfectofKeatsmedievalpoems,issurpassinglybeautifulinitsdescriptions.Hyperionwhichis
    amagnificentfragmentdealswiththeoverthrowoftheTitansbytheyoungsungodApollo.Thispoem
    showstheinfluenceofMiltonasEndymionofSpenser.LaBelleDameSansMerci,whichcapturesthe
    spiritoftheMiddleAges,hasahauntingmelody.Thoughsmall,itisamostperfectworkofart.

    Oftheodes,thoseToaNightingale,OnaGrecianUrnandToAutumnstandoutabovetherest,andare
    amongthemasterpiecesofpoeticart.InOdetoaNightingalewefindaloveofsensuousbeauty,anda
    touchofpessimism.InOdeonaGrecianUrnweseeKeatssloveforGreekmythologyandart.Itisthis
    OdewhichendswiththefollowingmostmemorablelinesinthewholeofKeatsspoetry.
    BeautyisTruth,andTruthBeauty,thatisall
    Yeaknowonearth,andallyeneedtoknow.

    TheOdetoAutumn,inwhichKeatshasglorifiedNature,isapoemwhichforrichnessandcolourhas
    neverbeensurpassed.ThoughKeatsdiedyoung,whenhehadattainedbarelytheageoftwentyfive,and
    hadonlyafewyearsinwhichhecouldeffectivelywritepoetry,hisachievementinthefieldofpoetryisso
    great,thatwewonderwhathemighthaveaccomplishedifhehadlivedlonger.Foralongtimehispoetry
    wasconsideredmerelyassensuoushavingnodepthofthought.Butwiththehelpofhisletterscriticshave
    reinterpretedhispoems,andnowithasbeendiscoveredthattheyarebasedonmaturethinking,andthat
    thereisaregularlineofdevelopmentfromthepointofthoughtandart.Hewasnotanescapistwhotriedto
    runawayfromthestarkrealitiesoflife,buthefacedlifebravely,andcametotheconclusionthatsufferings
    playanimportantpartinthedevelopmentofthehumanpersonality.Asaworshipperofbeauty,thoughhis
    firstapproachwassensuous,hisattitudesuddenlybecamephilosophic,andhediscoveredthatthereis
    beautyineverything,andthatBeautyandTruthareone.AsanartisttherearefewEnglishpoetswhocome
    nearhim.Asapoethehadveryhighidealsbeforehim.Hewantedtobecomethepoetofthehumanheart,
    onewithShakespeare.Forhimtheproperroleofpoetryistobeafriendtosooththecares,andliftthe
    thoughtsofmen,andtherealpoetisthattowhomthemiseriesoftheworldaremisery,andwillnotlet
    himrest.

    AndKeatssincerelyandpersistentlyliveduptothesehighideals.Takingintoaccountallthesefactorsand
    theveryshortspanoflifethatwasgiventohimbytheProvidence,itisnoexaggerationtosaythatofall
    theEnglishpoetshecomesnearesttoShakespeare.

    (Continued)
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    ProseWritersoftheRomanticAge

    ThoughtheRomanticperiodspecialisedinpoetry,therealsoappearedafewprosewritersLamb,Hazlitt
    andDeQuinceywhorankveryhigh.Therewasnorevoltoftheprosewritersagainsttheeighteenth
    centurycomparabletothatofthepoets,butachangehadtakenplaceintheprosestylealso.
    Whereasmanyeighteenthcenturyprosewritersdependedonassumptionsaboutthesuitabilityofvarious
    prosestylesforvariouspurposeswhichtheysharedwiththeirrelativelysmallbutsophisticatedpublic
    writersintheRomanticperiodwererathermoreconcernedwithsubjectmatterandemotionalexpression
    thanwithappropriatestyle.Theywroteforaneverincreasingaudiencewhichwaslesshomogeneousinits
    interestandeducationthanthatoftheirpredecessors.Therewasalsoanindicationofagrowingdistrustof
    thesharpdistinctionbetweenmatterandmannerwhichwasmadeintheeighteenthcentury,andofa
    Romanticpreferenceforspontaneityratherthanformalityandcontrivance.Therewasadeclineofthe
    grandstyleandofmostformsofcontrivedarchitecturalprosewrittenforwhatmaybecalledpublicor
    didacticpurposes.ThoughsomeRomanticpoetsColeridge,Shelley,Keats,Byronwroteexcellentprose
    intheircriticalwritings,lettersandjournals,andsomeofthenovelistslikeScottandJaneAustenwere
    mastersofprosestyle,thosewhowroteproseforitsownsakeintheformoftheessaysandattained
    excellenceintheartofprosewritingwereLamb,HazlittandDeQuincey.

    (i)CharlesLamb(17751834)

    CharlesLambisoneofthemostlovablepersonalitiesinEnglishliterature.Helivedaveryhumble,honest,
    andmostselfsacrificinglife.Henevermarried,butdevotedhimselftothecareofhissisterMary,tenyears
    hissenior,whowassubjecttomentalfits,inoneofwhichshehadfatallywoundedhermother.Inhis
    EssaysofElia(1823)andLastEssays(1833),inwhichisrevealedhisownpersonality,hetalksintimately
    tothereadersabouthimself,hisquaintwhimsandexperiences,andthecheerfulandheroicstrugglewhich
    hemadeagainstmisfortunes.UnlikeWordsworthwhowasinterestedinnaturalsurroundingsandshunned
    society,LambwhowasbornandlivedinthemidstofLondonstreet,wasdeeplyinterestedinthecity
    crowd,itspleasuresandoccupations,itsendlesscomediesandtragedies,andinhisessaysheinterpreted
    withgreatinsightandhumansympathythatcrowdedhumanlifeofjoysandsorrows.

    Lambbelongstothecategoryofintimateandselfrevealingessayists,ofwhomMontaigneistheoriginal,
    andCowleythefirstexponentinEngland.TotheinformalityofCowleyheaddsthesolemnconfessional
    mannerofSirThomasBrowne.Hewritesalwaysinagentle,humorouswayaboutthesentimentsand
    triflesofeveryday.Thesentimental,smilingfigureofEliainhisessaysisonlyacloakwithwhichLamb
    hideshimselffromtheworld.Thoughinhisessaysheplayswithtrivialities,asWalterPaterhassaid,We
    knowthatbeneaththisblithesurfacethereissomethingofthedomestichorror,ofthebeautifulheroism,
    anddevotednesstoo,oftheoldGreektragedy.

    ThestyleofLambisdescribedasquaint,becauseithasthestrangenesswhichweassociatewith
    somethingoldfashioned.OnecaneasilytraceinhisEnglishtheimitationsofthe16thand17thcentury
    writershemostlovedMilton,SirThomasBrowne,Fuller,Burton,IssacWalton.Accordingtothesubject
    heistreating,hemakesuseoftherhythmsandvocabulariesofthesewriters.Thatiswhy,ineveryessay
    Lambsstylechanges.Thisisthesecretofthecharmofhisstyleanditalsopreventshimfromever
    becomingmonotonousortiresome.Hisstyleisalsofullofsurprisesbecausehismoodcontinuallyvaries,
    creatingorsuggestingitsownstyle,andcallingintoplaysomerecollectionofthisorthatwriterofthe
    olderworld.

    LambisthemostlovableofallEnglishessayists,andinhishandtheEssayreacheditsperfection.His
    essaysaretruetoJohnsonsdefinitionaloosesallyofthemind.Thoughhisessaysareallcriticismsor
    appreciationsofthelifeofhisageandliterature,theyareallintenselypersonal.They,therefore,giveusan
    excellentpictureofLambandofhumanity.Thoughheoftenstartswithsomepurelypersonalmoodor
    experiencehegentlyleadsthereadertoseelifeashesawit,withouteverbeingvainorselfassertive.Itis
    thiswonderfulcombinationofpersonalanduniversalinteresttogetherwithhisrareoldstyleandquaint
    humour,whichhavegivenhisessayshisperennialcharm,andearnedforhimthecovetabletitleofThe
    PrinceamongEnglishEssayists.

    (ii)WilliamHazlitt(17781830)

    AsapersonalityHazlittwasjusttheoppositeofLamb.Hewasamanofviolenttemper,withstronglikes
    anddislikes.Inhisjudgmentofothershewasalwaysdownrightandfrank,andnevercaredforitseffecton
    them.DuringthetimewhenEnglandwasengagedinabitterstruggleagainstNapoleon,Hazlittworshipped
    himasahero,andsohecameinconflictwiththegovernment.Hisfriendslefthimonebyoneonaccount
    ofhisaggressivenature,andatthetimeofhisdeathonlyLambstoodbyhim.

    Hazlittwrotemanyvolumesofessays,ofwhichthemosteffectiveisTheSpiritoftheAge(1825)inwhich
    hegivescriticalportraitsofanumberofhisfamouscontemporaries.ThiswasaworkwhichonlyHazlitt
    couldundertakebecausehewasoutspokenandfearlessintheexpressionofhisopinion.Thoughattimeshe
    ismisledbyhisprejudices,yettakinghiscriticismofartandliteratureasawholethereisnottheleast
    doubtthatthereisgreatmeritinit.Hehasthecapacitytoseethewholeofhisauthormostclearly,andhe
    canplacehimmostexactlyinrelationtootherauthors.Inhisinterpretationoflifeinthegeneralandproper
    sense,heshowsanacuteandaccuratepowerofobservationandoftengoestotheveryfoundationofthings.
    Underneathhislightandeasystyletherealwaysflowsanundercurrentofdeepthoughtandfeeling.

    ThestyleofHazlitthasforce,brightnessandindividuality.Hereandtherewefindpassagesofsolemnand
    statelymusic.ItisthereflectionofHazlittspersonalityoutspoken,straightforwardandfrank.Ashehad
    readwidely,andhismindwasfilledwithgreatstoreoflearning,hiswritingsareinterspersedwith
    sentencesandphrasesfromotherwritersandtherearealsoechoesoftheirstyle.Aboveall,itvibrateswith
    thevitalityandforceofhispersonality,andsoneverlapsesintodullness.

    (iii)ThomasdeQuincey(17851859)

    DeQuinceyisfamousasthewriterofimpassionedprose.Hesharedthereactionofhisdayagainstthe
    severerclassicismoftheeighteenthcentury,preferringrathertheornatemannerofJeremyTaylor,Sir
    ThomasBrowneandtheircontemporaries.Thespecialtyofhisstyleconsistsindescribingincidentsof
    purelypersonalinterestinlanguagesuitedtotheirmagnitudeastheyappearintheeyesofthewriter.The
    readerisirresistiblyattractedbythesplendourofhisstylewhichcombinesthebestelementsofproseand
    poetry.Infacthisproseworksaremoreimaginativeandmelodiousthanmanypoeticalworks.Thereis
    revealedinthemthebeautyoftheEnglishlanguage.Thedefectsofhisstylearethathedigressestoomuch,
    andoftenstopsinthemidstofthefineparagraphtotalkaboutsometrivialthingbywayofjest.Butinspite
    ofthesedefectshisproseisstillamongthefewsupremeexamplesofstyleintheEnglishlanguage.
    DeQuinceywasahighlyintellectualwriterandhisinterestswereverywide.Mostlyhewroteintheform
    ofarticlesforjournalsandhedealtwithallsortsofsubjectsabouthimselfandhisfriends,lifeingeneral,
    art,literature,philosophyandreligion.OfhisautobiographicalsketchesthebestknownishisConfessions
    ofanEnglishOpiumEater,inwhichhehasgivenus,inamostinterestingmanner,glimpsesofhisownlife
    undertheinfluenceofopium.Hewrotefinebiographiesofanumberofclassical,historicalandliterary
    personages,ofwhichthemostambitiousattemptisTheCaerars.Hismostperfecthistoricalessayison
    JoanofArc.Hisessaysonprincipleofliteratureareoriginalandpenetrating.Thebestofthistypeisthe
    onewherehegivesthedistinctionbetweentheliteratureofknowledgeandofpower.OntheKnockingat
    theGateinMacbethisthemostbrilliant.HealsowroteveryscholarlyarticlesonGoethe,Pope,Schiller
    andShakespeare.Besidesthesehewroteanumberofessaysonscienceandtheology.

    InallhiswritingsDeQuinceyassertshispersonalpointofview,andasheisamanofstrongprejudices,
    likesanddislikes,heoftengivesundueemphasisoncertainpoints.Theresultisthatwecannotrelyonhis
    judgmententirely.Butthereisnodoubtthathisapproachisalwaysoriginalandbrilliantwhichstraightway
    capturestheattentionofthereader.Moreover,thesplendourofhispoeticprosewhichiselaborateand
    sonorousinitseffects,castsitsownspecialspell.TheresultisthatDeQuinceyisstilloneofthemost
    fascinatingprosewritersofEngland.
    NovelistsoftheRomanticAge

    ThegreatnovelistsoftheRomanticperiodareJaneAustenandScott,butbeforethemthereappearedsome
    novelistswhocameunderthespellofmedievalismandwrotenovelsofterrorortheGothicnovels.The
    originofthistypeoffictioncanbeascribedtoHoraceWalpoles(171797)TheCastleofOtranto(1746).
    HerethestoryinsetinmedievalItalyanditincludesagigantichelmetthatcanstrikedeaditsvictims,
    tyrants,supernaturalintrusions,mysteriesandsecrets.Therewereanumberofimitatorsofsuchatypeof
    novelduringtheeighteenthcenturyaswellasintheRomanticperiod.

    (i)TheGothicNovel

    ThemostpopularofthewritersoftheterrororGothicnovelduringtheRomanticagewasMrs.Ann
    Radciffe(17641823),ofwhosefivenovelsthebestknownareTheMysteriesofUdolphoandtheItalian.
    SheinitiatedthemechanismoftheterrortaleaspracticedbyHoraceWalpoleandhisfollowers,but
    combineditwithsentimentalbuteffectivedescriptionofscenery.TheMysteriesofUdolphorelatesthe
    storyofaninnocentandsensitivegirlwhofallsinthehandsofaheartlessvillainnamedMontoni.Hekeeps
    herinagrimandisolatedcastlefullofmysteryandterror.ThenovelsofMrs.Radcliffebecamevery
    popular,andtheyinfluencedsomeofthegreatwriterslikeByronandShelley.Latertheyinfluencedthe
    Brontesisterswhoseimaginationwasstimulatedbythesestrangestories.

    ThoughMrs.RadcliffewastheprominentwriterofGothicnovels,therewereafewothernovelistswho
    earnedpopularitybywritingsuchnovels.TheywereMathewGregory(Monk)Lewis(17751818).Who
    wroteTheMonk,TalesofTerrorandTalesofWonderandCharlesRobertMaturinwhoseMelmoththe
    WandererexertedgreatinfluenceinFrance.ButthemostpopularofallterrortaleswasFrankestein
    (1817)writtenbyMrs.Shelley.Itisthestoryofamechanicalmonsterwithhumanpowerscapableof
    performingterrifyingdeeds.OfalltheGothicnovelsitistheonlyonewhichispopulareventoday.

    (ii)JaneAusten(17751817)

    JaneAustenbroughtgoodsenseandbalancetotheEnglishnovelwhichduringtheRomanticagehad
    becometooemotionalandundisciplined.Givingaloosereintotheirimaginationthenovelistoftheperiod
    carriedthemselvesawayfromtheworldaroundthemintoaromanticpastorintoaromanticfuture.The
    novel,whichinthehandsofRichardsonandFieldinghadbeenafaithfulrecordofreallifeandofthe
    workingofheartandimagination,becameintheclosingyearsoftheeighteenthcenturytheliteratureof
    crime,insanityandterror.It,therefore,neededcastigationandreformwhichwereprovidedbyJaneAusten.
    Livingaquietlifeshepublishedhersixnovelsanonymously,whichhavenowplacedheramongthefront
    rankofEnglishnovelists.ShedidfortheEnglishnovelpreciselywhattheLakepoetsdidforEnglish
    poetrysherefinedandsimplifiedit,makingitatruereflectionofEnglishlife.AsWordsworthmadea
    deliberateefforttomakepoetrynaturalandtruthful,JaneAustenalsofromthetimeshestartedwritingher
    firstnovelPrideandPrejudice,hadinhermindtheideaofpresentingEnglishcountrysocietyexactlyas
    itwas,inoppositiontotheromanticextravaganceofMrs.Radcliffeandherschool.Duringthetimeof
    greatturmoilandrevolutioninvariousfields,shequietlywentonwithherwork,makingnogreateffortto
    getapublisher,and,whenapublisherwasgot,contentingherselfwithmeagreremunerationandnever
    permittinghernametoappearonatitlepage.SheisoneofthesincerestexamplesinEnglishliteratureof
    artforartssake.

    InallJaneAustenwrotesixnovelsPrideandPrejudice,SenseandSensibility,Emma,MansefieldPark,
    NorthangerAbbeyandPersuasion.OfthesePrideandPrejudiceisthebestandmostwidelyreadofher
    novels.SenseandSensibility,EmmaandMansefieldarenowplacedamongthefrontrankofEnglish
    novels.FrompurelyliterarypointofviewNorthangerAbbeygetsthefirstplaceonaccountofthesubtle
    humouranddelicatesatireitcontainsagainstthegrotesquebutpopularGothicnovels.

    AsanovelistJaneAustenworkedinanarrowfield.Shewasthedaughterofahumbleclergymanlivingin
    alittlevillage.Exceptforshortvisitstoneighbouringplaces,shelivedastaticlifebutshehadsuchakeen
    powerofobservationthatthesimplecountrypeoplebecamethecharactersofhernovels.Thechiefduties
    ofthesepeoplewereofthehousehold,theirchiefpleasureswereincountrygatheringsandtheirchief
    interestwasinmatrimony.Itisthesmall,quietworldofthesepeople,freefromthemightyinterests,
    passions,ambitiousandtragicstrugglesoflife,thatJaneAustindepictsinhernovels.Butinspiteofthese
    limitationsshehasachievedwonderfulperfectioninthatnarrowfieldonaccountofheracutepowerof
    observation,herfineimpartialityandselfdetachment,andherquiet,delicateandironicalhumour.Her
    circumstanceshelpedhertogivethatfinishanddelicacytoherwork,whichhavemadethemartistically
    prefect.Novelwritingwasapartofhereverydaylife,tobeplacedasideshouldavisitorcome,tobe
    resumedwhenheleft,tobepurusedunostentatiouslyandtranquillyinthemidstofthefamilycircle.She
    knewpreciselywhatshewantedtodo,andshediditinthewaythatsuitedherbest.Thoughinherdayshe
    didnotreceivetheappreciationshedeserved,posterityhasgivenherrewardbyplacingthismodest,
    unassumingwomanwhodiedinherforties,asoneofthegreatestofEnglishnovelists.

    AmonghercontemporariesonlyScott,realisedthegreatnessandpermanentworthofherwork,andmost
    aptlyremarked:Thatyoungladyhasatalentfordescribingtheinvolvementsandfeelingsandcharacters
    ofordinarylifewhichistomethemostwonderfulIevermetwith.ThebigbowbowstrainIcandomyself,
    likeanynowgoing,buttheexquisitetouchwhichrendersordinarycommonplacethingsandcharacters
    interestingfromthetruthofthedescriptionandthesentiment,isdeniedtome,Whatapitysuchagifted
    creaturediedsoearly!

    (iii)SirWalterScott(17711832)

    WalterScottsqualitiesasanovelistwerevastlydifferentformthoseofJaneAusten.Whereasshepainted
    domesticminiatures,Scottdepictedpageantryofhistoryonbroadercanvases.JaneAustenispreciseand
    exactinwhatevershewritesScottisdiffusiveanddigressive.JaneAustendealswiththequietintimacies
    ofEnglishrurallifefreefromhighpassions,strugglesandgreatactionsScott,ontheotherhand,deals
    withthechivalric,exciting,romanticandadventurouslifeoftheHighlanderspeoplelivingontheborder
    ofEnglandandScotland,amongwhomhespentmuchofhisyouth,orwithgloriousscenesofpasthistory.
    DuringhisfirstfiveorsixyearsofnovelwritingScottconfinedhimselftofamiliarscenesandcharacters.
    ThenovelswhichhavealocalcolourandarebasedonpersonalobservationsareGuyMannering,The
    Antiquary,OldMortalityandTheHeartofMidlothian.HisfirstattemptatahistoricalnovelwasIvanhoe
    (1819)followedbyKenilworth(1821),QuentinDurward(1823),andTheTalisman(1825).Hereturnedto
    ScottishantiquityfromtimetotimeasinTheMonastery(1820)andSt.RonansWell(1823).

    InallthesenovelsScottrevealshimselfasaconsummatestoryteller.Hisleisurelyunfoldingofthestory
    allowsofdigressionparticularlyinthedescriptionsofnaturalscenesorofinteriors.Withoutbeing
    historicalinthestrictsenseheconveysasenseofthepastagebymeansofawealthofcolourful
    descriptions,boundlessvitalityandwithmuchhumourandsympathy.Thehistoricalcharacterswhichhe
    hassobeautifullyportrayedthattheychallengecomparisonwiththecharactersofShakespeare,include
    QueenElizabethandMaryQueenofScott.Besidesthesehehasgivenusanumberofimperishable
    portraitsofthecreaturesofhisimagination.Heisasuperbmasterofthedialoguewhichisinvariablytrue
    tocharacter.

    ThenovelsofScottbetraythesameimaginativejoyintherecreationofthepastashispoetry,butthenovel
    offeredhimamoreadaptableandwiderfieldthanthenarrativepoem.Itgavehimabetteropportunityfor
    thedisplayofhisvariedgifts,hisantiquarianknowledge,hisobservationoflifeandcharacter,hisdelight
    inpopularaswellascourtlyscenes,andhisrichhumour.

    ScottisthefirstEnglishwriterofthehistoricalnovel,andhemadeveryenduringcontributionstoits
    developmentinEnglandaswellasinEurope.Hewasbytemperamentandtrainingperfectlysuitedtothe
    accomplishmentofthistask.Inthefirstplacehehadacquiredaprofoundknowledgeofhistorybyhis
    copiousreadingsincehisearliestyouth.Hehadthezestofthestoryteller,andanaturalheartinesswhich
    madehimlovelifeinallitsmanifestations.Hehadaninnatesenseofthepicturesque,developedbyhis
    passionforantiquarianism.Hisconservativetemperwhichturnedhimawayfromthecontemporary
    revolutionaryenthusiasm,gavehimanaturalsympathyforthedaysofchivalry.IntheRomanticage,Scott
    wasromanticonlyinhisloveofthepicturesqueandhisinterestintheMiddleAges.

    ScottwasthefirstnovelistinEuropewhomadethesceneanessentialelementinaction.HeknewScotland,
    andlovedit,andthereishardlyaneventinanyofhisScottishnovelsinwhichwedonotbreathethevery
    atmosphereoftheplace,andfeelthepresenceofitsmoorsandmountains.Hechoosestheplacesowell
    anddescribesitsoperfectly,thattheactionseemsalmosttoberesultofnaturalenvironment.

    ThoughthestyleofScottisofteninartistic,heavyanddraggingtheloveinterestinhisnovelsisapttobe
    insipidandmonotonousheoftensketchesacharacterroughlyandplungeshimintothemidstofstirring
    incidentsandhehasnoinclinationsfortracingthelogicalconsequencesofhumanactionallthese
    objectionsandcriticismsaresweptawayintheendbythebroad,powerfulcurrentofhisnarrativegenius.
    Moreover,Scottschiefclaimtogreatnessliesinthefactthathewasthefirstnovelisttorecreatethepastin
    suchamannerthatthemenandwomenofthebygoneages,andtheoldscenesbecameactuallyliving,and
    throbbingwithlife.CarlyleverypertinentlyremarkedaboutScottsnovels:Thesehistoricalnovelshave
    taughtthistruthunknowntothewritersofhistory,thatthebygoneagesoftheworldwereactuallyfilledby
    livingmen,notbyprotocols,statepapers,controversies,andabstractionsofmen.
    TheVictorianAge(18321900)

    TheVictorianAgeinEnglishliteraturebeganinsecondquarterofthenineteenthcenturyandendedby
    1900.Thoughstrictlyspeaking,theVictorianageoughttocorrespondwiththereignofQueenVictoria,
    whichextendedfrom1837to1901,yetliterarymovementsrarelycoincidewiththeexactyearofroyal
    accessionordeath.Fromtheyear1798withthepublicationoftheLyricalBalladstilltheyear1820there
    wastheheydayofRomanticisminEngland,butafterthatyeartherewasasuddendecline.

    Wordsworthwhoafterhisearlyeffusionofrevolutionaryprincipleshadrelapsedintoconservatismand
    positiveoppositiontosocialandpoliticalreforms,producednothingofimportanceafterthepublicationof
    hisWhiteDoeofRylstonein1815,thoughhelivedtill1850.Coleridgewrotenopoemofmeritafter1817.
    Scottwasstillwritingafter1820,buthisworklackedthefireandoriginalityofhisearlyyears.The
    RomanticpoetsoftheyoungergenerationunfortunatelyalldiedyoungKeatsin1820,Shelleyin1822,
    andByronin1824.

    ThoughtheRomanticAgeintherealsenseofthetermendedin1820,theVictorianAgestartedfrom1832
    withthepassingofthefirstReformAct,1832.Theyears18201832weretheyearsofsuspendedanimation
    inpolitics.ItwasafactthatEnglandwasfastturningfromanagriculturalintoamanufacturingcountry,but
    itwasonlyafterthereformoftheConstitutionwhichgaverightofvotetothenewmanufacturingcentres,
    andgavepowertothemiddleclasses,thatthewaywasopenedfornewexperimentsinconstructive
    politics.ThefirstReformActof1832wasfollowedbytheRepealoftheCornLawsin1846whichgavean
    immenseadvantagetothemanufacturinginterests,andtheSecondReformActof1867.Inthefieldof
    literaturealsotheyears18201832weresingularlybarren.Ashasalreadybeenpointedout,therewas
    suddendeclineofRomanticliteraturefromtheyear1820,butthenewliteratureofEngland,calledthe
    Victorianliterature,startedfrom1832whenTennysonsfirstimportantvolume,Poems,appeared.The
    followingyearsawCarlylesSartorResartus,andDickensearliestwork,SketchesbyBoz.Theliterary
    careerofThackeraybeganabout1837,andBrowningpublishedhisDramaticLyricsin1842.Thusthe
    Victorianperiodinliteratureofficiallystartsfrom1832,thoughtheRomanticperiodendedin1820,and
    QueenVictoriaascendedthethronein1837.

    TheVictorianAgeissolongandcomplicatedandthegreatwriterswhoflourishedinitaresomany,that
    forthesakeofconvenienceitisoftendividedintotwoperiodsEarlyVictorianPeriodandLaterVictorian
    Period.Theearlierperiodwhichwastheperiodofmiddleclasssupremacy,theageoflaissezfaireorfree
    trade,andofunrestrictedcompetition,extendedfrom1832to1870.Thegreatwritersofthisperiodwere
    Tennyson,Browning,MatthewArnold,Carlyle,Ruskin,DickensandThackeray.Allthesepoets,novelists
    andprosewritersform,acertainhomogenousgroup,becauseinspiteofindividualdifferencestheyexhibit
    thesameapproachtothecontemporaryproblemsandthesameliterary,moralandsocialvalues.Butthe
    laterVictorianwriterswhocameintoprominenceafter1870Rossetti,Swinburne,Morris,GeorgeEliot,
    Meredith,Hardy,NewmanandPaterseemtobelongtoadifferentage.InpoetryRossetti,Swinburneand
    MorrisweretheprotagonistsofnewmovementcalledthePreRaphaeliteMovement,whichwasfollowed
    bytheAestheticMovement.Inthefieldofnovel,GeorgeEliotisthepioneerofwhatiscalledthemodern
    psychologicalnovel,followedbyMeredithandHardy.InproseNewmantriedtorevolutioniseVictorian
    thoughtbyturningitbacktoCatholicism,andPatercameoutwithhispurelyaestheticdoctrineofArtfor
    ArtsSake,whichwasdirectlyopposedtothefundamentallymoralapproachoftheprosewritersofthe
    earlierperiodCarlyleArnoldandRuskin.Thusweseeacleardemarcationbetweenthetwoperiodsof
    VictorianliteraturetheearlyVictorianperiod(18321870)andthelaterVictorianperiod(18701900).

    Butthedifferencebetweenthewritersofthetwoperiodsismoreapparentthanreal.Fundamentallythey
    belongtoonegroup.Theywereallthechildrenofthenewageofdemocracy,ofindividualism,ofrapid
    industrialdevelopmentandmaterialexpansion,theageofdoubtandpessimism,followingthenew
    conceptionsofmanwhichwasformulatedbyscienceunderthenameofEvolution.Allofthemweremen
    andwomenofmarkedoriginalityinoutlookandcharacterorstyle.Allofthemwerethecriticsoftheirage,
    andinsteadofbeinginsympathywithitsspirit,wereitsveryseverecritics.Allofthemwereinsearchof
    somesortofbalance,stability,arationalunderstanding,inthemidstoftherapidlychangingtimes.Mostof
    themfavouredthereturntoprecisioninform,tobeautywithinthelimitsofreason,andtovalueswhichhad
    receivedthestampofuniversalapproval.Itwasinfacttheirinsistenceontherationalelementsofthought,
    whichgaveadistinctivecharactertothewritingsofthegreatVictorians,andwhichmadethemakin,toa
    certainextent,tothegreatwritersoftheneoClassicalschool.AllthegreatwritersoftheVictorianAge
    wereactuatedbyadefinitemoralpurpose.Tennyson,Browning,Carlyle,Ruskin,Arnoldwrotewitha
    superbfaithintheirmessage,andwiththeconsciousmoralpurposetoupliftandtoinstruct.Eventhenovel
    brokeawayfromScottsromanticinfluence.Dickens,Thackeray,GeorgeEliotwrotewithadefinite
    purposetosweepawayerrorandrevealtheunderlyingtruthofhumanity.ForthisreasontheVictorianAge
    wasfundamentallyanageofrealismratherthanofromance.

    Butfromanotherpointofview,theVictorianAgeinEnglishliteraturewasacontinuationoftheRomantic
    Age,becausetheRomanticAgecametoasuddenandunnaturalandmainlyonaccountofthepremature
    deathsofByron,ShelleyandKeats.Iftheyhadlivedlonger,theAgeofRomanticismwouldhaveextended
    further.Butaftertheirdeaththecoherentinspirationofromanticismdisintegratedintoseparatelinesof
    development,justasintheseventeenthcenturythesingleinspirationoftheRenaissancebrokeinto
    differentschools.TheresultwasthatthespiritofRomanticismcontinuedtoinfluencetheinnermost
    consciousnessofVictorianAge.ItsinfluenceisclearlyvisibleonTennyson,Browning,Arnold,Dickens,
    Thackeray,Ruskin,Meredith,Swinburne,Rossettiandothers.Evenitsadversaries,andthosewhowould
    escapeitsspell,wereimpregnatedwithit.Whiledenouncingit,Carlyledoessoinastylewhichisintensely
    chargedwithemotionalfireandvisionarycolouring.Infactafter1870wefindthattheromanticinspiration
    wasagainintheascendentintheshapeofthePreRaphaeliteandAestheticmovements.

    TherewasalsoanotherreasonofthecontinuationofRomanticismintheVictorianAge.Thereisnodoubt
    thattheReformActsetatrestthepoliticaldisturbancesbysatisfyingtheimpatientdemandofthemiddle
    classes,andseemedtoinaugurateanageofstability.Afterthecrisiswhichfollowedthestruggleagainst
    theFrenchRevolutionandNapoleon,Englandsetaboutorganizingherselfwithaviewtointernal
    prosperityandprogress.Moreover,withtheadventtopowerofamiddleclasslargelyimbuedwiththe
    spiritofPuritanism,andtheaccessionofaqueentothethrone,aneraofselfrestraintanddisciplinestarted.
    TheEnglishsocietyacceptedasitsstandardastricterconventionalmoralitywhichwasvoicedbywriters
    likeCarlyle.Butnosoonerhadthepoliticaldisturbancessubsidedandacertainmeasureofstabilityand
    balancehadbeenachievedthentherewasfreshandseriousoutbreakintheeconomicworld.Theresultwas
    thattheVictorianperiod,quietasitwas,begantothrobwiththefeverishtremorsofanxietyandtrouble,
    andthewholeorderofthenationwasthreatenedwithanupheaval.From1840to1850inparticular,
    Englandseemedtobeonthevergeofasocialrevolution,anditsdisturbedspiritwasreflected,especiallyin
    thenovelwithapurpose.ThisspecialformofRomanticismwhichwasfedbytheemotionalunrestinthe
    socialsphere,therefore,derivedarenewedvitalityfromthesesources.Thecombinedeffectofallthese
    causeswasthesurvivalandprolongationofRomanticismintheVictorianAgewhichwasotherwise
    opposedtoit.

    Moreover,RomanticismnotonlycontinuedduringtheVictorianAge,butitappearedinnewforms.The
    veryexerciseofreasonandthepursuitofscientificstudieswhichpromotedthespiritofclassicism,stirred
    upadesireforcompensationandledtoareassertionoftheimaginationandtheheart.Therepresentatives
    ofthegrowingcivilizationofthedayeconomists,mastersofindustry,businessmenwereconsideredas
    theenemiesofnobilityandbeautyandtheartisansofhopelessandjoylessmaterialism.Thisfearobsessed
    themindsofthosewritersoftheVictorianAge,towhomfeelingsandimaginationwereessentialsoflife
    itself.ThustherationalisticagewasrudelyshakenbyimpassionedprotestationsofwriterslikeNewman,
    CarlyleandRuskinwhowereinconflictwiththespiritoftheirtime.

    TheVictorianAge,therefore,exhibitsaveryinterestingandcomplexmixtureoftwoopposingelements
    ClassicismandRomanticism.Basicallyitwasinclinedtowardsclassicismonaccountofitsrational
    approachtotheproblemsoflife,asearchforbalanceandstability,andadeeplymoralattitudebuton
    accountofitscloseproximitytotheRomanticRevivalwhichhadnotcompletelyexhausteditself,buthad
    cometoasuddenendonaccountoftheprematuredeathsofByron,ShelleyandKeats,thesocialand
    economicunrest,thedisillusionmentcausedbyindustrializationandmaterialprosperity,thespiritof
    Romanticismalsosurvivedandproducedcountercurrents.

    (continued)
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    PoetsoftheEarlyVictorianPeriod

    ThemostimportantpoetsduringtheearlyVictorianperiodwereTennysonandBrowning,withArnold
    occupyingasomewhatlowerposition.AfterthepassingawayofKeats,ShelleyandByronintheearly
    eighteentwenties,foraboutfifteenyearsthefinefrenzyofthehighromanticssubsidedandaquietermood
    ensued.Withtheabatementoftherevolutionaryfervour,Wordsworthsinspirationhaddesertedhimand
    allthathewroteinhislateryearswasdullandinsipid.
    ThereappearedahostofwritersofmoderatetalentlikeJohnClare,ThomasLovePeacock,WalterSavage
    LandorandThomasHood.Theresultwasthatfrom1820tillthepublicationofTennysonsfirstimportant
    workin1833Englishpoetryhadfallenintothehandsofmediocrities.Itwasinfactbythepublicationof
    histwovolumesin1842thatTennysonspositionwasassuredas,inWordsworthslanguage,decidedly
    thegreatestofourlivingpoets.Browningsrecognitionbythepubliccameaboutthesametime,withthe
    appearanceofDramaticLyrics(1842),althoughParacelsusandSordellohadalreadybeenpublished.The
    earlyVictorianpoetrywhichstartedin1833,therefore,cametoitsown,intheyear1842.
    TheearlypoetryofbothTennysonandBrowningwasimbuedwiththespiritofromanticism,butitwas
    romanticismwithadifference.TennysonrecognisedanaffinitywithByronandKeatsBrowningwith
    Shelley,buttheirromanticismnolongerimpliedanattitudeofrevoltagainstconventionalmodes.Ithad
    itselfbecomeaconvention.TherevolutionaryfervourwhichinspiredthepoetryofthegreatRomantic
    poetshadnowgivenplacetoanevolutionaryconceptionofprogresspropagatedbythewritingsofDarwin,
    Benthamandtheirfollowers.Thoughthewritersofthenewagestillpersistedinderivinginspirationfrom
    thepastages,yetunderthespellofthemarvelsofscience,theylookedforwardratherthanbackward.The
    dominantnoteoftheearlyVictorianperiodwastherefore,containedinBrowningsmemorablelines:The
    bestisyettobe.Tennysonfoundspiritualconsolationincontemplatingthe
    Onefaroffdivineevent
    Towhichthewholecreationmoves.
    FaithintherealityofprogresswasthusthemaincharacteristicoftheearlyVictorianAge.Doubt,
    scepticismandquestioningbecamethemaincharacteristicofthelaterVictorianAge.

    (a)AlfredTennyson(18091892)

    TennysonisthemostrepresentativepoetoftheVictorianAge.Hispoetryisarecordoftheintellectualand
    spirituallifeofthetime.Beingacarefulstudentofscienceandphilosophyhewasdeeplyimpressedbythe
    newdiscoveriesandspeculationswhichwereunderminingtheorthodoxreligionandgivingrisetoallsorts
    ofdoubtsanddifficulties.DarwinstheoryofEvolutionwhichbelievedinthestruggleforexistenceand
    thesurvivalofthefittestspeciallyupsetandshookthefoundationsofreligiousfaith.Thustherewasa
    conflictbetweenscienceandreligion,doubtandfaith,materialismandspirituality.Thesetwovoicesofthe
    VictorianageareperpetuallyheardinTennysonswork.InInMemoriam,morethaninanyother
    contemporaryliterarywork,wereadofthegreatconflictbetweenfaithanddoubt.Thoughheisgreatly
    disturbedbytheconstantstrugglegoingoninNaturewhichisredintoothandclaw,hisbeliefin
    evolutionsteadiesandencourageshim,andhelpshimtolookbeyondthestruggletowardstheonefaroff
    divineeventtowhichthewholecreationmoves.
    Tennysonspoetryissomuchrepresentativeofhisagethatachronologicalstudyofitcanhelpustowrite
    itshistory.ThushisLockslayHallof1842reflectstherestlessspiritofyoungEnglandanditsfaithin
    science,commerceandtheprogressofmankind.InLockslayHallSixtyYearsAfter(1866)thepoetgives
    expressiontothefeelingofrevulsionarousedagainstthenewscientificdiscoverieswhichthreatenedthe
    veryfoundationsofreligion,andagainstcommerceandindustrywhichhadgivenriseofsomeveryugly
    problemsasaresultofthesordidgreedofgain.InThePrincess,Tennysondealtwithanimportantproblem
    ofthedaythatofthehighereducationofwomenandtheirplaceinthefastchangingconditionsof
    modernsociety.InMaud,hegaveexpressiontothepatrioticpassionarousedonaccountoftheCrimean
    War.InIdyllsofKings,inspiteofitsmedievalmachinery,contemporaryproblemsweredealtwithbythe
    poet.ThusinallthesepoemsthechangingmoodsoftheVictorianAgearesuccessivelyrepresented
    doubts,misgivings,hopefulnessetc.

