Questions on Igneous Petrology

Ig-2C: Classification based on composition (Chemical)

2C-1: What types of data are obtained from chemical analysis?

Answer: Chemical composition of rocks consist of major element, trace element, rare earth element, and isotopes: Rocks, or
specially prepared samples are sent to laboratories, and chemical data are obtained in the form of oxides for major
elements, in ppm for trace elements and REE, and as ratios for isotopes. Major element oxides include LO (for loss on
ignition) which indicates amount of weathering, depending on the rock type.. Data in publications are presented in the form of
Tables and Graphs. The graphs are called variation or discrimination diagrams.

2C-2: Why is whole rock chemical analysis commonly given as oxides of 12 elements (10 metals and two non-
metals)?.

Answer: It has to do with the common elements of the crust of the earth, which are: O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, Mg, K, Ti, Mn, H,
and P Note that the common elements are 12, including three non-metals (O, H, and P). The oxides are also 12, because Fe
is given in the form of two separate oxides, in the divalent FeO and trivalent Fe2O3 forms. Some times Fe is given as FeOt.
When given in this form FeO = 0.85% and Fe2O3 = 0.15% of the measured value. H2O+ can be a measure of weathering.

2C-3: What do we look for when we visually examine a table of oxides of rock analysis?

Answer: Individual oxides or groups of oxides are examined to determine to which class of rocks the oxides belong. For
example, SiO2 (silica) of all rocks ranges from 40 to 80 LeMaitre (1976) has found that if silica = 45-52 = "basalt" Silica
65% = "granite" A second example to know is that:
FeO and MgO are abundant in low silica rocks, CaO (lime) is most abundant in intermediate rocks, Na20 and K20 (alkali) are
more abundant in high-silica

2C-4: What are the saturation indices of Shand (1949)?

Answer

Silica
Saturated often refers to silica saturation, and refers to a condition where quartz crystallizes from the melt. Rock contains
quartz.

Undersaturated refers to a condition where quartz would not crystallize from a melt under slow cooling conditions, or that the
magma is poor in silica, but is high in alumna, so that feldspathoids (silica incompatible minerals) form.

Alumna
A comparison is made between mol. wt. % alumna on one hand and the sum of alkalis (Na 2O + K2O ) and lime (CaO):
(Divide wt.% oxide by molecular weight of the same oxide to find mol. wt.% oxide)

Peralumnus = Al2O3 is greater than (Na2O +K2O + CaO)

Peralkaline = Al2O3 is less than (Na2O + K2O)

Major elements and trace elements are used to classify igneous rocks.

2C-5: Classification of suites of igneous rocks by variation diagrams.

Variation diagrams show patterns that are determined by plotting major element, minor and trace element, REE, or isotopic
composition of rocks on appropriate diagrams, which may be either orthogonal or triangular in shape. The names of
individual rocks, or names of rock associations of groups of rocks, the tectonic setting where the rock associations might
have formed, or the origin of the magmas of the rock associations are determined by comparing the patterns shown in
diagrams with those in the literature.

The vertical and horizontal axes of orthogonal diagrams may show individual variables, sums of variables, or ratios of
variables. the scales of the of the axis may be arithmetic or geometric as in logarithmic scale. Likewise, the apexes of
triangular plots may show individual variables, sums or ratios of variables.
Chemically, rocks can be grouped :

1) According to their silicon dioxide content - p. 48, p. 34 (e.g., ultramfic <45%, Mafia 45-52%, intermediate 52-66%, and
felsic 66-76%). A diagram of Bowmen's Reaction Principle may be used to show the mafic minerals of common igneous
rocks.

2) According to the alumna saturation (- p.35 -e.g., Alumna greater than (K2O + Na20 + CaO ) = peraluminous, etc.)
Total alkali (Na2O + k2O) greater than Al2O3 = peralkaline, etc. Peralkaline rocks are further divided into Comendites and
pantallerites . Pantellerites are more mafic than comendites and also have 10% normative quartz.

