Joiningaluminium

aluminiumdesign.net /designsupport/joiningaluminium/

Usingtheopportunitiesprovidedbytheextrusionprocessforcreativedesignsgivesstrong,stable,rapidandeffectivejoints.Whetheritisforjoiningoneextrusionto
anotherorforjoininganextrusiontoanothermaterial.

Therearemanyadvantagestobeobtainedbyjoiningseveralsmallerextrusionstoalargerunit.Handlingiseasier.Pressing,surfacetreatmentandalargeamountofthe
machiningcanbedoneonamorerationalbasis.Smallerextrusionscanbeproducedwithlessmaterialthickness,betteraccuracyandinmanycaseslowerdiecosts.

Jumpto:

1.Screwports
2.Tracksfornutsorboltheads
3.SnapFitJoints
4.JoiningProfiletoProfile
5.Telescoping
6.Latitudinaljoining
7.Hinges
8.Tjoints
9.Cornerjoints
10.Joiningwithothermaterials
11.Riveting
12.Endcaps
13.Adhesivebonding
14.FusionWelding
15.FrictionStirWelding(FSW)

Screwports

Portdiametersforselftappingscrews

Screwno. Portdiam.D Wallthicknesst,min. Screwheadclearance

ST3.5(B6) 3.10.15 1.5 4.2

st4.2(B8) 3.80.15 1.5 5.0

ST4.8(B10) 4.20.2 1.5 5.8

Thescrewportcanbethreadedinthenormalwayfor Mostcommonly,screwportsareuseddirectlyfor
machinescrews. ST5.5(B12) 4.90.2 2.0 6.6 selftappingscrews.Inthesecases,thescrewports
willhaveprojectionstocentrethescrews.
ST6.3(B14) 5.60.2 2.0 7.4

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Tracksfornutsorboltheads

Here,acomponentisbeingfittedbyscrewingthrough Screwportdimensionsscrewsat90totheprofile
aportatrightanglestotheprofile.Insuchcases,the
portshouldhaveashoulder.
ST3.5(B6)
st4.2(B8)
ST4.8(B10)
2.6
Closedscrewports:Wherethedesignrequiresa
morerobustscrew(e.g.M8),thescrewportcanbe
3.1 closed.Theportistobedimensionedforthread
cuttingorforselftappingmetricscrews.
3.6

ST5.5(B12) 4.2

ST6.3(B14) 4.7

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Placingscrewportsatcornerssavesmaterial.To
ensurethatscrewheaddoesnotprotrudebeyondthe
contoursoftheprofileatoutercorners,payspecial
attentiontoscrewheaddiameter.
SnapFitJoints Ascrewportalongthelengthofasprofile
facilitates"steplessfastening",i.e.screwjoints
canbemadeatanypointalongtheprofile.Suitable
Aluminiumselasticityishighlysuitedtosnapfitjoints.Thesegivefarquickerassembly dimensionsaregiveniunthetablebelow.
than,forexample,screworweldedjoints.

Snapfitjointsarewidelyusedinarangeofindustries.


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Screwportdimensionsscrewsat90
totheprofileST3.5(B6)2.6st4.2(B8)
3.1ST4.8(B10)3.6ST5.5(B12)4.2
ST6.3(B14)4.7
JoiningProfiletoProfile
Upperjoint:Ahollowprofilejoinedtoanotherprofile
Longitudinaljoining
viaascrewport.Toavoidunwantedflexinginthe
joint,thescrewisdrivendirectlythroughthebottomof
Joiningwithastandard thehollowprofile.Asinglescrewissufficientthe
hollowprofile'sflangesstabilisethedesign.Afterstep
drilling,theholethroughwhichthescrewisintroduced
Joiningwithafluted,sprungprofileinpurposedesignedchannels. canbehiddenusingaplasticplug.Lowerjoint:The
samesolution,butwithoutahollowprofile.TheU
profilehastracksfortheinsertionof,forexample,a
metalorfoillaminatestrip.

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Telescoping

backtotop Onewayofavoidingstepdrillingandvisibleholesisto
Solutionswithspecialscrewsthatfillthescrew replacethehollowprofilewithtwosnapfitprofiles.
headclearanceholearecommonin,forexample, Thissolutionisoftenusedinhandrails.
thefurnitureindustry. Latitudinaljoining

Largercrosssectionalareascanbeeconomicallycreatedbyjoininganumberofprofilestogether.Thissolutionisoftenchosen
becauseitiseasiertomachinesmallerprofilesindividuallyratherthanasingleconstructionasawhole.

Mechanicaljoints,adhesivebonding,fusionweldingand,asillustratedabove,FrictionStirWelding.canallbeusedforlatitudinal
joining.

Usingaflatbar,bracketorsimilartojoinprofilestogethergivesgoodflatness.

Thisplacementofthescrewportsincreases
bendingstrength.

Joiningusinganendplatethatholdsthesectionstogether.

Joiningbystamping(createsvisibledeformations).

Latitudinaljoiningusingdovetailtracks.Notetheshapetoachieveacceptableprecision,
sharptippedcornersmustbeavoided.

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Hinges
Continuoustracksenablesteplessfasteningwithno
needtomachinetheprofile.Dimensionsforvarious
nutsandboltheadsaregivenbelow. Ifastandardboltistoolong,itisnotalways
necessarytofindashorterbolt.Thetrackforthe
nutcaneasilybedesigned/extrudedasshown

above.

Complexhingingforsecuringlorrytarpaulins.Thehingeismadefromthreeprofilesjoinedtogether.

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Usingspecialnuts/bolts,fastningcantakeplace Tjoints
withouthavingtoslidethenut/boltinfromtheend
ofthetrack.Therearenoacceptedstandards,but
varioussolutionsareavailablefromscrewand
fastenermanufacturers.

Examplesofotherspecialfasteners.
Ifasetc/cdistancebetweentheboltholesis
required,aflatbarwithprecutthreadscanbe
putinthetrack.