    TakingTennysonspoetryasawhole,wefindthatinspiteofvarietiesofmoods,itisanexpositionofthe
    cautionsspiritofVictorianliberalism.Hewasessentiallythepoetoflawandorderaswellasofprogress.
    HewasagreatadmirerofEnglishtraditions,andthoughhebelievedindivineevolutionofthings:
    Theoldorderchangeth,yieldingplacetonew,
    AndGodfulfillshimselfinmanyways

    Lestonegoodcustomshouldcorrupttheworld,

    hewas,likeatrueEnglishman,againstanythingthatsmackedofrevolution.

    ButtherealgreatnessofTennysonasapoetliesinhisbeingasupremeartist.Theideascontainedinhis
    poemsareoftencondemnedbyhiscriticsascommonplace,andheisberatedasashallowthinker.Butno
    onecandenyhisgreatnessasanartist.Heis,perhaps,afterMilton,themostconscientiousand
    accomplishedpoeticartistinEnglishliterature.Heisnoteworthyfortheevenperfectionofhisstyleandhis
    wonderfulmasteryoflanguagewhichisatoncesimpleandornate.Moreover,thereisanexquisiteand
    variedmusicinhisverse.Inpoeticstylehehasshownauniformmasterywhichisnotsurpassedbyany
    otherEnglishpoetexceptShakespeare.Asanartist,Tennysonhasanimaginationlessdramaticthan
    lyrical,andheisusuallyathisbestwhenheiskindledbypersonalemotion,personalexperience.Itishis
    finetalentforlyricwhichgiveshimahighplaceamongthemastersofEnglishverse.Someofhisshorter
    pieces,suchasBreak,break,breakTear,idletearsCrossingtheBarareamongthefinestEnglishsongs
    onaccountoftheirdistinctionofmusicandimagery.

    Tennysonisamasterofimaginativedescription,whichisseenatitsbestinTheLotosEaters.Wordscan
    hardlybemorebeautifulormoreexpressivethaninsuchastanzaasthis:
    Alandofstream!some,likeadownwardsmoke,
    Slowdropping,veilsofthinnestlawndidgo

    Andsomethrowaveringlightsandshadowsbroke,
    Rollingaslumberoussheetoffoambelow.
    Theysawthegleamingriverseawardflow

    Fromtheinnerlandforoff,threemountaintops,
    Threesilentpinnaclesofagedsnow,

    Stoodsunsetflushdanddewdwithshowerydrops.
    Upclombtheshadowypineabovethewovencopse.

    DuringhislifetimeTennysonwasconsideredasthegreatestpoetofhisage,butafterhisdeathareaction
    startedagainsthim,andhewasgivenamuchlowerrankamongtheEnglishpoets.Butwiththepassageof
    timeTennysonspoetryregaineditslostposition,andatpresenthisplaceasoneofthegreatestpoetsof
    Englandissecuremainlyonaccountoftheartisticperfectionofhisverse.

    (b)RobertBrowning(18121889)

    DuringhislifetimeBrowningwasnotconsideredasgreatapoetasTennyson,butafterthattheopinionof
    thecriticshaschangedinfavourofBrowning,who,onaccountofhisdepthandoriginalityofthoughts,is
    rankedsuperiortoTennyson.BrowningandTennysonwerecontemporariesandtheirpoeticcareersran
    almostparalleltoeachother,butaspoetstheypresentedaglaringcontrast.WhereasTennysonisfirstthe
    artistandthentheteacher,withBrowningthemessageisalwaystheimportantthing,andheisvery
    carelessoftheforminwhichitisexpressed.Tennysonalwayswritesaboutsubjectswhicharedaintyand
    comelyBrowning,ontheotherhand,dealswithsubjectswhichareroughandugly,andheaimstoshow
    thattruthlieshiddeninboththeevilandthegood.Intheirrespectivemessagesthetwopoetsdiffered
    widely.Tennysonsmessagereflectsthegrowingorderoftheage,andissummedupinthewordlaw.He
    believesindiscipliningtheindividualwillandsubordinatingittotheuniversallaw.Thereisanoteof
    resignationstruckinhispoetry,whichamountstofatalism.Browning,ontheotherhand,advocatesthe
    triumphoftheindividualwillovertheobstacles.Inhisopinionselfisnotsubordinatebutsupreme.There
    isarobustoptimismreflectedinallhispoetry.Itisinfactbecauseofhisinvinciblewillandoptimismthat
    BrowningisgivenpreferenceoverTennysonwhosepoetrybetraysweaknessandhelplesspessimism.
    Browningsboundlessenergy,hischeerfulcourage,hisfaithinlifeandinthedevelopmentthatawaits
    beyondtheportalsofdeath,giveastrangevitalitytohispoetry.Itishisfirmbeliefintheimmortalityofthe
    soulwhichformsthebasisofhisgenerousoptimism,beautifullyexpressedinthefollowinglinesofPippa
    Passes:

    Theyearsatthespring,
    Anddaysatthemorn
    Morningsatseven

    Thehillsidesdewpearled
    Thelarksonthewing
    Thesnailsonthethorn,
    Godsinhisheaven

    Allsrightwiththeworld.

    Thusisanagewhenthemindsofmenwereassailedbydoubt,Browningspokethestrongestwordsofhope
    andfaith:

    Growoldalongwithme!
    Thebestisyettobe.

    Thelastoflife,forwhichthefirstwasmade.
    (RabbiBenEzra)

    InanotherwayalsoBrowningpresentsacontrasttoTennyson.WhereasTennysonsgeniusismainly
    lyrical.Browningsispredominantlydramatic,andhisgreatestpoemsarewrittenintheformofthe
    dramaticmonologue.Beingchieflyinterestedinthestudyofthehumansoul,hediscussesinpoemafter
    poem,intheformofmonologueordialogue,theproblemsoflifeandconscience.Andinallofthem
    Browninghimselfisthecentralcharacter,andheusestheheroashisownmouthpiece.Hisfirstpoem
    Pauline(1833)whichisamonologueaddressedtoPauline,ontheincidentsinthedevelopmentofasoul,
    isautobiographicalafragmentofpersonalconfessionunderathindramaticdisguise.HisParacelsus
    (1835)whichisinformadramawithfourcharacters,isalsoastoryofincidentsinthedevelopmentofa
    soul,ofaRenaissancephysicianinwhomtruescienceandcharlatanismwerecombined.Paracelsushas
    theambitionofattainingtruthandtransformingthelifeofman.Forthispurposehediscardsemotionand
    love,andfailsonaccountofthismistake.Browninginthispoemalsousestheheroasamouthpieceofhis
    ownideasandaspiration.ParacelsuswasfollowedbySordello,(1840)whichisagainthestudyofasoul.
    ItnarratesinheroicversethelifeofalittleknownItalianpoet.Onaccountofitsinvolvedexpressionits
    obscurityhasbecomeproverbial.InPipaPasses(1841)Browningproducedadramapartlylyricaland
    consistingofisolatedscenes.Hereheimaginedtheeffectofthesongsofalittleworkinggirl,strolling
    aboutduringaholiday,onthedestinyoftheverydifferentpersonswhoheartheminturn.

    Itwaswiththepublicationofaseriesofcollectionsofdisconnectedstudies,chieflymonologues,that
    Browningsreputationasagreatpoetwasfirmlyestablished.ThesevolumeswereDramaticLyrics
    (1842),DramaticRomancesandLyrics(1845),MenandWomen(1855),DramatisPersonae(1864),
    DramaticIdylls(187980).ThedramaticlyricsinthesecollectionswereapoetryofanewkindinEngland.
    InthemBrowningbringsthemostvariedpersonagestomaketheirconfessionstous.Someofthemare
    historical,whileothersaretheproductofBrowningsimagination,butallofthemwhileunravellingthe
    tangledweboftheiremotionsandthoughtsgiveexpressiontotheoptimisticphilosophyofthepoet.Some
    oftheimportantdramaticlyricsareBishopBlougramsApology,TwoinaGondola,PorphyriasLover,
    FraLippoLippi,ThelastRideTogether,ChildeRolandtoaDarkTowerCame,AGrammariansFuneral,
    RabbiBenEzra,ProspiceandMyLastDuchess.AllofthemhavewonforBrowningtheapplauseof
    readerswhovaluethoughtinpoetry.In(186869)BrowningbroughtoutfoursuccessivevolumesofThe
    RingandtheBook,whichishismasterpiece.Heredifferentpersonsconcernedinapeculiarlybrutalsetof
    murders,andmanywitnessesgivetheirownversionsofthesameevents,varyingthemaccordingtotheir
    differentinterestsandprejudices.Thelawyersalsohavetheirsay,andattheendthePopesumsupthecase.
    Thetenlongsuccessivemonologuescontainthefinestpsychologicalstudiesofcharacterseverattempted
    byapoet.

    DuringthelasttwentyyearsofhislifeBrowningwroteanumberofpoems.Thoughtheydonothavemuch
    poeticmerit,yettheyallgiveexpressiontohisresolutecourageandfaith.InfactBrowningismainly
    rememberedfortheastonishingvigourandhopethatcharacteriseallhiswork.Heisthepoetoflove,of
    life,andofthewilltolive,hereandbeyondthegrave,ashesaysinthesongofDavidinhispoemSoul:
    Howgoodismanslife,themereliving!howfittoemploy
    Alltheheartandthesoulandthesensesforeverinjoy.

    ThechieffaultofBrowningspoetryisobscurity.Thisismainlyduetothefactthathisthoughtisoftenso
    obscureorsubtlethatlanguagecannotexpressitperfectly.Beinginterestedinthestudyoftheindividual
    soul,neverexactlyalikeinanytwomen,heseekstoexpressthehiddenmotivesandprincipleswhich
    governindividualaction.Thusinordertounderstandhispoems,thereaderhasalwaystobementallyalret
    otherwisehefailstounderstandhisfineshadesofpsychologicalstudy.Toacertainextent,Browning
    himselfistobeblamedforhisobscurity,becauseheiscarelessasanartist.Butinspiteofhisobscurity,
    Browningisthemoststimulatingpoet,intheEnglishlanguage.Hisinfluenceonthereaderwhoisprepared
    tositup,andthinkandremainalertwhenhereadshispoetry,ispositiveandtremendous.Hisstrength,his
    joyoflife,hisrobustfaithandhisinvincibleoptimismenterintothelifeofaseriousreaderofhispoetry,
    andmakehimadifferentman.Thatiswhy,afterthirtyyearsofcontinuouswork,hismeritwasfinally
    recognised,andhewasplacedbesideTennysonandevenconsideredgreater.Intheopinionofsomecritics
    heisthegreatestpoetinEnglishliteraturesinceShakespeare.

    (c)MatthewArnold(182288)

    AnothergreatpoetoftheearlyVictorianperiodisMatthewArnold,thoughheisnotsogreatasTennyson
    andBrowning.UnlikeTennysonandBrowningwhocameundertheinfluenceofRomanticpoets,Arnold,
    thoughagreatadmirerofWordsworth,reactedagainsttheornateandfluentRomanticismofShelleyand
    Keats.HestrovetosetupaneoclassicalidealasagainsttheRomantic.Hegaveemphasisoncorrectness
    inpoetry,whichmeantaschemeofliteraturewhichpicksandchoosesaccordingtostandards,precedents
    andsystems,asagainstonewhichgivespreferencetoanabundantstreamoforiginalmusicand
    representation.Besidesbeingapoet,Arnoldwasagreatcriticofpoetry,perhapsthegreatestcriticsduring
    theVictorianperiod,andhebelongstothatrarecategoryofthecriticwhoisapoetalso.

    ThoughArnoldspoetrydoesnotpossessthemeritofthepoetryofTennysonandBrowning,whenitisat
    itsbest,ithaswonderfulcharm.Thisisespeciallythecasewithhisearlypoetrywhenhisthoughtandstyle
    hadnotbecomestereotyped.AmonghisearlypoemsthesonnetonShakespearedeservesthehighestplace.
    ItisthemostmagnificentepigraphandintroductiontotheworksofShakespeare.Anotherpoemofgreat
    charmandbeautyisRequiescat,whichisanexquisitedirge.InhislongerpoemsStrayedReveller,
    EmpedoclesonEtna,SohrabandRustum,TheScholarGipsy,Thyrsis(anelegyonClough,whichis
    consideredofthesamerankasMiltonsLycidasandShelleysAdonais)itisthelyricalstrainintowhich
    thepoetbreaksnowandthen,whichgivesthemapeculiarcharm.Itisthesamelyricalnoteinthepoems
    TheForsakenMorman,whichisapieceofexquisiteandrestrainedbutmelodiouspassionatemusic
    DoverBeachwhichgivesexpressiontoArnoldspeculiarreligiousattitudeinanageofdoubtthefine
    SummerNight,theMemorialVerseswhichimmediatelyappealstothereader.

    MostofthepoetryofArnoldgivesexpressiontotheconflictoftheagebetweenspontaneityand
    discipline,emotionandreason,faithandscepticism.Beingdistressedbytheunfaith,disintegration,
    complexityandmelancholyofhistimes,Arnoldlongedforprimitivefaith,wholeness,simplicity,and
    happiness.Thismelancholynoteispresentthroughouthispoetry.Eveninhisnaturepoems,thoughhewas
    influencedbythehealingpowerofWordsworth,inhissternermoodshelooksuponNatureasacosmic
    forceindifferentto,orasalawlessandinsidiousfoeofmansintegrity.Inhismostcharacteristicpoem
    EmpedoclesonEtnaArnolddealswiththelifeofaphilosopherwhoisdriventosuicidebecausehecannot
    achieveunityandwholenesshisscepticalintellecthasdriedupthespringsofsimple,naturalfeeling.His
    attitudetolifeisverymuchincontrastwiththepositiveoptimismofBrowningwhoseBenEzragrowsold
    onthebeliefthatThebestisyettobe!

    AsacriticArnoldwantspoetrytobeplain,andsevere.Thoughpoetryisanartwhichmustgiveaesthetic
    pleasure,accordingtoArnold,itisalsoacriticismoflife.Helooksforhighseriousnessinpoetry,which
    meansthecombinationofthefinestartwiththefullestanddeepestinsight,suchasisfoundinthepoetryof
    Homer,DanteandShakespeare.Arnoldsownpoetrywasgreatlyaffectedbyhiscriticaltheories,andwe
    findthatwhereasTennysonspoetryisornateandBrowningsgrotesque,Arnoldspoetryonthewholeis
    plainandprosaic.InsettingforthhisspiritualtroublesArnoldseeksfirstofalltoachieveatrueand
    adequatestatement,devoidofallnonessentialdecorations.Thereadergetstheimpressionthatthewriting
    isneitherinspirednorspontaneous.Itistheresultofintellectualeffortandhardlabour.Butthereare
    occasionsinthecourseofhisotherwiseprosaicpoems,whenArnoldsuddenlyrisesfromthegroundof
    analysisanddiagnosisintosensuousemotionandintuitions,andthenlanguage,imagery,andrhythmfuse
    intosomethingwhichhasanincomparablecharmandbeauty.

    (d)SomeMinorPoets

    BesidesTennyson,BrowningandArnoldtherewereanumberofminorpoetsduringtheearlyVictorian
    period.OftheseMrs.BrowningandClougharewellknown.ElizabethBerrett(180661)becameMrs.
    Browningin1846.BeforehermarriageshehadwonfamebywritingpoemsabouttheMiddleAgesin
    imitationofColeridge.ShealsogavevoicetosensitivepityinCowpersGraveandtopassionate
    indignationinTheCryofChildrenwhichisaneloquentprotestagainsttheemploymentofchildrenin
    factories.ButsheproducedherbestworkaftershecameincontactwithBrowning.HerSonnetsfromthe
    Portuguese,whichwerewrittenbeforehermarriagewithBrowning,tellinamostdelicateandtender
    mannerherdeeplovefor,andpassionategratitudetoBrowningwhobroughther,whowassickandlonely,
    backtohealthoflife.Therigidlimitofthesonnetformhelpedhertokeeptheexuberanceofherpassion
    underthedisciplineofart.Herothergreatwork,AuroraLeigh(1857),iswrittenintheformofanepicona
    romantictheme.Writteninblankversewhichisofunequalquality,thepoemisfulloflongstretchesof
    dry,uninterestingverse,buthereandthereitcontainspassagesofrarebeauty,wheresentimentandstyle
    arealikeadmirable.

    ArthurHughClough(18191861),afriendofArnold,cameundertheinfluenceofWordsworthinhisearly
    years,butlaterhecuthimselfofffromWordsworthiannarrowpiety,andmovedtowardsareligiousfaith
    freefromalldogma.Hesearchedforamorallawwhichwasinconsonancewiththeintellectual
    developmentoftheage.InhisDipsychus,thedoublesould(1850),heattemptedtoreconcilethespecial
    andtheidealistictendenciesofthesoul.Hisbestknownwork,however,isTheBothieofTobernaVuolich,
    inwhichhehasgivenalivelyaccountofanexcursionofOxfordstudentsintheHighlands.Herehe,like
    Wordsworth,emphasisesthespiritualisingandpurifyingpowerofNature.TheimportanceofCloughasa
    poetliesmainlyinthequalityofhisthoughtandthefranknobilityofhischaracterwhichisbeautifully
    expressedinthefollowingmemorablelines:
    Itmattersnothowstraitthegate,

    Howchargedwithpunishmentthescroll:
    Iamthemasterofmyfate,
    Iamthecaptainofmysoul!

    (Continued)
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    NovelistsoftheEarlyVictorianPeriod

    IntheearlyVictorianperiodthenovelmadearapidprogress.Novelreadingwasoneofthechief
    occupationsoftheeducatedpublic,andmaterialhadtobefoundforeverytaste.Theresultwasthatthe
    scopeofthenovel,whichduringtheeighteenthcenturydealtmainlywithcontemporarylifeandmanners,
    wasconsiderablyenlarged.Anumberofbrilliantnovelistsshowedthatitwaspossibletoadaptthenovelto
    almostallpurposesofliteraturewhatsoever.Infact,ifwewanttounderstandthisintellectuallifeofthe
    period.

    Weneedhardlygooutsidethesphereoffiction.Thenovelsproducedduringtheperiodtookvariousshapes
    sermons,politicalpamphlets,philosophicaldiscourses,socialessays,autobiographiesandpoemsin
    prose.Thetheatrewhichcouldrivalfictionhadfallenonevildays,anditdidnotrevivetillthelaterhalfof
    thenineteenthcentury.SotheearlyVictorianperiodsawtheheydayoftheEnglishnovel.
    ThetwomostoutstandingnovelistsoftheperiodwereDickensandThackeray.Besidesthemtherewerea
    numberofminornovelists,amongwhomtheimportantoneswereDisraeli,BronteSisters,Mrs.Gaskell,
    CharlesKingsley,CharlesReade,WilkieCollinsandTrollope.Allthesenovelistshadanumberofpoints
    ofsimilarity.Inthefirstplace,theyidentifiedthemselveswiththeirage,andwereitsspokesmen,whereas
    thenovelistsofthelatterVictorianperiodwerecritical,andevenhostiletoitsdominantassumptions.This
    senseofidentitywiththeirtimeisofcardinalimportanceinanyconsiderationoftheearlyVictorian
    novelists.Itwasthesourcealikeoftheirstrengthsandtheirweaknesses,anditdistinguishedthemfrom
    theirsuccessors.Itisnotthatthesenovelistswereuncriticaloftheircountryandage,buttheircriticismsare
    muchlessradicalthanthoseofMeredithandHardy.Theyacceptedthesocietyinwhichtheycriticiseditas
    manyoftheirreadersweredoinginalightheartedmanner.Theyvoicedthedoubtsandfearsofthepublic,
    buttheyalsosharedtheirgeneralassumptions.
    NowletusexaminethesegeneralassumptionsoftheearlyVictorianswhichthesenovelistsshared.Inthe
    firstplace,inspiteofthefactthattheywereconsciousofthehavoccausedbytheindustrialrevolution,the
    presenceofmasspoverty,andaccumulationofrichesinafewhands,yettheybelievedlikethecommon
    Victoriansthattheseevilswouldprovetobetemporary,thatonthewholeEnglandwasgrowing
    prosperous,whichwasevidentfromtheenormousincreaseinmaterialwealthandthephysicalamenitiesof
    civilization,andthattherewasnoreasonwhythisprogressshouldnotcontinueindefinitely.
    Anotherimportantviewwhichthesenovelistssharedwiththepublicwastheacceptanceoftheideaof
    respectability,whichattachedgreatimportancetosuperficialmoralityinbusinessaswellasindomestic
    andsexualrelations.Honestyisthebestpolicy,Nothingfornothingwerethedictumswhichthe
    Victorianshonouredintheirbusinessrelations.Theirattitudetosexhadundergoneagreatchange.Frank
    recognitionandexpressionofsexhadbecometabooed.FieldingsTomJoneswaskeptoutofwayof
    womenandchildren,andin1818ThomasBowlderpublishedhisFamilyShakespearewhichcontainedthe
    originaltextofShakespearesplaysfromwhichwereomittedthoseexpressionwhichcouldnotbewith
    proprietyreadaloudinafamily.ThenovelistswerenotfarbehindinpropagatingtheVictorianideal.
    TrollopwroteinhisAutobiography:

    Thewriterofstoriesmustplease,orhewillhenothing.Andhemustteachwhetherhewishtoteachornot.
    Howshallheteachlessonsofvirtueandatthesametimemakehimselfadelighttohisreaders?Butthe
    novelist,ifhehaveaconscience,mustpreachhissermonswiththesamepurposeastheclergymen,and
    musthavehisownsystemofethics.Ifhecandothisefficiently,ifhecandothisefficiently,ifhecanmake
    virtuealluringandviceugly,whilehecharmshisreadersinsteadofwearyingthem,thenIthinkMr.
    Carlyleneednotcallhimdistressed

    IthinkthatmanyhavedonesosomanythatweEnglishnovelistsmayboastasaclassthatsuchhasbeen
    thegeneralresultofourownworkIfindsuchtohavebeentheteachingofThackeray,ofDickensandof
    GeorgeEliot.CananyonebysearchthroughtheworksofthegreatEnglishnovelistsIhavenamed,finda
    scene,apassageorawordthatwouldteachagirltobeimmodest,oramantobedishonest?Whenmenin
    theirpageshavebeendescribedasdishonestandwomenasimmodest,havetheynoteverbeenpunished?
    ThereadingpublicoftheearlyVictorianperiodwascomposedofrespectablepeople,anditwasforthem
    thatthenovelistswrote.Asthenovelistthemselvessharedthesameviewsofrespectabilitywiththe
    public,itgavethemgreatstrengthandconfidence.Astheywereartistsaswellaspublicentertainers,they
    enjoyedgreatpowerandauthority.Moreover,astheysharedthepreoccupationsandobsessionsoftheir
    time,theyproducedliteraturewhichmaybetermedastrulynational.

    (a)CharlesDickens(18121870)

    DickensisthechiefamongtheearlyVictoriannovelistsandisinfactthemostpopularofallEnglish
    novelistssofar.ItwasattheageoftwentyfivewiththepublicationofPickwickPapersthatDickens
    suddenlysprangintofame,andcametoberegardedasthemostpopularofEnglishnovelists.Inhisearly
    novels,Pickwick(1837)andNickolasNicklebyforinstance,DickensfollowedthetraditionofSmollett.
    LikeSmollettsnovelstheyaremerebundlesofadventureconnectedbymeansofcharacterwhofigurein
    them.InhisMartinChuzzlewit(1843),DombyandSon(184648),andDavidCopperfield(184950)he
    madesomeefforttowardsunificationsbutevenheretheplotsareloose.ItwasinBleakHouse(185253)
    thathesucceededingatheringupallthediversethreadsofthestoryinasystematicandcoherentplot.His
    laternovelsDorrit(185557),ATaleofTwoCities(186465),andtheunfinishedEdwinDroodwere
    alsolikeBleakHousesystematicallyplanned.But,onthewholeDickenswasnoteverysuccessfulin
    buildinguphisplots,andthereisinallofthemagreatdealofmereepisodicalmaterial.

    DuringtheearlyVictorianperiodtherewasaswingfromromanceoracoldlypicturesquetreatmentoflife
    todepictingthehearthadtheaffections.ThenovelswhichduringtheRomanticperiodandpassedthrough
    aphaseofadventure,revertedinthehandsofDickenstotheliteratureoffeeling.Toomuchemphasison
    feelingsoftenledDickenstosentimentalismasithappenedinthecaseofRichardson.Hisnovelsarefullof
    pathos,andtherearemanypassagesofstudiedandextravagantsentiment.ButDickenssentimentalism,for
    whichheisoftenblamed,isaphaseofhisidealism.LikeatrueidealistDickensseekstoembodyinhisart
    theinnerlifeofmanwithadirectorimpliedmoralpurpose.Histhemeistheworthofmansthought,
    imaginings,affections,andreligiousinstincts,theneedofatrustinhisfellowmen,afaithinthefinal
    outcomeofhumanendeavourandabeliefinimmortality.Hevaluesqualitieslikehonour,fidelity,courage
    magnanimity.ThebestexampleofDickenssidealismisfoundinATaleofTwoCities,wherehepreaches
    asermononthesublimetext:Greaterlovepathnomanthanthis,thatamanlaydownhislifeforhis
    friends.

    AnotherphaseofDickenssidealismwashisimplicitbeliefthatthisisthebestofallpossibleworlds.In
    spiteofpain,dirtandsinwithwhichhisnovelsarefull,theyleaveanimpressiononthereaderofthe
    unwaveringoptimismandbuoyanttemperofDickens.Hesharedtothefull,thesanguinespiritofhisage,
    anddespitethehardnessofheartandtheselfishnessofthoseinhighplaces,theirgreedandhypocrisy,and
    theclassprejudiceswhichhaddividedmanfromman,Dickensbelievedthattheworldwasstillavery
    goodworldtolivein.Hehadfaithinthebetterelementofhumanbeingswholiveandstruggleforaperiod,
    andthenfallunrememberedtogiveplacetoother.Allhischaracterscomeoutofthepitofsufferingand
    distressasbettermen,uncontaminatedandpurerthanbefore.

    ButthemostdelightfulmanifestationoftheidealismofDickensishishumour,whichisalmostirresistible.
    Itisclearlymanifestinhisfirstnovel,Pickwick,andinthesucceedingnovelsitbroadenedanddeepended.
    Dickenshastheknackofunitinghumourwithpathosinasortoftragiccomedy,whichisespecially
    noticeableincertainsectionsofOldcuriosityshopandMartinChuzzlewit.ThebestexamplesofDickens
    purecomedyarethePeggottyandBarkisepisodesinDavidCopperfield.
    ItisespeciallyinthedelineationsofcharactersthatthehumourofDickensissupreme.LikeSmolletthe
    wasonthelookoutforsomeodditywhichforhispurposehemademoreoddthanitwas.Allhischaracters
    arehumourshighlyidealisedandyetretainingsomuchoftherealthatwerecogniseinthemsome
    dispositionofourselvesandofthemenandwomenwemet.Thenumberofthesehumoroustypesthat
    Dickenscontributedtofictionrunsintothousands.InfactthereisnootherwriterinEnglishliterature,
    exceptonlyShakespeare,whohascreatedsomanycharactersthathavebecomepermanentelementsofthe
    humoroustraditionoftheEnglishrace.

    Besidesbeinganidealist,Dickenswasalsoarealist.Hebeganhisliterarycareerasareporter,andhisshort
    SketchesbyBozhavetheairoftheeighteenthcenturyquietobserverandnewswriter.Thissamereportorial
    airisabouthislongnovels,whicharegroupsofincidents.Themaindifferenceisthat,whileinhissketches
    hewritesdownhisobservationfreshfromexperience,inhisnovelshedrawsuponhismemory.Itishis
    personalexperienceswhichunderliethenovelsofDickens,notonlynovelslikeDavidCopperfieldwhereit
    issoobvious,butalsoHardTimeswhereonewouldleastexpecttofindthem.Oneveryimportantaspectof
    Dickenssrealismisthisrichnessofdescriptivedetail,baseduponwhatDickenshadactuallyseen.
    ItwasDickenssrealismwhichcameasachecktomedievalismwhichwasverypopularduringthe
    Romanticperiod.HeawakenedtheinterestofthepublicinthesocialconditionsofEngland.Thenovelsof
    Dickenswerefullofpersonalexperiences,anecdotes,storiesfromfriends,andstatisticstoshowthatthey
    werefoundeduponfacts.TheresultwasthatafterDickensbeganwriting,knightsandladiesand
    tournamentsbecamerarerintheEnglishnovel.Theywerereplacedbyagriculturallabourers,miners,
    tailorsandpaupers.