3) According to variation diagrams, e.g., K2O vs SiO2. (p.34) K2O increases away from the trench for igneous rocks that
formed by subduction processes. Also, this variation diagram might be used to distinguish calcalkaline rocks that have high
slope of K2O trend from tholeiitic rocks which have gentle slope, i.e those that have low k2O.

4) According to the alkali-lime index . Peacock, 1931 introduced the concept of calcalkaline rocks by plotting lime and total
alkali versus silica, and by noting where the alkali and lime curves intersect (p.49). If they intersect within the field of a silica
value between 56 to 61 % then the rocks belong to Calcalkaline series. If they intersect in the field of silica value < 51 %
they are called alkalic, if they intersect for silica values >61 % they are calcic rock series, etc.

5) According to total alkali versus silica , the LeBas or (TAS- or IUGS method) (p.50 ) into different types of specific volcanic
rock names.

6) According to total alkali versus silica rectangular plot- (p. 105; p.100). This shows that rocks can be divided into Alkaline
(strongly alkiline, or mildly akaline series) and subalkaine (high alumina basalt or tholeiitic series). Note that tholeiites have
total alkali less than 3.5 %

7) According to SiO2 versus FeO*/MgO , or TiO2 vs. FeO*/MgO, or FeO* vs. FeO*/MgO; (p. 51, 100), rocks can be grouped
into tholeiitic or calcalkaline (p.51)

8) According to AFM diagram ( triangular plot-, p. 37, 106, 139, 142, 150, 176, 185, 216) rocks can be grouped into tholeiitic
or calcalkaline . Tholeiites have more Fe and Ti than calcalkaline rocks.

Tholeiites may be subdivided into quartz- or olivine- tholeiites by using normative mineral composition (basalt tetrahedron).
Normative minerals are calculated from chemical analysis by following CIPW procedure for example. The basalt tetrahedron
(p.99)shows normative mineral compositions of tholeiites (olivine tholeiites and quartz tholeiites) and alkali basalts. Tholeiites
have two pyroxenes (opx, cpx). Quartz tholeiites might be continental, while olivine tholeiites are oceanic, generally
speaking. Note that the critical plane of silica undersaturation is the field of olivine basalt, and the critical plane of silica
saturation is the field of hypersthene basalt.

9) Trace elements may also be used to distinguish groups of igneous rocks, and the origins of igneous rocks.
The elements used include
REE = Rare Earth Elements, from La (Z= 57 ), Lu ( Z= 71)
HFSE = High Field Strength Elements (Ti, Ni, Cr, Zr, Hf, Nb, Ta, and Y)
Stable isotopes :

9a) According to Rare earth patterns, (-p. 37, 105,128,142,197,216-See also Spider diagrams). Flat pattern indicate MORB,
which are formed from a high degree of partial melting of mantle rock (e.g., plagiogranite). Light REE enrichment can be
from low degree of partial melting of mantle, where garnets which house heavy REE did not melt. Europium depletion would
indicate that the source is a residual magma,which formed after an earlier differentiate has been removed. The early
differentiate had plagioclase (Eu replacing for Ca), so that Eu is depleted in the residual.

9b) According to HFSE (Ti, Ni,Cr,Zr,Hf, Nb, Ta, and Y) or immobile elements Pearce and Cann. Groups of rocks can be
identified as OFB (ocean floor basalts), CAB (Calkalkaline basalts), LKT (low Potassium tholeiites), WPB (within plate
basalts) by using Pearce and Cann (p. 103) and other tectonic discrimination diagrams. This is useful for deciphering THE
TECTONIC OR GEOLOGIC SETTING of igneous rocks

N.B. Wang, 1992 has argued that this discrimination diagram is not effective since within-plate rocks (continental rift basalts
of Eastern USA) plot within the field of oceanic floor basalts.
10) Some trace elements may occur abundantly in some magmas, .e.g., carbon is found CO2-rich magmas and yield rocks
that are called carbonatites.

11) According to the isotopic content. Stable isotopes of Oxygen, sulfur, and hydrogen are used in determining environment
of formation of rocks. THE PLACE OF ORIGIN OF MAGMA may be estimated from:

11a). Isotopic ratios of Nd versus Sr . Mantle is high in Nd and low in Sr ratios (p.87).

(NB. Such ratios are also used to determine the provenance of pelagic sediments).

11b) According to Helium isotopic ratios. Enriched mantle has high 3H /4H ratios and is therefore said to be 3He rich. It is
further said that enriched magma is sourced from the deepest mantle, which is considered to be enriched and primordial.
Hot spot plumes then are said to tap such enriched deep mantle source. OIBs are said to have formed above such hot spots
and are said to be different from MORBs that are of depleted Helium ratios.

In reality though, the high 3H/ 4H ratios may be because 4H is low. High 3H/ 4H ratios result from a deficit of 4H, implying a
source low in U and TH and further implying a depleted refractory source such as the lithosphere or recycled lithosphere.
This argues against a deep source, primordial and enriched source for the so-called hot spot plumes (Anderson, 1999).
Accordingly, midplate hot spots may not be magmas of the third kind. Midplate magmas might originate from dynamic
processes of the lithosphere similar to the origin of magmas of divergent and convergent plate boundaries. Magma
propagation guided by stress fields of the lithosphere might explain the migration of midplate magmas (e.g., the case of
Yellowstone and adjacent Newberry extrusives). Instead of the magmas tracking stationary hot spots, the Yellowstone -
Newberry extrusives might have formed from magma that migrated in two separate directions, NNW and NE. It is difficult to
explain the origins as tracks from a single a hot spot (Anderson, 1999, Humphreyes, and others, 2000). The controversy of
"hot spots tracks versus magma propagation" is perhaps the current best way of appreciating that we have to develop
healthy skepticism to our explanations of natural phenomena. According to Dueker and others (2001- GS A Today) the NE-
SW trend of the Yellowstone magmatism is similar to those of the St. George and Jemez of cratonal USA, the later two
correspond to Proterozoic sutures, while the Yellowstone trend corresponds to a major crustal shear zone, and that all
represent zones of melting hydrated olivine-poor lithologies.

11d) Radiogenic Isotopes are used for age dating rocks.

39
Ar/ 40Ar ages in single zircon crystals sometimes indicate that the zircon grew at different times recording the age, ech
time.
***

Study of gases

Fluid inclusions (also called melt inclusions = MI) are used to determine the amount and type of gases (Cl, H2O, CO2, S,
F). They are used: 1) to determine amount and type of magma-derived volatiles tha are likely available as ore-forming
fluids, 2) to demonstrate the relative importance of decompression-related degassing versus crystallization-induced
degassing on the fluid-release history of a magma; 3) to estimate the dissolved concentrations of ore-metals in magmas
prior to degassing, 4) to estimate temperature of crystallization (Roedder, 1967) and the minimum pressures at which
crystals grew (Anderson et al. 1989). See last two paragragraphs of Lowenstern for details.

For example, at Alid volcano, the Holocene granophyric intergrowth of quartz and feldspars contain primary fluid inclusions.
This may indicate that growth was accompanied by degassing (2nd boiling). Eruptive decompression (reduction in
pressure within the magma chamber) caused degassing, and for a shallow depth magma, a drop in dissolved H 20 from
silicate melt, caused significant compositional undercooling, of 75 o C, and contributed to formation of granophyric texture, or
glass (USGS report).

in modern volcanoes.

COSTA RICA.
" We expect a higher HCl/CO2 ratio at Pos because a higher ratio would indicate a more direct pathway for the gases from
the magma to the surface. In contrast, if the ratio is relatively low, then this may show that the gases interacted significantly
with a hydrothermal system and that the magma is at a deeper level.

Previous geophysical research suggests that a small magma chamber may exist 500 metres below the crater floor of Pos.
At Irazu, geophysical data indicates that magma lies two to five kilometers below the surface. So, with our gas studies, we
hope to confirm or possibly modify the geophysical interpretations"--Janury 7/2001 Log of field trip to Costa Rica by Scripps
Institute f Oceanography.)
 "One of the principal questions we can address is: how far can marine sediments make it into the mantle before they are
broken down to form the CO2 we sample at the surface?"_sampling across a volcanic arc- Day 6 by Scripps -1/8/2001.