Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Preface....................................................................................................................................v
Exercise 6 - Groundwater.....................................................................................................23
Acknowledgement...................................................................................................................48
PREFACE
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1
EXERCISE 1
This exercise is to help familiarize you with the Metric System and its
relationship to the English System. You are probably aware that the whole world has
gone metric. The English units (inches, feet, miles, etc.) are gradually being phased
out. Were all required to learn the new metric units of measurement, among other
things, to enable us to understand distances traveled on the earths surface.
Most maps (graphic representation of the earths surface) use the English System
of measurement. In 1977, in accordance with national policy, the United States
Geological Survey formally announced its intent to convert all of its maps to the Metric
System. New maps published today show distances on the earths surface in kilometers
and elevations in meters.
Problem Examples -
Converting from one scale to another:
A. English Units of Linear Measurement
12 inches = 1 foot
3 feet = 1 yard
1 mile = 1,760 yards, 5,280 feet, 63,360 inches
1. You traveled a distance of 10 miles in your car. How many kilometers did you
travel?
Notice how all the units canceled out leaving just km. This is what we want!
10 x 5280 x 12 x 2.54 km = 16.1 kilometers
100,000
2. All maps (topographic, city, county, town, village maps) have scales: On a
certain map, 1 inch equals 100 feet on the ground. How many cm are
represented by 1 inch on the map and 100 feet on the ground?
Solution:
Step 1: Convert 1 inch to cm
= 2.54 cm x 1 inch
1 inch 1
Step 2: Convert 100 feet to cm
= 100 ft x 12 inches x 2.54 cm
1 1 ft 1 inch
= 3048 cm
3
THE METRIC SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT AND ROAD MAPS
QUESTIONS - EXERCISE 1
1. Convert the following English units to Metric units. Show your work for credit!
4
5
EXERCISE 2
Every year, a number of articles are published in the newspaper in several cities,
towns, and villages in the United States including Greensboro, North Carolina. Some of
the articles are about surface earth processes. The Greensboro News and Record staff has
written several articles about various surface earth processes. Some of the articles are
summarized below by date:
September 1, 1985 -- Cedar Key Florida-Unpredictable Elena, after being stalled at sea
for two days, strengthened to a major hurricane with sustained winds of 125 mph Sunday
and headed towards the Gulf Coast, where the second evacuation in four days was
ordered. . . . Hurricane warnings were extended westward from Yankeetown, below
Floridas Panhandle, to Grand Isle, Louisiana, about 50 miles south of New Orleans . . . .
At 11 pm EDT the hurricane center estimated Elenas eye near latitude 19.5 north and
longitude 86.5 west. . . .Flooding continued Sunday along Floridas west coast. . . ..
Evacuation must be rushed to completion the center said in a statement. Rising tides
as much as 10-12 feet above normal could occur and escape routes may be cut off before
midnight. . . . Elena on Thursday had forced evacuations in the Panhandle, Alabama,
Louisiana and Mississippi before veering towards Floridas West Central Coast.
October 11, 1986-- San Salvador, El Salvador--A strong earthquake and after shocks
wrecked buildings in downtown San Salvador on Friday and unconfirmed reports said
scores of people had been killed. . . .Some buildings were bent and steel twisted, and
officials said other buildings in this city of 500,000 people might collapse later. . . .
Military sources said the bodies of 15 children were pulled from a school in the
southeastern part of the capital. . . . The U.S. Geological Survey said an earthquake
measuring 5.4 on the Richter scale, centered about 10 miles northwest of San Salvador.
6
NEWSPAPER ARTICLES
QUESTIONS - EXERCISE 2
4. Differentiate between:
7
Exercise 2 continued
7. Rising tides as much as 10-12 feet above normal could occur and escape
routes may be cut off before midnight. Explain briefly the meaning of the term
tide.
9. What is a seismograph?
8
EXERCISE 3
The Warming Earth
The Great Plains has become a dust bowl and people are moving into
Canadas uplands to seek work. Even in Alaska, changing ocean currents are
boosting the fish catch. New York is sweltering in 95oF weather that began in
June and will continue through Labor Day. In the Southeast, the hot spell
started six weeks earlier. Time, July 4, 1988.
