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Anusar Farooqui
Copyright
All rights reserved by the author. Commercial distribution and sale of the
document is in violation of international copyright law. However, feel free to
copy and distribute this document free of charge.
Caveat emptor
This document contains material pertaining to the geometry of Kerr black holes.
The goal of the author in creating this document was to learn the material
himself. They are neither complete nor is there any guarantee of correctness
of the exposition. Important sections will be skimmed or skipped. For a more
substantial treatment of the material the reader is referred to Barrett O’Neill’s
excellent text, ‘The Geometry of Kerr black holes’.
Notational remark
Throughout this document we will follow the Einstein summation convention
without exception. Which is, if the same index appears both as a subscript and a
superscript
Pn on one side of an equation then we suppress the summation sign, e.g.,
i ∂ i ∂
i=1 x ∂xi will appear simply as x ∂xi . This will also apply, mutatis mutandis
to equations with multiple indices: no summation signs will ever appear for such
indices without an explanation.
1
1 Preliminaries
1.1 Manifolds
Differentiable Structures
A topological manifold is a topological space locally homeomorphic to Rn . An
atlas is a collection of smooth coordinate charts that cover the manifold and are
glued together consistently with smooth transition maps on overlapping neigh-
borhoods. An atlas endows a unique differentiable structure to a topological
manifold which is then called a smooth manifold. A map ϕ : M −→ N between
manifolds is smooth if, with coordinate charts ζ and ξ, the composition maps
ζ ◦ ϕ ◦ ξ −1 are smooth.
The set of all smooth, real-valued functions f : M −→ R is a commutative
ring under addition and multiplication of functions denoted by F(M ) or more
explicity by C ∞ (M ; R). A diffeomorphism is a smooth map ϕ : M −→ N with
a smooth inverse ϕ−1 , in which case M and N are said to be diffeomorphic.
Tangent Vectors
A tangent vector X to M at x ∈ M is an R-linear map X : F(M ) −→ R with
the Leibnizian property
Curves
A curve in a manifold M is a smooth map γ : I −→ M where I ⊂ R. The
tangent vector γ̇(s) to M at γ(s) for s ∈ I is defined by
d(f ◦ γ)
γ̇(s)[f ] = (s) ; ∀f ∈ F(M ) (1.1.2)
ds
Differential maps
Given a mapping ϕ : M −→ N , for each point x ∈ M there is a linear transfor-
mation dϕ|x : Tx M −→ Tϕ(x) N called the differential map or the push-forward
2
defined by
Vector Fields
A vector field X is a cross section of T M , i.e., a smooth map X : M −→ T M
such that π ◦ X = idM . X is smooth means that Xf is smooth whenever
f is smooth. The set X(M ) of vector fields on M is a module over F(M ),
the ring of real-valued functions on M . X satifies the Leibnizian property (1)
and is therefore a derivation † . In terms of local coordinates, we can write
∂
X = X i ∂x i with the Einstein summation convention. This is the fundamental
Integral Curves
A vector field on a manifold has another interpretation as a differential equation
whose solutions are curves, called integral curves, that at each point have the
tangent specified by the vector field. That is
∂
γ̇(s) = γ̇(s)[xi ] (1.1.7)
∂xi
d i ∂
= (x ◦ γ) i (1.1.8)
ds ∂x
Thus the vector equation becomes a linear system of ordinary differential
equations:
† implicit definition
3
d i
(x ◦ γ) = X i (x1 , . . . , xn ) ; ∀i = 1, 2, . . . , n (1.1.9)
ds
Since X is smooth, local existence and uniqueness follows from standard
results, so that for each point x ∈ M, ∃! integral curve γx , with the largest
possible domain starting at x : γx (0) = x. And integral curves γ, β of X can
meet only if one is a reparametrization of the other, i.e., β(s) = γ(s + const).
One-forms
The cotangent space to M at x, is the dual of the tangent space whose elements
are called covectors:
recover the multilinear calculus formula for the total differential of a function:
∂f i
df = ∂x i dx .
Remark 1.1.2. We the following transformation rules under change of local co-
ordinates:
4
∂ ∂y j ∂
= (1.1.11)
∂xi ∂xi ∂y j
∂xi j
dxi = dy (1.1.12)
∂y j
Bundles
A (left) action of a Lie group G on a manifold F : G 1 F , is a smooth map
G × F −→ F, (g, x) 7−→ gx such that
ex = x ; ∀x ∈ F
π −1 (U )
φ
/ U ×F
tt t
t
tt
tt Proj.
ty tt
U
5
Terminology: π is the projection, E is the total manifold, B is the base, F is the
fiber, G is the structure group and Φ is the set of bundle coordinate systems φ.
For brevity, one often writes
G
,
F /E π /B
π −1 (U )
Φ / U × Rk
s s
ss
s
ss Proj.
sy ss
U
and the restriction of Φ to π −1 (x) is the linear isomorphism π −1 (x) ∼
= {x}×Rk ∼
=
k
R . In the case of vector bundles, we usually denote the bundle by E −→ M or
simply by E. For instance, the tangent bundle T M −→ M is a vector bundle
as is the cotangent bundle T ∗ M −→ M .
If there exists a map Φ such that
Φ/
E M × Rk
www
w
π ww
w
w{ w Proj.
M
then Φ is called a global trivialization and E is said to be a trivial bundle.
1.2 Tensors
The Invariant approach
Let s and r be nonnegative integers, not both zero. A tensor field of type (r, s)
on M is an F-multilinear function
A : X∗ × · · · × X∗ × X × · · · × X −→ F
| {z } | {z }
r s
with the convention that a tensor field of type (0, 0) is just a function f ∈ F.
Thus, for every choice of r covector fields (1-forms) {ω1 , . . . , ωr } and s vector
fields {X1 , . . . , Xs }, A(ω1 , . . . , ωr , X1 , . . . , Xs ) is a real valued function and A
is linear over F in each argument separately. In particular, a function f can be
factored out of each slot.
† Definition
6
Let Trs denote the set of all type (r, s) tensor fields on M . Clearly, T01 =
X . Now X is the dual of X∗ , indeed, we have X 3 X : X∗ −→ F such that
∗
X(ω) = ω(X) , ∀ω. So we also have T10 u X. Only tensors of the same type
can be added but arbitrary tensors can be multiplied using the tensor product.
For example, if A is of type (1, 1) and B is of type (2, 3) the A ⊗ B is given by
(A ⊗ B)ij i j
k`m = Ak B`m (1.2.4)
Remark 1.2.1. Its useful to define tensors invariantly, since then we don’t have
to check that they are well defined. But they are more explicit and easier to
compute in local coordinates. Also, there is the built in error detection feature
called index balance: that the same unsummed subscripts and superscripts must
appear on each side of a tensor equation.
Frame Fields
A frame field {E1 , . . . , En }, is an alternative basis for the tangent space Tx M
for each x ∈ U ⊂ M , where each basis element can be expressed in terms of the
∂ ∂
coordinate frame { ∂x 1 , . . . , ∂xn } as follows
7
∂
Ei = Eij (1.2.5)
∂xj
The coframe field consists of the dual 1-forms {ω 1 , . . . , ω n } defined implicitly
by
ω i (Ej ) = δ i j (1.2.6)
For any vector field X, we have the following duality formula
X = ω i (X)Ei (1.2.7)
The components of a tensor field can be expressed relative to a frame field,
replacing the coordinate frames in (16) by the new basis vectors. One advantage
of using generalized frame fields is that we can often define them over larger
domains. For instance, these is a globally defined frame field on a torus while a
minimum of 4 charts are required to construct an atlas.
Change of coordinates is replaced by change of frame fields. Given a frame
field {Ei } with dual {ω i } and a new frame field {Fj } with dual {θj } on the
same domain U . There are unique n × n-matrix valued functions a, b on U such
that
transformation rule for change of frame fields that determines a unique tensor
in the new frame field. For example, if A is a (1, 1) tensor with components Aij
relative to {Ei }, then its components in the new frame field {Fi } are given by
Contraction
This is a generalization of the concept of the trace of a linear operator to tensors.
For a choice of a contravariant index and a covariant index of the components
of A, take the trace. For example, is A is of type (2, 3) then choosing the
first contravariant superscript index and the second covariantsubscript index, the
resulting tensor C21 A has components A`i j`k and is called a contraction of A. In
general, contraction reduces type from (r, s) to (r − 1, s − 1).
8
Tensors at a point
Let x ∈ M . Then an (r, s) tensor at the point x ∈ M is an R-multilinear
function
Hence, we can write g = gij dxi ⊗ dxj . The metric tensor is often replaced by
the line element ds2 ≡ q, which assigns to each point x the associated quadratic
form qx of gx . So the value of ds2 on a vector field V is g(V, V ) = hV, V i. The
metric tensor can be obtained from the line element by polarization. Locally,
we can express the line element as
9
ds2 (V ) = hV, V i
∂ ∂
= hV i ,V j i
∂xi ∂xj
∂ ∂
= V iV j h , i
∂xi ∂xj
i j
= gij V V
= gij dxi (V )dxj (V )
= (gij dxi dxj )(V )
Key Examples
For 0 ≤ ν ≤ n, let Rnν be the manifold Rn furnished with the line element
ds2 = εi (dxi )2 , where
−1 , ∀i ≤ ν
ε=
+1 , ∀i > ν
Rnν is called a semi-Euclidean n-space of index ν. When ν = 0 this is just or-
dinary Euclidean space, which is obviously a Riemannian manifold. And when
ν = 1 and n ≥ 2, it is Minkowski n-space, a Lorentz manifold.
Isometries
A diffeomorphism φ : M −→ N of semi-Riemannian manifolds is an isometry if
it is preserves scarlar products:
10
The Levi-Civita Connection
1.3.1 The Fundamental Theorem of semi-Riemannian Geometry. On
a semi-Riemannian manifold there exists a unique function ∇ : X × X −→ X
such that
1. ∇V (W ) is F-linear in V
2. ∇V (W ) is R-linear in W
3. ∇V (f W ) = V [f ]W + f ∇V (W ) ;∀f ∈ F
4. [V, W ] = ∇V (W ) − ∇W (V )
1 `k ∂g i` ∂g ij ∂g j`
k
Γij = g − + (1.3.5)
2 ∂xj ∂xl ∂xi
For a curve γ in M with γ̇ 6= 0 and a vector field Y , the covariant derivative
of Y along γ is defined by Y 0 = ∇γ̇ Y which can be written locally as
k
dY i dxj ∂
DY dY
≡Y0 = + Γkij (1.3.6)
dt ds ds ds ∂xk
where in a slight abuse of notation we have written xi in place of xi ◦ γ.
Geodesics
A curve γ is a geodesic if its acceleration is zero: ∇γ̇ γ̇ = 0. Straight lines
in Euclidean space generalize to geodesics. In local coordinates, a geodesic is
charaterized by the geodesic equations:
11
Where we write xi for xi ◦ γ and supress the argument for γ(·). One uses
standard results from ODE theory to obtain the following result.
1.3.2 Local Existence and Uniqueness for Geodesics. Given a point x ∈
M and a tangent vector X ∈ Tx M , there exists a unique geodesic γ : I −→ M
passing through x with tangent vector X.
If every geodesic can be extended over the entire real line R then M is said
to be geodesically complete. A reprametrization β(s) = γ(h(s)) of a geodesic γ
is a also a geodesic only if it is affine, i.e., h(s) = as + b. A pregeodesic is a
curve that admits a reparametrization as a geodesic.
Type-changing
On a semi-Riemannian manifold, the metric tensor can be used to change any
tensor of type (r, s) to that of type (r0 , s0 ) with r +s = r0 +s0 . They are regarded
as being equivalent. It suffices to show how to change a tensor of type (r, s) to
that of type (r − 1, s + 1) and (r + 1, s − 1). Let A be a (r, s) tensor field with
components
Aij11,...,i r
,...,js
Aji11,...,ν̂,...,i r i1 ,...,ε,...,ir
,...,ν,...,js = gνε Aj1 ,.........,js (1.3.10)
Aji11,...,ν,...,i r νε i1 ,.........,ir
,...,ν̂,...,js = g Aj1 ,...,ε,...,js (1.3.11)
12
Lemma 1.3.1. Let {Ei } be an othonormal frame field, so gij = δ i j εj , with
εj = ±1. The effect of raising or lowering an index i on the components of a
tensor is just multiplication by εi .
On a semi-Riemannian manifold, the contraction operation can be extended
to two indices of the same variance. One needs only to raise or lower one of
them and use the natural contraction.
Curvature
The Riemannian curvature tensor of a semi-Riemannian manifold M is the
function R : X × X × X −→ X given by
2. hRXY Z, W i = −hRXY W, Zi
3. RXY Z + RY Z X + RZX Y = 0
4. hRXY Z, W i = hRZW X, Y i
In terms of the frame field {Ei }, the components of the curvature tensor are
i
Rjk` = ω i (REk E` Ej ) (1.3.13)
Using the duality formula X = ω i (X)Ei one obtains
∂ ∂
i
R ∂k ∂ ` j
= Rjk` i
(1.3.14)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
Due to the symmetries of the curvature tensor, it has only one nonzero
contraction modulo the sign called the Ricci curvature tensor denoted by Ric.
By convention, the sign is specified by the following lemma:
Lemma 1.3.2. In terms of an arbitrary frame field, the components of Ric are
k
Rij = Ric(Ei , Ej ) = Rikj (1.3.15)
13
Further contracting Ric one obtains the scaler curvature S = g ij Rij . The
sectional curvature K, a real valued function on the set of all 2-planes Π tangent
to M is defined as follows. For a basis {X, Y } of Π, we have
−hRXY X, Y i
K(Π) = (1.3.16)
hX, XihX, Xi − hX, Y i2
If S is a surface and x ∈ S, the sectional curvature K is just the classical
Gaussian curvature of S at x.
The Riemannian curvature tensor R has the following symmetry properties with
the covariant derivative:
3. h∇Y X, Zi = −h∇Z X, Y i
14
1.4 Extending Manifolds
Coordinate Extension
Let U be a semi-Riemannian manifold that we want to extend. Find a diffeo-
morphism φ : U −→ V ⊂ M a smooth or analytic manifold. Choose a metric
g0 on V that makes φ an isometry. Extend the tensor field g0 to a larger set
W ⊃ V such that g|V = g0 and g is still a metric tensor on W .
x ∼ y ! [x = y or x = µ(y) or y = µ(x)]
Then Q = M tµ N ≡ M t N/ ∼. The natural injections ı : M ,→ Q and
: N ,→ Q combine to give the natural projection π : M t N Q for a quo-
tient space. In particular, a subset S ⊂ Q is open ⇐⇒ both ı−1 (S) ⊂ M and
−1 (S) ⊂ N are open. Equivalently, a map ϕ : Q −→ X is continuous ⇐⇒
both ϕ ◦ ı and ϕ ◦ are continuous.
The natural injections ı and are homeomorphisms onto their respective
images. If ϕM : M −→ P and ϕN : N −→ P agree on M ∩ N then they define
well a map ϕ : Q −→ P . And if ϕM and ϕN are continuous, and suppose
ϕ|M = ϕM and ϕ|M = ϕM , then ϕ is continous as well.
Note that even if M and N are Hausdorff, Q need not be. As a counterex-
ample, consider M = N = R and U = V = {t : t < 0} with µ the identity map.
We say that the gluing data {M, N, µ : U −→ V } safisfies the Hausdorff
condition if there does not exist any sequence {xn } in U such that both
If the gluing data satisfies the Hausdorff condition and if M and N are Hausdorff,
then so is Q.
15
Gluing Semi-Riemannian Manifolds
For smooth manifolds it suffices to assign Q the atlas consisting of all charts
of M ≈ ı(M ) and N ≈ (N ). Its straightforward to check that they agree on
the overlaps and the transition maps are smooth. Moreover, the same holds for
analytic manifolds as well.
Furthermore, on semi-Riemannian manifolds with the matching map an
isometry the metric tensors agree on M ∩ N and hence we obtain a metric
tensor on Q. We will use this such extensions often in the construction of
maximal extensions of Kerr spacetimes.
The type that a vector falls into is called its causal character. A vector or-
thogonal to a timelike vector z is spacelike. Thus, z ⊥ is an inner product space
and V = Rz ