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Diagonalizing a matrix S1 AS =
If A has n linearly independent eigenvectors, we can put those vectors in the
columns of a (square, invertible) matrix S. Then
AS = A x1 x2 xn
= 1 x1 2 x2 n x n
1 0 0
0 2 0
= S . = S.
.. . .. ...
0 0 n
Note that is a diagonal matrix whose non-zero entries are the eigenvalues of
A. Because the columns of S are independent, S1 exists and we can multiply
both sides of AS = S by S1 :
S1 AS = .
Equivalently, A = SS1 .
Powers of A
If Ax = x,
then A2 x = Ax = 2 x.
The eigenvalues of A2 are the squares of the eigenvalues of A. The eigenvectors
of A2 are the same as the eigenvectors of A. If we write A = SS1 then:
A2 = SS1 SS1 = S2 S1 .
Similarly, Ak = Sk S1 tells us that raising the eigenvalues of A to the kth
power gives us the eigenvalues of Ak , and that the eigenvectors of Ak are the
same as those of A.
1
Repeated eigenvalues
If A has repeated eigenvalues, it may or may not have n independent eigen
vectors. For example, the eigenvalues of the identity matrix are all 1, but that
matrix still has n independent eigenvectors.
2 1
If A is the triangular matrix its eigenvalues are 2 and 2. Its eigen
0 2
0 1
vectors are in the nullspace of A I = which is spanned by x =
0 0
1
. This particular A does not have two independent eigenvectors.
0
Fibonacci sequence
The Fibonacci sequence is 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, .... In general, Fk+2 = Fk+1 + Fk . If
we could understand this in terms of matrices, the eigenvalues of the matrices
would tell us how fast the numbers in the sequence are increasing.
uk+1 = Auk was a rst order system. Fk+2 = Fk+1 + Fk is a second order
scalar equation, butwe can convert it to rst order linear system by using a
Fk+1
clever trick. If uk = , then:
Fk
2
Because A is a two by two matrix we know its eigenvalues sum to 1 (the trace)
and their product is 1 (the determinant).
1 1
| A I | = = 2 1
1
Setting this to zero we nd = 1 21+4 ; i.e. 1 = 12 (1 + 5) 1.618 and
2 = 12 (1 5) .618. The growth rate of the Fk is controlled by 1 , the only
eigenvalue with absolute value greater than 1. This tells us that for large k, Fk
k
c1 1+2 5 for some constant c1 . (Remember uk = Ak u0 = c1 1k x1 + c2 2k x2 ,
and here 2k goes to zero since |2 | < 1.)
To nd the eigenvectors of A note that:
1 1
( A I )x = x
1
1 2
equals 0 when x = , so x1 = and x2 = .
1 1 1
F1 1
Finally, u0 = = 0 = c1 x1 + c2 x2 tells us that c1 = c2 = 1 .
F0 5
Fk+1
Because = uk = c1 1k x1 + c2 2k x2 , we get:
Fk
k k
1 1+ 5 1 1 5
Fk = .
5 2 5 2
Using eigenvalues and eigenvectors, we have found a closed form expression for
the Fibonacci numbers.
3
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