QUESTIONS - EXERCISE 3
1. Discuss the effects of high levels of carbon dioxide on the earths temperature
and global economy.
(a) Sunlight
9
Exercise 3 continued
(c) Temperature
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. List the:
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. Explain how the greenhouse effect would affect the hydrologic cycle.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
10
EXERCISE 4
The earth and other planets have characteristics which make them suitable or
unsuitable to be our environment. The planets fall into two categories: the inner planets
of Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are solid while the outer planets of Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune are gaseous, large and rotate fairly rapidly. Very little is known
about Pluto, but it seems to resemble the inner planets more than the other ones. Figure 4
Mercury - smallest of the planets and like the moon in some respect but lacks the
extensive lava flows. Astronauts (The Mariner 10 Spacecraft) detected a weak magnetic
atmosphere to transfer or return heat, and temperature drops at night to about 175oC.
Venus - In size and mass, the planet Venus resembles the Earth more closely than
any other member of the Suns family. Apart from the Sun and Moon, Venus is the
brightest object in the sky. Venus rotates backwards - clockwise very slowly; whereas,
the Earth and other planets rotate counter-clockwise. The surface is observed by thick
layers of clouds. The dense atmosphere is mainly carbon dioxide, with a little nitrogen
and a trace of water vapor also present. On the Earth, carbon dioxide is an important
absorber of heat from the Earth that prevents the rapid loss of heat from the ground after
sunset, but Venus retains more heat. From the data radioed back by astronauts
(spacecraft), the average temperature is about 430oC, which is enough to melt lead. It is
12
The Moon
The scientific study of the moon is important in order to understand the
composition and characteristics of the moon in addition to determine if the moon has
features similar to the Earth that would support the same kind of life supported by the
Earth. Until July 20, 1969, the study of the moon was more notable for the questions
asked than for the answers available. On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong set foot on the
moon, the first man ever to do so, after a 4-day voyage aboard the spacecraft Apollo II
with two companions. It took them three days to reach the moon and at the same rate, it
would have taken them three years to reach the sun.
The astronauts discovered that lunar (moon) landscape has wide plains, jagged
(irregular or uneven) maintain ranges and innumerable craters of all sizes. Each
mountain range stands out distinctly. When the moon passes before a star, the star
remains bright and clear up to the moons very edge. They returned to earth after four
days and brought with them samples of the lunar surface.
The moon was hardly a mystery before the voyage of Apollo II and of the manned
spacecraft that followed it there. From the observations made by the astronauts, the
moon has little or no atmosphere nor surface water, no lakes, oceans, or rivers and is
closer to Earth than any other celestial body.
Furthermore, travel to the moon requires a spacecraft or space shuttle which is not
the safest or an economical way to travel to the moon, and people may not want to risk
their lives. History has revealed that some spacecrafts have gotten lost in traveling
around the Earth or while going to the moon. Also, the spending of 2-3 billion dollars for
space exploration is rather expensive, which means that people would have to pay a
comparative amount of money for the trip to the moon and many persons may not be able
to pay the fare.
13
People can live in spacecrafts because of their created environments which are unlike the
environment of the moon. Finally, we know what is down here on the Earth, but we are
not too sure of what is really up there on the moon.
Mars
The reddish planet has long fascinated astronauts and laymen. It has a thin
atmosphere which does little to screen solar ultraviolet radiation. Because of its
environment (thin atmosphere), any life which would exist there would easily be
destroyed. Also on Mars is a scarcity of water. It rotates on its axis in a little less than 24
hours. Its rotation about the Sun requires nearly 2 years. It receives less light and heat.
Marine 9 Spacecraft in 1972 strongly suggested that erosion by running water within the
past million years could probably be responsible for the scarcity of water today on Mars.