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Theprofilecanbestampedtofixfasteners
longitudinallyinposition.
Inopenablesnapfitjoints,thehookangleis
=45Inpermanentsnapfitjoints,thehook
angleis=0(ornegative).Thelengthofthe
snapfitjointhasaneffectondesign.
Ifadesigncannotaccomodatehookingarmsof
sufficientlength,thesprungpartoftheprofileshould
bereplacedbyplasticclipsorsimilar.Thesame
appliesifthejointistoberepeatedlyopened.
Aluminium'sfatiguepropertiesdonotpermitfrequent
changesinloading.
Amongstotherfactors,thedesignofthejointis
determinedbywhetherornotitistobeopenable.This
jointcanbeopenedusing,forexample,ascrewdriver
intheoutertrack.
PlateAhasapunched,rectangularhole.Mounting
profileBispushedintotheholeuntilasnapfitjointis
formed.LamellaprofileCisthenpushedintoprofile
Btoformanothersnapfitjoint.Exploitingthe
spaceundertheplatemakesitpossibletohave
sufficentlylonghookingarms.
Cornerjoints
Theseframeprofileshavescrewportsand,togiveasnugfit,needonlybecutat90degreeswhenusedwiththecornerprofile
shownintheillustration.Theflangesofthecornerprofilecreatechannelsforthefittingofanouterprofile(freechoiceofradius).
Plasticcapsareusedtocovertheends.
Cornerjointusingpremountedboltsintwooftheprofiles.Theboltsaretightenedfromaboveusingaspecialtool.
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Joiningwithothermaterials
Apermanentsnapfitjoint.Dimensionsand
tolerancesmustbedecidedonacasebycase
basis.Thelengthofthehookingarmshouldnot
beunder15mm.Insomecases,longhooking
armsmayhavetobeextrudedprestressed.This
caneliminatetheneedforspecialtolerances.
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Riveting
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Endcaps
Ifasnapfittingisdifficulttoassemble/disassemble,
punchingasectionoutofthehookingarmmaybe
thesolution.
Twoendcapscanbeheldtogetherusinglongscrewsordrawbars.Screwportswith
adequateclearanceareasuitablewayofgidingthescrews.Theresultisoneendcap
withnovisiblescrews.Thisisagoodsolutionin,forexample,fascias.
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Adhesivebonding
Aftersteel,aluminiumisthemetalthatismostfrequentlybonded.Though,forexample,
Examplesofsnapfitjoints.
farmorecarsareproducedthanaeroplanes,theadhesivebondingofaluminiuminthe
aeroindustryhasattractedthemostdetailedresearch.
Aeroplaneshaveusedbondedjointssincethemid40s.Nowadays,thebondingofaluminiumisevenusedforloadbearing
componentsinaircraft.Ofcourse,therearemanymoredowntoearthexamplesofthe
useofbondedaluminiumjoints.Volvosroofrackrailisjustoneofthese.
ThehingeprofileA(cutfromalongerprofile_forms
asnapfitjointwithmainprofileB.PunchedholeC
alsoprovideslongitudinallocking.Sufficientspringis
generatedinthehookingarmbyspringingthemain
profileatd.
Manydifferentadhesives,pretreatmentsandbondingmethodshavebeendeveloped.Selectingtherightoneisnotalwayseasy.
Norisitriskfreetosimplystartbondingwithoutadequateinformation.
Essentialknowledge

Theintermolecularforcesthatdeterminewhetherbondingispossibleexerttheirpulloveramaximumrangeof0.5nm(onehalfofa
millionthofamillimetre).Ifthesurfaceiscontaminatedorismadeupoflowstrengthoxidesexceedingthiscriticalthickness,there
willbenoattractionbetweentheadhesiveandthealuminiumprofile.
Forgoodandconsistentbonds,thejointsurfacemustbeknown,reproducibleandclean.

Theadhesivemustwettheentiresurfacethatistobebonded.Todothis,ithastohavealowersurfacetensionthanthematerial
beingbonded.Otherwise,theadhesivewillformdropletsratherthanspreadevenlyoverthesurface.

Alladhesiveswetaluminium.Tobondaluminiumprofilestoanothermaterial,theadhesivemustbeabletowetthismaterialtoo.Ifthe
othermaterialisaplastic,itcansometimesbedifficulttofindanadhesivewithalowersurfacetension.

[bild58.1]Traditionaltongueandgroove.
[bild58.1]Tongueandgroovewithachannelintowhichthelockinghookcanbehammeredorrolled.
[bild58.1]Avariantoftheadhesivetrapandlockinghookmethod

Jointdesign

Adhesivebondinginvolvestheformationofaplasticorrubberloadcarryingelement.Thematerialinthecuredadhesivebondisnotas
strongasthealuminium.
Thiscanbecompensatedforbydesigningprofilesolutionsthatprovidelargecontactsurfaces.

Aluminiumprofilescanbeeasilyworkedintoawiderangeofshapes.Wheretongueandgroovetypebondedjointsareapossibility,
theymaybethebestsolution.Theillustrationsabovegivesomeideasandguidanceonjointdesign.

Adhesivescopebestwithshearingforces.Jointssubjectedtotensionalforcesareoftenunsuitableforhighloads.Peelingand
cleavingforcesconcentratestressonasmallpartofthejointandshouldbeavoidedwheneverpossible

Choiceofadhesive

Bondedjointsdistributestressrelativelywell.However,veryrarelyisstressevenlydistributed
acrosstheentiresurfaceareaofabondedjoint.Asarule,stressisgreatestattheedgesofthe
joint.

Thestifferthechosenadhesive,thegreatertheconcentrationofanysubsequentstress.This
leadsto(sometimesunnecessarily)highstressontheadhesiveandthesurfacethathasbeen
bondedto.

Asprunginnersectionthatcompressestoallow
assembly.Foreasyentry,theinnerprofile(A)is
believedandcutparalleltothemainprofiles.
Tolerancesarenotcriticalinthissolution.The
resultisaplayfreejoint.
Thus,neverchooseanadhesivethatisstifferthannecessary.Thickerbondedjointsalso
reducetheconcentrationofstressattheedgesofthejoint.
Thechoiceofadhesiveisdeterminedbythewayinwhichtheadhesiveworksandwhatis
requiredofthebondedjoint(filling/sealing,heatresistance,toughness,etc.).
Tobeabletomoulditselftothesurfacestructureoftheprofile,theadhesivemusthavegood
liquidproperties.Itmustalsohardenintoamaterialthatcantransferstressinthe
environmentwhereitisused.Furthermore,itisimportantthattheadhesivehastimeto
moulditselftothesurfacesmicroprofile.Fastsetting,highviscosityadhesivesrarelypermit
this.Insuchcases,itmaybeadvisabletofirstapplyalowviscosityprimer.

Thechangefromliquidtosolidiseffectedinthreedifferentways.

Drying Cooling Curingby

Anchoringjoinedprofilesbyweldingthe
illustrationshowssolutionswithasolidprofileand
Solvent Theadhesiveisliquid
ahollowprofilerespectively.
whenitishot Mixing

Heating

Exposuretomoisture
Longitudinaljoiningviaasymmetricallylocated
screwportsandapredrilledspacer.Theprofiles Illumination(UVorbluelight)
areturnedsothatthescrewsdonotfouleach
other.
Intheabseenceofoxygen

Contactbetweenadhesiveandhardener(without
preliminarymixing).

Drying
Solventsandwatervaporise.Thus,adhesivescontainingsolventsorwaterareunsuitable Longitudinaljoiningvialongitudinalscrewjoints.A
gapslightlylongerthanthelengthofthescrewis
where: milledinthescrewport.
gapfillingisrequired
boththematerialsareunabletoletthesolventescape.

Longitudinaljointingusingthespringandfriction DoublesidedPSAtapeshouldberegardedasadryingadhesivethatneverdries.
inasnapfitdesign.
Thematerialformingthejointisthesameasthatintheroll.However,ifthestressislow,doublesidedstructuralPSAtapemayprove
suitableforjoiningaluminiumprofilestogether.

DoublesidedPSAstructuraltapesformedentirelyoftheadhesivesubstanceitselfareavailableinthicknessesfrom0.1to6mm.
TherearealsodoublesidedPSAtapesthatcanbeheatcured.Thetapeholdsthecomponentsevenduringcuringotherformsofclampingareunnecessary.
Testingofasimpleoverlapjointhasshownastrengthaftercuringofaround10N/mm2.

Cooling

Somethermoplasticadhesiveshavegoodplasticitywhenhot.Hotmeltadhesivesarethemostwidelyused.However,thethermoplastichotmeltadhesivesusuallysettoo
quicklyonaluminium.Thisresultsinpoorcontactwiththealuminiumsurface.Hotmeltadhesivesalsohaveverylowcreepandheatstrengths.Manythermoplastichot
meltadhesivesbecomebrittleincoldenvironments.
 Moisturecuringhotmeltsareappliedatlowertemperaturesand,comparedtothermoplastic
hotmelts,haveexcellentpropertiesaftercuring.Theyareusedfor,amongstotherthings,
applyingfoilcoatingstoaluminiumprofiles.

Heatreactivatedadhesiveisalsousedwhencoatingaluminiumprofileswithfoil.Anadhesive
solutionorawaterbasedadhesiveisappliedtothematerialandlefttodrycompletely.Inthe
bondingprocess,sothatitwetstheoppositesurface,theadhesiveisheated.

Moisturecuringhotmeltsandheatreactivatedadhesivescanbothgivestrong,durable
bonds.

Curing

Curingadhesivesmakeupthelargegroupofstructuraladhesives.Theycure(oftenwith Heightadjustmentwheretheinnerprofilehasa
fixedthread(blindrivetnut)andtheouterprofile
negligiblecontraction)inoneofthefollowingways:
hasapunchedorextrudedchannel.

Curingbymixingofthecomponents

Typicalofthisgrouparetheepoxyandpolyurethaneadhesives.Theyhaveverygoodgapfillingproperties.Inprinciple,theycan
becast.Modifiedacrylicadhesivesarenowalsobecomingmorecommon.

Therearebothstiffandelastic,2component,epoxyandpolyurethanebasedadhesives.Epoxyadhesiveswithanelongationat
fractureofupto120%arenowavailable.Elasticepoxyadhesivesnormallygiveabondthatisrelativelyheatsensitive.
Toensuresmoothabdsilentoperation,platic
componentsareoftenusedintelescopingdesigns.
Thisdesignfeaturessteplessheightadjustment Usingepoxyadhesives,higherstrengthbondsandimproveddurabilityareachievedbycuringatelevatedtemperatures.Thecuring
usinganut(athreadedflatbarcouldalsobeused)
timesarealsoconsiderablyreducedthecuringtimehalvesforeach10Criseintemperature.
thatrunsfreelyinitstrack.Tighteningthe
fastenerslockstheheightandremovesanyplayin
thejoint. Twocomponentpolyurethaneelastomersgiverubberlikejointsthatremainelasticevenatlowminustemperatures(C).

Therearealso2componentsiliconadhesivesthatcurerelativelyquicklyatroom
temperature.

Curingbycontactbetweenhardenerandadhesive
(adhesiveononesurfacehardenerontheother)
ThesetypesofadhesivesareusuallyreferredtoasSGAadhesives.Theyhaveexcellentpeel
andimpactstrengths,butarenotparticularlysuitablewhereagapfillingadhesiveisrequired.
Theseadhesiveshavebeenlargelyreplacedbymodifiedacrylicadhesives,whicharemixed
directfromtheirpackagingandcanbeusedtoformthickjoints.

Acrylicadhesivesofthistypethatadheretountreatedpolyolefines(e.g.PEandPP)arenow
alsoavailable.

Heightadjustmentwheretheouterprofilehasa
fixedthread(blindrivetnut)andtheboltclamps
theinnerprofileinposition.
Curingbyheating
Telescopesolutionwithsteplessclamping
Here,themostcommonadhesivesarethe1componentepoxies.Theserequireheatcuringat
aminimumof100C.Withinductionheatingofaluminiumprofiles,curingtimesofapprox.60
secondsarepossible.

Theaeroindustrymakesextensiveuseofheathardeningadhesivefilms.Theserequireat
least30minutestohardenataminimumof125C.

Onecomponentpolyurethaneelastomerscanbeheatcuredat70C90C(in1030
minutes).
Telescopesolutionwithspinglocking.
Curingbycontactwithmoisture

Cyanoacrylateadhesiveshardenveryquicklyincontactwithmoisture.Abondbetweentwo
aluminiumsurfacestakeslongertohardenthanabondbetweenaluminiumandplasticor
Whereaplayfreejointisessential(e.g.asingle
rubbermaterials.
legstand),plasticgaugeblocksareused.

Plasticisoftenanexcellentsolutionwhere
componentshavetobeabletoslide.Aplastic
profilecanbeapartofatelescopingassembly.
Cyanoacrylateadhesivesarebestsuitedforsmalljointsurfacesandthinbonds.Normally,
theyhavelowpeelandimpactstrengths.However,therearerubberfilled(black)
cyanoacrylateadhesiveswithgoodpeelandimpactproperties.Colourless,elastic
cyanoacrylatesarealsoavailable,butthesearenotparticularlysuitableasstructural
adhesivesformetal.
Cyanoacrylateadhesivesmaybesuitablewhere,forexample,aplasticistobebondedto
analuminiumprofile.

Onecomponentpolyurethaneelastomerscanalsobecuredbythehumidityoftheair.
Thistypeofadhesiveisusedin,forexample,thebondingofcarwindowsand,onalargescale,foraluminiumprofilesin
containerandvehiclebodymanufacturing.Curingiscomparativelyslow(hours)anddependantonrelativeairhumidityandjoint
geometry.

Heatcuringpolyurethaneelastomershavebeenmentionedabove.Therearealsopolyurethaneelastomersthathardenboth
withmoistureandheat.Twocomponenttypepolyurethaneelastomeradhesivesarealsoavailable.
Plasticwheelsusedpartofthefasteningintheouter
profileserveasspacersandgivesmooth,playfree
Asanalternativetopolyurethaneelastomers,therearethesocalledMSpolymers.Thesealsohardenwithmoisture.Two telescoping.
componentMSpolymersareprimarilychosenforworkenvironmentconsiderations.

CuringinUVlight

Therehavelongbeen1componentacrylateadhesivesthatcureintenthsofasecondwhenexposedtoUVlight(wavelengthapprox.350nm)orbluelight(wavelength>
400nm).Acrylateadhesivesareoftenlimpidandverysuitableforbondsbetweenaluminiumprofilesandglass(mostofthemperformlesswellwithtransparentplastics).

EpoxyadhesivesthathardeninUVlighthavealsobeendeveloped.Therearemanytypesoftheselimpid,filled,lowviscosity,hard,elastic,etc.Someofthese
adhesivescanbeirradiatedpriortobondingandwillthencurerelativelyquickly.

Curingintheabsenceofoxygen
Suchadhesivescureoncontactwithactivemetalions.Theyarenormallyreferredtoasanaerobicadhesives(orlockingfluids).
Theyarenotparticularlysuitableforaluminium.Aluminiumsurfacesshouldberegardedaspassive.Anactivatorhastobeusedin
suchcases.Thisgivesalowerstrengthbond.
Variantsoftheseadhesivesthatdohardenwithoutanactivatoronaluminiumsurfacesarenowavailable.
Temperarurelimits
Withmanyadhesives,thepracticalmaximumtemperatureatwhichstressedbondedjointscanbeusedisbetween60and80C.
Thehighestheatresistance(approx.150250C)isachievedwithheatcuringadhesivesandheatcuringadhesivefilms.However,
siliconadhesivescangiveheatresistanceofaround250Cwithoutheatcuring.
Longtermstrength
Aluminiumsurfaceat
x25,000magnification
(theredbaris1m).
Latitudinaljoiningusingscrewports.
Lockingusingatubularspringpin
Latitudinaljoiningwithasnapfit.
Pretreatmentoperationsinbonding
Bondstoaluminiumareasstronganddurableasthealuminiumoxideswithwhichthebond
isformed.Aluminiumthathashadnosurfacetreatmenthasalargepercentageof
magnesiuminitssurface.Aluminiumsurfacesshouldnormallyalwaysbetreatedinsome
way.
Usedinadryenvironment,anuntreatedaluminiumprofilecangiveanexcellentbond.The
samebondoutdoorsinacoastalclimatemayhaveafarshorterlife.Bondlifetimedepends
onthesynergisticeffectsofstress,temperatureandenvironment.
Normally,theproblemisnotthedegradationoftheadhesiveorthefailureofadhesion,but
theeffectsofchangesintheunderlyingaluminium.Anygoodmicroscopewillshowthatthere
arenocompletelyflatorevensurfaces.Highlyviscous(slowflowing)andfastsetting
adhesiveswill,therefore,mostprobablyonlycomeintolimitedcontactwiththesurface.This
resultsinabondwithinbuiltweakpoints(airpockets)wheretheadhesivespropertiesarenot
beingexploited.Inhumidenvironments,thisairwilleventuallybereplacedbywater.Wherethe
waterissalty,theneedforsurfacetreatmentisevengreater.
Aluminiumsdurabilitycanbeimprovedby,forexample,anodising.
Basicprinciplesforlonglastingbonds
Lockingusingasplineddowelpin.
Thebasicprinciplesforlonglastingbondsarewellfilledjointsandresistantoxides.Alarge
numberofpretreatmentprocesseshavebeendevelopedforaluminium.
Someofthemostcommon(andsomeofthemoreunusual)arepresentedhere.Choiceis
determinedbytheenvironmentwherethealuminiumistobeused,likelystressesandcosts.
Fulldetailsoftheprocessesandanyriskstotheworkenvironmentshould,ofcourse,beobtained
beforestartinganyformoftreatment.
Themainpurposeofprimingpriortothebondingofaluminiumistofill(seal)thesurfacewhen
highviscosityand/orfastsettingadhesivesaretobeused.
Primingbecomesmoreimportantwherethealuminiumistobeusedinacorrosiveenvironment
andnosurfacetreatmentthatimprovescorrosionresistance(e.g.anodising)iscontemplated.
Primeralsoimpregnatesandstrengthensporousoxides,e.g.afterchromating.
Latitudinaljoiningwithaclamp.
Requirementspecification
Itisadvisabletodrawuparequirementspecificationforthepropertiesofthefinalbondand
theuserelatedaspectsoftheadhesive.Thishelpscrystallisethedemandsreallybeingplaced
ontheadhesive.Italsomakesiteasiertospecifyexactlywhatisrequiredtotheadhesive
manufacturer.
Process Result Use(max.)
Cleaning/degreasing Minimumrequiementforensuringacleananddefined Formoderatelystressdjointsindry
bondingsurface. surroundings. Latitudinaljoiningwithasnapfit.
Finegrinding/blast Removesweaksurfacelayerse/g/oxides.Saferthan Highlystressedjointsindryenvironments.
cleaning degreasing. Unstressedjointsinfreshwater.
Boilingwaterfor510 Givesresistant,butmoderatelystrongoxides. Lightlystressedjointsusingflexibleadhesives
min.afterpickling inhumid,
corrosiveenvironments.
Phosphating/chromating Corrosionresistant,butweak,porousoxides. Lightlystressedjointsusingelasticorvery
lowviscosityadhesivesin
corrosiveenvironments.
Hydrochloricacidat Quick,canimpartadarkcolouringtothealuminium Moderatelystressedjoints,evenincorrosive
20Cfor surface. surroundings.Relatively
30seconds uncommonprocess.
 Etchinginchrome/ Thin,strongoxides.LongusedintheAmericanaero Highlystressedjointsoutdoors.However,
industry. cannotwithstandstrongly
sulphuricacid
corrosiveenvironments.

Anodisinginsulphuric Thickveryresistantoxide. Lightlystressedjointsin

acid corrosiveenvironments.Bestwithelastic

adhesives.

Anodisinginchromic chromicacidMediumthick,strongoxide.Usedinthe Highlystressedjoints,evenincorrosive

acid Europeanaeroindustrysincethe40s. environments

Anodisinginphosphoric Porous,veryresistantoxide.Isusedtogetherwithlow Optimumpretreatmentforhighlystressed

acid viscosityprimer. jointsincorrosive
Asimplehingetheball'sdiametershouldnever
belessthan5mm.
environments.

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FusionWelding

Aluminiumiseminentlysuitableforwelding.Althoughmanyweldingmethodsarepossiblewith
aluminium,onlyafewareusedinpractice.Refinementsinweldingmachines,equipmentand
materialshaveresultedinweldingacquiringincreasingimportanceasajointingmethod. Ifthehingehasascrewport,itcanbeeasily
lockedlongitudinallyusingplasticinsertsandself
tappingscrews.
Oxideformation

Ahingewithapproximately110degreesopening.
Whenweldingaluminium,themetalsreactionwithoxygen,andtheoxiderapidlygenerated
therein,havetobetakenintoaccount.Theoxideisstrong,hasahighmeltingpoint(approx.
2,050C)andcaneasilycauseweldingdefects.Theoxideisheavierthantheweldpoolandmay
forminclusions.Thus,beforeallweldingofaluminium,itisimportanttoremoveoxidesfromthe
jointsurfaces.Thismaysuitablybedoneusingastainlesssteelwirebrush.Thoroughlycleaned,
oxidefreejointsurfacesareabasicrequirementforfaultlessweldedjoints

Weldporosityformation

Theriskofvoidformationmustalsobetakenintoaccount.Thehydrogencontainedinmoisture
andcontaminantsonorintheweldingmaterials,workpieceorairishighlysolubleinmolten
aluminium.Itlosesthissolubilityalmostcompletelywhenthemetalsolidifies.Astheweldpool
sets,thehydrogenformsbubblesthatmaybecometrappedandformvoids. Twoprofileswith180degreesopening.
Selflockingwithapprox.180degreesopening.

Mostaluminiumalloyscanbewelded

Drying Cooling Curingby

Solvent Theadhesiveisliquidwhenitishot
Mixing

Heating

Exposuretomoisture

Illumination(UVorbluelight)

Intheabseenceofoxygen
Chamferingtheballenableshingedisassembly
Contactbetweenadhesiveandhardener(withoutpreliminarymixing). asshownabove.

Methods

Nowadays,gasarcweldingmethods,MIGandTIGinparticular,dominate.Argon(Ar)and
helium(He)areusedastheshieldinggasesintheMIGandTIGweldingofaluminium.Argon
andheliumareinertgasesanddonot,therefore,formchemicalcompoundswithother
substances.Wherethereisahighpenetrationrequirement,e.g.inafilletweldorwhenwelding
verythickworkpieces,anargonheliummixturecanbeusedinMIGwelding.Theeconomic
thresholdforusingmixedgasesisamaterialthicknessof1012mm.

Asweldsinaluminiumarepronetotheformationofoxideinclusionsandvoids,theshieldinggas
mustalsomeetcertainpurityrequirements.Theminimumrequirementis99.5%argonor
Bothpartsofthishingearemadefromasingle
helium.Besidesplayingapartintheelectricalprocessesinthearc,thegasalsohasthejobsof
profile. protectingtheelectrodeandtheweldpoolfromoxidationandofcoolingtheelectrode.

MIGwelding

Asarule,MIGweldingisusedformaterialthicknessesfrom1mmupwards.Inspecialcases,thicknessesunder1mmcanbewelded
usingapulsedMIGarc.Fillermetalisaddedintheformofawirefedthroughtheweldingtorch.MIGweldingcanbeperformedinany
positionandforalljointtypes.AhighercurrentdensitythaninTIGweldinggiveshigherweldingspeeds.Thehighweldingspeedhasa
positiveeffectondistortionandshrinkage(narrowerheataffectedzone).

TIGwelding
Threeparthingemadefromasingleprofile.

TIGweldingissuitableformaterialthicknessesdowntounder1mm.Inpractice,thereisanupperlimitofaround10mm,butedge
preparationisthennecessary.Fillermetalisnormallyusedandisintroducedfromtheside.TIGweldingcanbeperformedinany
 positionand,whenperformedcorrectly,givesthemostfaultfreewelds.Theweldingspeedis
relativelyhigh,andevenhigherinmechanicalTIGwelding.
TIGweldingcanberecommendedwherethegapwidthvaries.

Robotwelding

RobotisedMIGweldingcanbeusedwithadvantageinlongproductionruns.Thismethod
noticeablyincreasesproductivityandisalsoadvantageousfromaworkenvironmentpointof
view.Thepositionoftheworkpieceiseasytocontrol.Thisfacilitatesweldingfromthe
optimumpositionandgivesgoodresults.Certainproblemsmayarisewithverythinmaterials
Twoparthingemadefromasingleprofileandwith
andunevengapwidths.
identicalmachining.
Weldingeconomy

Measuredoncostperlength,MIGweldingisnormallycheaperthanTIGwelding.Equipment
costsareidentical.

Fillermetals Apinineachendgiveswideopeningandacost
effecientsolution.
Thetablebelowgivesrecommendationsforappropriatefillermetals.AIMg5generallygives
thegreateststrength.AISi5ismorestableasregardscrackingandeasiertousewhen
weldinghardenablealloys.

Iftheweldedassemblyistobeanodised,Sialloyedfillermetalscannotbeused.When
anodising,thesiliconisprecipitatedandimpartsadarkgrey,almostblack,colour.

Alongitudinallyadjustablehinge. Inordernottocompromiseweldquality,fillermetalsshouldbestoredsothattheriskof
oxidationandtheformationofothercoatingsisavoided.

Hingescanbemadefromothermaterialsthan
aluminium.Theillustrationsshowsasolutionwhere
aplasticorrubberprofilecanbeused.

AsimpleTjointusingscrewports.

Astrongjpontwithflangestotakeuptorsional
stress.

Screwportsusedtojointubularandrectangular
profiles.

Toavoidflexinginthejoint,thescrewsaredriven
directlythroughtheinnerwall.Theouterclearance
holesarepluggedwithstandardplasticcaps.

Fittingtoawalloranotherprofile:Theendfastener
iscutfromalongerprofileandsecuredwith
screws.

Joiningofaroundtubeandatransverseprofile:
Thetransversetubecomprisestwoprofilesheld
togetherbysnapfitjoint.Thisfasteningavoids
troublesomematingofthecontours.
AsimpleandstablesoultionforTandcornerjointing
ofsquaretubes.

Inthefurnitureandinteriordecorationindustry,
specialfastenersareusedwherejointsmustbe
easytotakeapart.Thefastenersoftenrunina
nuttrackandthereisthisthusasteplessfit
withthemountingprofile.

AsimpleTjointusingnuttracks,rightangled
bracketsandbolts. Expansionlockingusingawedgeshape.

Expansionlockingusingsplinedpins.

Therearevarioustypesofbracketsthatare
exremelysuitableforcornerjointswherethe
strengthandrigidityrequirementsarehigh.The
bracketsareusuallycutfromlongaluminium
profiles.Bracketsareusuallydesignedtoallow
severalfittingmethods.Thecornerbracketabove
hasbothscrewports(forsidescrews)and
channelsforstamping.Fittingmethodcanthenbe
chosentosuitequipment,seriessize,etc.
Aspecialmachineoranexcentricpressisusedin
thestampingmethodofconnectingprofiles.The
methodisparticularlycommoninlongproduction
runs.

Inpictureframesandotherlightconstructions,the
cornerjointcomprisestwoflatrightangledbrackets,
oneofthemwiththreadedholes.
Castmetalandplastictiesareasolutionthatis
especiallycommoninlongrunsandwherejointing
hastobeprovidedinmorethantwodirections.
Varioustiesareavailableinstandardformats.
Tiesareoftenrectangular.Themainprofile's
contoursare,ofcourse,immaterialaslongas
thereisaninner,rectangularchamber.
Thisstablecornerjoint,whichhaspreciseangles
andgooddesign,involvesrelativelyeasy
machiningonly.
Thiscornerjointforsquaretubesusesselftapping
screwsinthetransversescrewports.
Tieusingsprungsteelclips.
Atorsionallyrigidjointusingasinglescrew.As
shown,oneoftheprofileshasflanges.Thistype
ofcornerjointisusedin,amongstotherthings,
TVstands.
Theflangesofthecornerprofileareboltedtothe
insidesoftheframeprofiles.Theframeprofiles
needonlybecutat90degreeestoensureasnug
fit.Wherecornersarevisible,alargeradius(as
shownbythebrokenline)givesanattractively
roundeddesign.
AUsectionwithapunchedorsawncut.Thesaw
cutshouldgodownintothebaseoftheprofile.
Thiscanthenbefoldedtogiveafamewith
slightlyroundedcorners.Theframeislocked
usingajointoneitheralongorashortside.

Acornerjointthatcanbeusedin,forexample,a
table.Theplateandjointcombinationrepresentsa
verystablesolution.

Printedcircuitboards,metalsheetsandother
platescanbefittedinchannelsintheprofile.A
smalldeformation(catch)intheplateorthe
channelensuresgoodlocking.

Protrusionspunchedintotheprofile/plateensure
radiallocking.
Rattlefreelockingthroughhavingtheprofile'sarms
activelygriptheplate/sheet.

Asnapfitjointcanbeusedwithformedplates.

Glassandmetalplates,etc.canbelockedin
placeusingasprung,specialplasticprofile(the
yellowprofile)
 Astandardmethodofglazingwindowsanddoors.
Rubberprofiles,whichformsnapfitswiththe
aluminiumprofiles,actasspacersfortheglass.
The"Christmastreemodel"isasimplesolution
Thismethodcanalsobeusedforotherplates.
whenjointingwithwood.

Asnapfitusingtrackinthewoodenboard.

Specialscrewswith"snapfitheads"canbeused
whenjointingwithwoodsormetalplates.

Shortsnapfitbracketscanbescrewed/nailedinto
woodstrips.

Asnapfitjointbewtweenaluminiumandplastic
profiles.

Todealwithhighlocalsurfaceloadsandreduce
wear(e.d.fromarollingsteelwheel),asteelstrip
canbeinsertedinprofiles.

Examplesofblindrivetnutsandpressnuts.

Inalongprofile,itisoftenuneconomictobuild
extrathicknesssimplytoprovidelongerthreads.
Theblingrivetnutisfittedfromtheoutsideusing Usingblindrivetnutsorpressnuts,allthatis
aspecialrivetgun. requiredisahole.
Slidingpoprivetinginalongitudinalprofilechannel.

Pressnuts:Thesearefittedfromtheback
using,forexample,anexcentricpress.

Selfpunchingrivetscountersinkandjoininasingleoperation.

Poprivetingattheendofascrewport.

Screwsandscrewportsarethemostcommon
methodofsecuringmetalorplasticendcapsto
boxprofiles.

Rivetingwithoutrivets:Thismethod,whichis
highlysuitableforlongruns,canjoindifferent
materialsofdifferentwallthicknesses.Acrimping
pressisused.

Iftheendcapandtheprofilehavethesamenominal
outerdimensions,anydeparturesfromtolerance
specificationsareclearlyvisible.Theplaceswhere
Ifthemainprofileislong,itismorecostefficientnot
metalhasbeencutbecomeparticularlyprominentifthe
tohavescrewportsinthisbutinapurposedesigned
profileissurfacetreated.Onesolutionistomakethe
endcap.Slightdisplacementoftheholesinthemain
endcapslightlybiggerthanthemainprofile.
profile(relativetothescrewports)ensuresthataforce
issetuppullingtheendcapintothemainprofile.
 Channelsinthemainprofileforthefittingofanend
capwithasprungarm.

Thisendcapwedgesintothemainprofile.There
isastrongpressfitbetweentheendcap'sarms
andthechannelsinthemainprofile.

Anendcapwithsprungarmsthecapis
removable.

Castmetalorplasticendcapsaresuitablefor
Thisplasticendcapisheldinplacebystamped longrunswheretheshapeofthemainprofileis
catchesintheprofile. complexorwhereahighlyroundedendcapis
required.

ParentmetalA

Sapa Swedish Chemical

standard designationEN
SSENAW AW

10901080A AI99.90AI99.8(A) A199.8

1070A AI99.7(A)

105A 1050A1200 AI99.5(A)AI99.0 A199.5AI99.5Ti AI99.5AI99.5Ti

3103 AIMn1 AI995TiAIMn1 AI99.5TiAIMn1 AIMn1AISi5

50055251 AIMg1(B)AIMg2 AIMg52) AIMg52) AIMg52) AIMg3AIMg5

5052 AIMg2.5

5754 AIMg3

5083 AIIMg4.5Mn0.7 AIIMg52) AIIMg52) AIIMg52) AIIMg5AIIMg4.5Mn AIIMg5AIIMg4.5Mn

 60606063 60606063 AIIMgSiAIIMg0.7Si AISi5 AISi5 AISi5 AlMg3AlMg51) AlMg5AlMg4.5Mn AlSi51)AlMg3

6063A 6063A AIIMg0.7Si(A) AlMg5

6005 6005 AISiMg

6005A 6005A AISiMg(A)

6082 6082 AISi1MgMn

7021 7021 AlZn5.5Mg1.5 AlSi5 AlSi5 AlSi5 AlMg4.5MnAlMg5 AlMg4.5MnAlMg5 AlMg4.5MnAlSi5 AlMg4.5Mn

AlMg5

Parent Chemicaldesignation Al99.90Al99.8(A) Al99.5(A)Al99.0 AlMn1 AlMg1(B)AlMg2 AlMg4.5Mn0.7 AlMgSiAlMg0.7S

metalB AlZn5.
ENAW Al99.7(A) AlMg2.5 AlMg0.7Si(A)
5Mg1.5
AlMg3 AlSiMg

AlSiMg(A)

AlSi1Mg(A)

AlSi1MgMn

SwedishstandardSSENAW 10901080A 1050A1200 3103 50055251 5083 60606063 7021

1070A 5052 6063A

5754 6005

6005A

6082

Sapa 1050A 60606063 7021

6063A

6005

6005A

6082

1) Unsuitablewherethereistobesubsequentanodising.

2) Lesssuitablematerialcombinations.HoweverTIGweldingwithstatedfillermetalispossible.

Strength

Inwelding,theheattreatmenttowhichthematerialissubjectedaffectsthestructurelocallyaroundtheweld.Theillustrationisaschematicrepresentationofhowstrength
andhardnessvarywithdistancefromaweldinahardenablealloy.Withaluminiumprofiles,itiseasytocompensatefordecreasedjointstrengthbyincreasingthewall
thicknesslocally.Furthermore,edgepreparationcanbedirectlyincorporatedintotheprofilesdesign

Profiledesignwithregardtofusionwelding

Appropriatelydesignedprofilescangreatlysimplifywelding.Edgepreparation,materialcompensation,inbuiltfastening,integralrootbackingandtheminimisationofthe
numberofweldsrequiredareallexamplesofproactivealuminiumprofiledesign.

Inmanycases,aluminiumprofilescanbedesignedinawaythatreducestherequirednumberofwelds.Sometimes,weldscanalsobelocatedinalowstresssectionof
thecrosssectionalarea.Thiswillmeanfewerweldsandimprovedstrength.

Edgepreparationintegratedintotheprofiledesigntheillustrationalsofeaturesmaterialcompensationforstrengthreductionintheweldzone.

Permanentrootbacking.
Inbuiltfastenerusedindryenvironments.
Left:Placingweldsinlowerstresssectionsofthecrosssectionalarea.Thisresultsinfewerwelds,andbuttratherthan
filletwelds.

Right:Numberofweldsreducedfrom12to4buttweldsratherthantheweakerfilletwelds(whicharealsohardertox
ray).Fewercomponents,reducedwelding(consequentlyfewerheataffectedzones)andstraighteningminimsed.

backtotop

FrictionStirWelding(FSW)

FrictionStirWelding(FSW)exploitsaluminiumsabilitytowithstandextremeplasticdeformationattemperaturesthatarehigh,butnotabovethemeltingpoint.InFSW,the
cleanmetalsurfacesoftheprofilesthataretobejoinedareheatedbyfrictiongeneratedbyarotatingtoolandpressedtogetheratveryhighpressures.Thisformsanew,
homogeneousstructure.

Comparedwithfusionwelding,FSWgives:

#Increasedstrength.

#Increasedleakproofnessentirelyvoidfree,impermeablejointsofahigherstrengththanfusion
weldedjoints.

#Jointsthatare,inprinciple,flushwiththesurface.

#Reducedthermaldeformationonlylowthermalstressinthematerial,hencetheflatsurfaces.

#Increasedrepeatabilityproductionhasfewvariablesandtheseareeasilycontrolledtheresultis
tighttolerances.

Anestablishedtechnology

Left:Acrosssectionofajointx13magnification.
Right:ThehomogeneouscrystalstructureinthecentresectionofanFSWjointx220magnification.

Arotatingtoolispressedintothemetalandmovedalongthelineofthejoint.Nofillermetalsor
shieldinggasesareused.FSWtakesplaceatatemperaturebelowthemetal'smeltingpoint.
Theresultsincludeverylittlethermaldeformation,hencetheflatsurface.

 UsingFSWratherthan
traditionalfusionweldingtojoin
panelstogethergives,amongst
muchelse,increasedflatness
andstraightness.Strengthis
alsoincreased(seetheRoyal
InstitueofTechnology'stests,
pages7273).TheSapapanel
aboveis3x14.3metres.

Thejointisinprinciple,flushwiththesurfaceandtheFSWweldis,toallintentsandpurposes,
completelyvoidfree.Thestrengthpropertiesarealsoverygood.

TheFSWweldhomogenousandvoidfreewithnooxideinclusions

TopaintaclearerpictureofFSW,wehavechosentocompareitwiththemostcommonlyusedmethodofweldingfusionwelding.Atthesametime,wemuststressthat,
inourproductionofaddedvaluealuminiumprofiles,weoftenusefusionwelding(MIG).Theolddoeshaveitsplacealongsidethenew.

Fusionwelding,MIGforexample,usesfillermetalsandshieldinggases.

Thefillermetalandtheparentmetalaremeltedandproduceaweldbeadthathasasolidificationstructuredifferentfromthatoftherestofthemetal.

InMIGandTIGwelding,attentionhastobepaidtothemetalsreactionwithoxygen.Theoxiderapidlyformedinthisreactioncancauseweldfailure.

Theoxideisheavierthantheweldpoolandmayforminclusions.Thereisalsoariskofvoidformation.

FSWusesnofillermetalsorshieldinggases.Thejointisformedundertheinfluencesoffrictiongeneratedheatandextremeplasticdeformation.

Thematerialbeingjoinedneverreachesitsmeltingpoint,buttheprofilesweldtogetherinawayentirelyanalogoustotheextrusionofhollowprofiles.

Theresultisahomogenousandvoidfreeweldwithnoinclusions.

FSWstandsoutinhavingonlyafewvariables.Thesecanbeeasilycontrolledtoensurethesameresultsfromoneweldtothenext.
Fusionweldingisamorecomplicatedprocess.Consequently,resultsoftenvary.

Togiveafaircomparison,theadjacentpicturesareofveryhighqualityfusionwelds.

Left:PrecipitationinaMIGweld.Right:PrecipitationinanFSWweld.
 Left:TheMIGweldrisesabovethesurface.Furthermore,itschemicalcompositiondiffersfromthatoftheweldedmaterial.Right:
TheFSWweldis,inprinciple,flushwiththeweldedmaterial.Nofillermetalsareused.

Left:AMIGweldviewedfromabove.Right:AnFSWweldviewedfromabove.

Strength

ExperienceandextensivetestinghaveshownthatanFSWweldisusuallystrongerthanafusionweld.Thetablebelowshowsthestandardisedvaluesforarcweldedbutt
jointsasperSSEN2884(seealsothetestscarriedoutbytheRoyalInstituteofTechnology,pages7273).