    ThenovelsofDickenswerealsothemostimportantproductandexpressioninfictionofthehumanitarian
    movementoftheVictorianera.Fromfirsttolasthewasanovelistwithapurpose.Hewasastaunch
    championoftheweak,theoutcastandtheoppressed,andinalmostallhisnovelsheattackedoneabuseor
    theotherintheexistingsystemofthings.Itis,therefore,noexaggerationtosaythathumanitarianismisthe
    keynoteofhiswork,andonaccountofthetremendouspopularitythatheenjoyedasanovelist,Dickens
    mayjustlyberegardedasoneoftheforemostreformersofhisage.

    (b)WilliamMakepeaceThackeray(18111863)

    ThackeraywhowasDickensscontemporaryandgreatrivalforpopularfavour,lackedhisweaknessesand
    hisgenius.Hewasmoreinterestedinthemannersandmoralsofthearistocracythaninthegreatupheavals
    oftheage.UnlikeDickenswhocameofapoorfamilyandhadtostrugglehardinhisboyhood,Thackeray
    wasbornofrichparents,inheritedacomfortablefortune,andspenthisyoungdaysincomfort.Butwhereas
    Dickens,inspiteofhisbitterexperiencesretainedabuoyanttemperamentandacheerfuloutlookonlife,
    Thackeray,inspiteofhiscomfortableandeasylife,turnedcynicaltowardstheworldwhichusedhimso
    well,andfoundshames,deceptions,vanitieseverywherebecausehelookedforthem.Dickenswasmore
    interestedinplain,commonpeopleThackeray,ontheotherhand,wasmoreconcernedwithhighsociety.
    Themainreasonofthisfundamentaldifferencebetweenthetwowasnot,however,ofenvironment,butof
    temperament.WhereasDickenswasromanticandemotionalandinterpretedtheworldlargelythroughhis
    imaginationThackeraywastherealistandmoralistandjudgedsolelybyobservationandreflection.Thus
    ifwetakethenovelsofbothtogether,theygiveusatruepictureofallclassesofEnglishsocietyinthe
    earlyVictorianperiod.

    Thackerayis,firstofall,arealist,whopaintslifeasheseesit.Ashesaysofhimself,Ihavenobrains
    abovemyeyesIdescribewhatIsee.Hegivesinhisnovelsaccurateandtruepictureespeciallyofthe
    viciouselementsofsociety.Ashepossessesanexcessivesensibility,andacapacityforfinefeelingsand
    emotionslikeDickens,heisreadilyoffendedbyshams,falsehoodandhypocrisyinsociety.Theresultis
    thathesatirisesthem.Buthissatireisalwaystemperedbykindnessandhumour.Moreover,besidesbeinga
    realistandsatirist,Thackerayisalsoamoralist.Inallhisnovelshedefinitelyaimsatcreatingamoral
    impressionandheoftenbehavesinaninartisticmannerbyexplainingandemphasisingthemoral
    significanceofhiswork.Thebeautyofvirtueandtheuglinessofviceinhischaracterissoobviouson
    everypagethatwedonothavetoconsultourconscienceovertheiractions.Asawriterofpure,simpleand
    charmingproseThackeraythereaderbyhisnatural,easyandrefinedstyle.Butthequalityofwhich
    Thackerayismostrememberedasanovelististhecreationoflivingcharacters.Inthisrespecthestands
    supremeamongEnglishnovelists.Itisnotmerelythatheholdsupthemirrortolife,hepresentslifeitself.
    ItwaswiththepublicationofVanityFairin1846thattheEnglishreadingpublicbegantounderstandwhat
    astarhadriseninEnglishletters.VanityFairwassucceededin1849byPendenniswhich,asan
    autobiography,holdsthesameplaceamonghisworksasDavidCopperfielddoesamongthoseofDickens.
    In1852appearedthemarvelloushistoricalnovelofHenryEsmondwhichisthegreatestnovelinitsown
    specialkindeverwritten.InitThackeraydepictedthetruepictureoftheQueenAnneperiodandshowed
    hisremarkablegraspofcharacterandstory.InhisnextnovelNewcomes(18538)hereturnedtomodern
    times,anddisplayedhisgreatskillinpaintingcontemporarymanners.BysomecriticsNewcomesis
    consideredtobehisbestnovel.Hisnextnovel,TheVirginians,whichisasequalofEsmond,dealswiththe
    thirdquarteroftheeighteenthcentury.InallthesenovelsThackerayhaspresentedlifeinamostrealistic
    manner.Everyact,everyscene,everypersoninhisnovelsisrealwitharealitywhichhasbeenidealisedup
    to,andnotbeyond,thenecessitiesofliterature.Whatevertheacts,thescenesandthepersonagesmaybein
    hisnovels,wearealwaysfacetofacewithreallife,anditistherethatthegreatnessofThackerayasa
    novelistlies.

    (c)MinorNovelists

    AmongtheminornovelistsoftheearlyVictorianperiod,BenjaminDisraeli,theBrontes,Mrs.Gaskell,
    CharlesKingsley,CharlesReede,WilkieCollinsandTrollopearewellknown.

    BenjaminDisraeli(180481)wrotehisfirstnovelVivianGrey(182627),inwhichhegavetheportraitof
    adandy,ayoung,intelligentadventurerwithoutscruples.InthesucceedingnovelsConingsby(1844),Sybil
    (1845)andTancred(1847)Disraeliwasamongthefirsttopointoutthattheameliorationofthewretched
    lotoftheworkingclasswasasocialdutyofthearistocracy.BeingapoliticianwhobecamethePrime
    MinisterofEngland,hehasgivenusthefineststudyofthemovementsofEnglishpoliticsunderQueen
    Victoria.Allhisnovelsarewrittenwithapurpose,andasthecharactersinthemarecreatedwithaviewto
    thethesis,theyretainacertainairofunreality.

    TheBronteSisterswhomadetheirmarkasnovelistswereCharlotteBronte(181655)andEmilyBronte
    (181848).CharlotteBrontedepictedinhernovelsthosestrongromanticpassionswhichweregenerally
    avoidedbyDickensandThackeray.Shebroughtlyricalwarmthandtheplayofstrongfeelingintothe
    novel.Inhermasterpiece,JaneEyre(1847),herdreamsandresentmentskindleeverypage.Herother
    novelsareTheProfessor,VilletteandShirley.Inallofthemwefindherasamistressofwit,irony,accurate
    observation,andastylefullofimpassionedeloquence.

    EmilyBrontewasmoreoriginalthanhersister.Thoughshediedattheageofthirty,shewroteastrange
    novel,WutheringHeights,whichcontainssomanyofthetroubled,tumultuousandrebelliouselementsof
    romanticism.Itisatragedyofloveatoncefantasticandpowerful,savageandmoving,whichisconsidered
    nowasoneofthemasterpiecesofworldfiction.

    Mrs.Gaskell(181065)asanovelistdealtwithsocialproblems.Shehadfirsthandknowledgeoftheevils
    ofindustrialisation,havinglivedinManchesterformanyyears.HernovelsMaryBarton(1848)andNorth
    andSouth(1855)giveusconcretedetailsofthemiserableplightoftheworkingclass.InRuth(1853)Mrs.
    Gaskellshowsthesamesympathyforunfortunategirls.InCranford(1853)shegaveadelicatepictureof
    thesocietyofasmallprovincialtown,whichremindsusofJaneAusten.

    CharlesKingsley(181975)whowasthefounderoftheChristianSocialists,andactivelyinterestedinthe
    cooperativemovement,embodiedhisgenerousideasofreforminthenovelsYeast(1848)andAltonLocke
    (1850).AsahistoricalnovelisthereturnedtotheearliestdaysofChristianityinHypatia(1853).In
    WestwardHo!(1855)hecommemoratedtheadventurousspiritoftheElizabethannavigators,andin
    HerewardtheWake(1865)ofthedescendantsoftheVikings.

    CharlesReade(181484)wrotenovelswithasocialpurpose.ItisNevertooLatetoMend(1853)isa
    pictureofthehorrorsofprisonlifeHardCash(1863)depictstheabusestowhichlunatic,asylumsgave
    risePutYourselfinhisplaceisdirectedagainsttradeunions.HisATerribleTemptationisafamous
    historicalnovel.HisTheCloisterandtheHearth(1867)showsthetransitionfromtheMiddleAgestothe
    Renaissance.

    WilkieCollins(182489)excelledinarousingthesenseofterrorandinkeepinginsuspensethe
    explanationofamysteryoftherevelationofcrime.HisbestknownnovelsareTheWomaninWhiteand
    TheMoonstoneinwhichheshowshisgreatmasteryinthemechanicalartofplotconstruction.

    AnthonyTrollope(181588)wroteanumberofnovels,inwhichhepresentedreallifewithoutdistorting
    oridealisingit.HisimportantnovelsareTheWarden(1855),BarchesterTowers(1857)andTheLast
    ChronicleofBarset(1867)inwhichhehasgivenmanytruthfulscenesofprovinciallife,withoutpoetical
    feeling,butnotwithouthumour.Trollopehasgreatskillasastorytellerandhischaractersarelifelikeand
    shrewdlydrawn.Hisnovelspresentatruepictureofmiddleclasslife,andthereisneitherheroismnor
    villainythere.Hisstyleiseasy,regular,uniformandalmostimpersonal.

    (Continued)
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