Jupiter
This giant planet, like Venus, is shrouded in clouds which occur in bands of
changing colors - yellow, red, brown, blue, and purple. It is about 1,300 times the size of
o
the Earth, very hot - about 500,000 C (Jupiters interior), and it contains ammonia,
methane, hydrogen and helium. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are mainly
composed of hydrogen and helium. Life of some kind may exist in Jupiters atmosphere
(such as micro-organism - bacteria and yeast when exposed to gas mixture). Jupiter has a
strong magnetic field that radiates more energy than it receives. U.S. Spacecraft Pioneer
10 passed close to Jupiter in 1973 after a journey that lasted 20 months. Of the wealth of
information that was radioed back, it was discovered that Jupiter has a magnetic field
about 8 times stronger than the Earth and traps high-energy protons and electrons from
the Sun.
14
Saturn
The most beautiful of the Earths planets, and is much like Jupiter. It has two
bright rings and a fainter inner one - famous rings that surround the planet in the plane
of the equator. It moves in its leisurely 29-year journey around the Sun. It possesses a
dense atmosphere hidden by banded clouds. Further from the Sun than Jupiter, Saturn is
colder than Jupiter. Ammonia is largely frozen out of its atmosphere, and the clouds
consist mainly of methane.
Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto
Owing its discovery to the telescope, Uranus was found by accident in 1781
during a systematic search of the sky by the English astronaut, Herschel. It is barely
visible to the eye; in fact, it has been identified as a faint star. Herschel suspected it to be
a planet because it appeared as a disk rather than a point of light. Observations made
over the years show the position to be changing relative to the stars.
The discoveries of Neptune in 1846 and Pluto in 1930 were made as a result of
predictions based on their gravitational effects on other planets. Uranus and Neptune are
large bodies, each with a diameter of about 3 1/2 times that of the Earth. Pluto is
somewhat smaller than Mars, and may once have been a satellite of Neptune that pulled
away to pursue its own orbit around the Sun.
Because these planets are so far away from the Sun, their surface temperatures are
below 200oC, and since ammonia is present, it would have been frozen out of the
atmosphere. Pluto is so small, so far away and so feebly illuminated, that reliable
information about it is still difficult to obtain.
15
The Sun
The Sun is a glorious body that dominates the solar system, and the origin and
destiny of the Earth, as well as our daily lives, are closely connected with solar
phenomena.
The Sun is so large that 1,300,000 earths would fit into it. Like all other
astronomical bodies, it is rotating, and its rotation is shorter near its equator than near
its poles. Although conditions of the Sun are very different from those of the Earth, the
basic matter of the two bodies appears to the same. Even the relative amounts of
different elements are similar except for a greater abundance of the lightest elements -
hydrogen and helium on the Sun. At the low temperatures, prevailing on the Earth, most
of the elements have continued to form compounds. In the hot Sun, the elements are
usually present as individual atoms, most of them ionized. The surface temperature of
the Sun is about 5700oC. At this temperature, all matter is gaseous which means the Sun
is a glowing gas envelope. Above the surface of the Sun is a rapidly thinning atmosphere
During a total eclipse of the Sun when the Moon obscures the Suns disk
completely, a wide halo of pearly light can be seen around the dark Moon. The halo or
corona consists of ionized atoms and electrons in extremely rapid motion. The outflow
1. Explain why the inner and outer planets are not suitable environments for
humans and other forms of life.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Discuss the most generally accepted hypothesis for the formation of the
Universe. What is the big bang theory?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
3. Explain why the moon was the first celestial body selected for investigation by
the United States government.
__________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________
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17
Exercise 4 continued
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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6. What efforts are being made to explore the Sun? Include recent findings in your
answer.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. Discuss the overall benefits that may be derived from space exploration.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
_________________ Innermost
_________________ Veiled
_________________ Red
_________________ Lord of the Heavens
_________________ Elegant Planet
_________________ Twins
_________________ Planet X
_________________ Terrestrial
_________________ Jovian
18
Exercise 4 continued
Black holes
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Hydrogen burning
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Galaxy
___________________________________________________________
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Milky Way
___________________________________________________________
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19
EXERCISE 5
There has been much publicity about radiation in recent years. Nuclear accidents
and the dumping of low-level, radioactive waste in the ocean have been widely reported.
We are constantly and will continue to be exposed to natural radiation from outer space,
rocks, minerals, soils, buildings, air, food, medical diagnosis, nuclear weapons testing,
etc.