ThevaluesgivenforFSWjointsarebasedonalargenumberofmeasurementsandshouldberegardedasguidelinevalues.

Sincethereare,asyet,nostandardsforFSWjoints,thevaluesforfusionweldedjointsareusedincalculatingthestrengthofstandardiseddesigns.

Conditionofparentmetalbeforewelding Ageingafterwelding T= Rm(W)

Rm(pm)

T4 Naturalageing Arcwelding1) FSW2)

0.9 0.9

T4 Artificialageing 0.7 0.9

T5T6 Naturalageing 0.6 0.7

T5T6 Artificialageing 0.7 0.8

1.ForexampleMIGorTIG.2.Guidelinevaluesonly.

Ultimatetensilestrength,R(w),oftheweldedtestrodnormallyhastosatisfythefollowing:

Rm(W)=Rm(pm)xTwhereRm(pm)istheprescribedminimumultimatetensilestrengthoftheparentmetalandTisthejointsweldfactor.

Leakproofness

ThepicturesontherightareofheatsinkunitsbasedonsolidprofilesthatarethenCNCmachinedbySapa.Themachined
interiorisclosedwithacover,weldedinplacebyFSW.
Heliumleaktestingwasusedtoassessleakproofness.
Theresultwasnolossofimpermeabilityowingtoweldfailures.FSWjointshavealsobeentestedusingthewaterpressuretest.
TheresultsareunambiguousFSWgivesajointthatcanbeusedincomponentswiththeseverestdemandsforleakproofness.

Repeatability

TheexperienceSapahasgainedinseriesproductionsince1996shows:
Verysmallvariationsfromjointtojointthroughoutaproductioncycle.
Verysmallvariationsfromjointtojointinrepeatcustomerorders.
Thisistrueofallvariablesthejointsstructure,itsstrength,leakproofnessandflatness.

Corrosionresistance

Thechemicalcompositionofthematerialinthejointisidenticaltothatoftheoriginalmaterial.Thus,inprinciple,corrosion
resistanceisunaltered.

Limitations

FSWrequirestheworkpiecetobeheldsecurelyinplace.Thismeans,amongstotherthings,thatrepairweldingoffinished
constructionsisrarelypossiblewithFSW.Repairscan,ofcourse,becarriedoutusingtraditionalmethods.

All25,000unitspassedheliumtestingforleakproofness.

StrengthofFSWjoints
ComparisonwithMIGandTIGReference:
TheRoyalInstituteofTechnology,Sweden
FSWweldshavehigherfatiguestrengththanMIGandTIGwelds.ThisisthefindingdocumentedbyMatsEricsson,graduateengineer,andRolfSandstrm,professor,
(bothoftheInstitutionforMaterialsScienceatSwedensRoyalInstituteofTechnology)intheDecember2001researchreport,InfluenceofWeldingSpeedontheFatigue
ofFrictionStirWeldsandComparisonwithMIGandTIG.Testmaterialandtestmethods

Testmateialandtestmethods

ThisextractfromthereportgivesvaluesforextrudedprofilesinalloySSENAW6082(AlSi1MgMn)temperT6,materialthickness4mm.Thedimensionsofthetest
pieceswereasperSSEN2844.FSWwascarriedoutbySapainaplantusedforseriesproduction.Testmaterialsweldedattwodifferentspeedswereincludedin
testing.Tothesamehighqualitystandardsasthoseapplyingintheaeroindustry,fusionweldingwascarriedoutbyCSMMaterialTechnology.TIGandpulseMIGwelding
wereused.Vickershardnesswasmeasuredwithaloadof10kg.Fatiguetestingwascarriedoutwithastressratio(min/max)of0.5,themaindirectionofstressbeing
acrosstheweld.

Profiledesignwithregardtofusionwelding

Appropriatelydesignedprofilescangreatlysimplifywelding.

Edgepreparation,materialcompensation,inbuiltfastening,integralrootbackingandtheminimisationofthenumberofweldsrequiredareallexamplesofproactive
aluminiumprofiledesign.

Inmanycases,aluminiumprofilescanbedesignedinawaythatreducestherequirednumberofwelds.Sometimes,weldscanalsobelocatedinalowstresssectionof
thecrosssectionalarea.Thiswillmeanfewerweldsandimprovedstrength.

ThegraphshowsthevariationsinVickershardnessacrossacrosssectionofanFSWjoint(green)weldedataspeedof1,400mm/min.andacrossaMIGweld(grey).

Comments:Inbothwelds,hardnessintheheataffectedzonedecreases.ThisisclearlymoremarkedintheMIGweld.Hardnessislowest(justunder

60HV)aroundthecentreoftheMIGweld.Thisisbecausefusionweldinginvolveshigherworkingtemperatures,foreignfillermetalsandalessfavourablestructurein
theweld.MoreheatissuppliedinTIGweldingthanMIGwelding.Consequently,theHAZisalittlewider.NosignificantdifferencewasobservedbetweentheHAZsofthe
twoFSWweldscarriedoutatdifferentspeeds.

SSENAW Yield Tensile longation Reference

6082 strenght strenght A50mm(%)
Rp0,2(MPa) Rm(MPa

Min.values 250 295 6 SSEN7552

forprofiles
t<5mm

PulsedMIG 147 221 5.2 ME,RS1)

TIG 145 219 5.4 ME,RS1)

FSW, 150 245 5.7 ME,RS1)

speedA2)

FSW, 150 245 5.1 ME,RS1)

speedB2)

1)MatsEricssonandRolfSandstrm,averagesoftheresultsinthereportinquestion.

2)SpeedA,700mm/min.SpeedB,1,400mm/min.

Fatiguestrength

backtotop

MIGweld:asabove(2.500magnification)Fatigue
MIGweld:ThisSEMmicrograph(x25magnification)
striationintheareaclosetotherootedge.
showsthefracturesurface.Fatiguefracturedevelopedat
severalpointsintheroot(totheright).
 SW:Fracturesurfacethroughthefinegrainedsectionof
ThegraphaboveshowstheresultsoffatiguetestsonMIG anFSWweld(roottotheright).Fractureprobably
welds(grey),TIGwelds(blue)andFSWwelds(green). developedclosetheroot.
Comments:TheFSWweldshowsthebestvaluesthroughout.
Inthestudy,TIGweldsgaveconsiderablybetterresultsthan
MIGwelds.Forfailureat500,000cycles,thestressranges
were:MIGapprox.60MPa,TIGapprox.70MPa,FSW
approx.90MPaat700and1,400mm/min(ashadehigherat
1,400mm/min).