The average person receives about 200 millirems per year from natural and man-
made sources. Radiation received is expressed using the term REM (Roentgen
Equivalent Man). The amount of radiation received by people varies according to local
conditions (air quality, water quality, soils, rocks, TV viewing and elevation, etc.).
You are now ready to answer the questions that follow.
EXERCISE 5 - QUESTIONS
1. Complete the table below to get an idea of the amount of radiation that you are
exposed to every year. The average American is exposed to about 180 units
per year.
YOUR
FACTORS COMMON SOURCES OF RADIATION ANNUAL
DOSE
(REM)
____________________________________________________________
20
EXERCISE 5 continued
_______________________________________________________________
Medical
Number of radiopharmaceutical
examinations (brain scan,
thyroid uptakes) . . . . . . . . . . . . _______x 300 ______
__________________________________________________________________
Total _____
__________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
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22
5. What factors determine the amount of radiation that you receive per year?
_____________________________________________________________
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(a) Radiation
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23
EXERCISE 6
Groundwater
or melt water of snow, hail, or sleet infiltrates into the subsurface (Figures 6A & B).
Water continues to percolate downward until it reaches a point below which open spaces
and voids in rock are completely filled with water. The level of saturation below which
Groundwater is constantly moving. It may reach the surface again and join with
surface waters. As groundwater moves through porous and permeable rock strata, it may
rocks dissolve easily if the groundwater is high in carbon dioxide and organic acids. The
solution of carbonate rocks results initially in the widening of cracks, joints, and other
openings leading to the formation of caverns. These caverns will eventually collapse and
sink holes will develop. This condition is seen in the state of Florida because most
underground rocks are carbonate rocks. The developed sinks are eventually filled with
water and become lakes. The sinkholes may form solution valleys. Any land-surface
24
25
QUESTIONS - EXERCISE 6
GROUNDWATER
______________________________________________________
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26
_______________________________
______________________________________________________
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10. What can be done to save a sinking land? Be brief. Draw a sinking
land.
_____________________________________________________
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27
EXERCISE 7
Soil texture is one of the properties of soil that must be considered before
recommending soils for different uses. Texture is the relative sizes of soil particles (sand,
silt, and clay). Soil textural class is the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay. Soil
texture affects the water and nutrient holding capacities. Sandy soils are porous and
permits rapid movement of water into the soil. Clayey soils do not easily permit water
movement into soils. Sewage effluent will have more difficulty passing through clayey
soils; therefore, consider the amount of clay in the soil before building your house on
soils. Soil textural class is determined by the use of the soil textural triangle.
Example: Determine a textural class name of a soil which contains 55% clay, 32%
Step I: Take the percent clay (55) and draw a line parallel to the bottom of the triangle.
Step II: Take the percent silt (32) and draw a line parallel to the left side to the triangle.
Step III: The area in which the two lines cross each other gives the class name or texture
of the soil.
28
29
30
QUESTIONS - EXERCISE 7
A. Use the textural triangle on Page _ to determine the textural class of soils
with the following % sand, % silt and % clay. Also determine the moisture supplying
capacity, permeability, and infiltration rate for the different soil textural classes. Use the
information on Page 33.
Moisture
Soil Textural Supplying Infiltration
Name % Clay % Sand % Silt Class Capacity Permeability Rate
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
31
(2) Soil textural class
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
(3) Moisture supplying capacity
_____________________________________________________
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(4) Permeability
_____________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________
(5) Infiltration
_____________________________________________________
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C. Soils of the world are classified into 11 orders. The orders are
based on soil characteristics.
(1) The Carolinas (North and South) are dominated by __________ soil
order. List the characteristics of this soil order.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
(2) List the soil orders that dominate the Australian continent.
___________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
32
EXERCISE 8
33
QUESTIONS - EXERCISE 8
Study the soil formation listed below and answer the questions that follow:
Questions
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
3. List the average percentage of clay in soil Joe and soil Elma.
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
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34
4. List the most expensive (dollar value) soil from above and provide
explanation.
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
(1) pH
____________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________
6. Which of the above soil is best suited for crop growth? Explain.
____________________________________________________
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35
EXERCISE 9
The study of the earths environment will not be complete without understanding
the nature of the earths interior. What do we know about the interior of the earth?
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
The Earth Beneath the Sea
If all the water was drained from the ocean basins, the surface that would be
revealed might surprise you. The features revealed would be just as varied as that on the
continents (land). The topography of the ocean basins are divided into three units:
(1) continental margins (continental shelf and continental slope)
(2) the ocean basin floor
(3) mid-ocean ridges
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
36
3. Differentiate: continental margins, ocean basin floor and mid-ocean
ridges.
____________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________
5. List the kinds of earth materials that may be found at the bottom of
the ocean.
____________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
8. Diagram the relationship of the earth to the moon and the sun during
high (spring) tide and low (neap) tide.
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
37
38
EXERCISE 10
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
39
2. Graphic scale: This refers to a bar or line drawn on a map and divided into units
that represent ground distances.
0 100m
I___________________________ I
3. Verbal Scale: This is simply stating in words the relationship of map distance to
ground distance.
Example: one cm equals one km; i.e., one cm on the map equals one km on ground.
Map Direction
Most maps, including topographic maps, are so constructed that the top edge of
the map is North, the bottom is South, the left is West, and the right is East. The exact
direction of North is usually given by a small arrow at the bottom of the map.
Interpretation of Topographic Maps
Contour lines give an accurate three-dimensional picture of the land surface. A
Contour is an imaginary line connecting points of equal elevation. Therefore, all points
along a contour line must have the same elevation. The shoreline of an island in the
ocean would be the contour line of 0 elevation. If the sea level were to rise 10 feet, the
new shore line would coincide with the original 10-foot contour line. An additional rise
of 10 feet would bring the shoreline to the 20 contour line.
The contour interval, given at the bottom of the map, is the vertical distance
between two adjacent contour lines. The size of the interval, which may vary from as
little as one foot to more than 100 feet, depends upon the relief (difference in elevation
between the highest and lowest points) of the map area and upon the detail with which
the mapping is done. Along the Mississippi River flood plain, which is nearly flat, a 5-
foot interval is common. A 100-foot contour interval is commonly used in the Rocky
Mountains.
40
Elevation and Height
Elevation is the vertical distance above sea level.
Height is the vertical distance from the base to the top.
Depression Contours
Every contour line closes on itself, either within or beyond the limits of the map.
The surface immediately inside a normal closed contour has a higher elevation than the
contour line. If the land surface within the contour has a lower elevation than the
contour, then a hachured contour line is used, with the hachure indicating the direction of
slope.
3. Contour lines bend up valleys and point upstream when they cross
valleys and streams.
8. Usually every fifth contour line is heavier than the others and has
the elevation printed at intervals throughout its length.
41
QUESTIONS - EXERCISE 10
TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
________________ blue
________________ green
________________ black
________________ brown
________________ red
42
43
EXERCISE 11
1. Observation point 1 is located along Sullivan Street and Carver Hall. What
color is the exposed soil?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
What is a mineral?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
*Redesign this exercise to meet your needs if you are not in the Greensboro, NC (USA)
area.
44
3. Point 2 includes the new library and Webb Hall. These buildings are new on
campus. What properties of rocks and soils do you think were
considered before the construction of the buildings?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
What would happen to A&Ts campus if all the tree and grass
vegetation were removed?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
What would happen to the grass and the soil if you should decide to walk on
them?
_____________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________
45
6. List the most common forms of waste found on A&Ts campus.
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
Miles _____________________________________________________
Kilometers _________________________________________________
In your walk through life, you will be in touch with the environment. Never forget,
you are a part of nature and--you should never consider yourself above nature.
46
Determination of Earthquake Epicenters
Latitude ______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
Longitude _____________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
47
Seismographic Stations of the world (Courtesy of Map by J. Oliver and L. Murphy.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is pleased to acknowledge (1) Mary Shanks Petty and Hazel Lee for
their help with the preparation of this manual, (2) former earth science students for their
suggestions, (3) the Greensboro Chamber of Commerce, and (4) the Greensboro News
and Record for the use of their materials. The author also is pleased to acknowledge Dr.
Samuel J. Dunn (retired) for his contributions to science education at North Carolina
A&T State University.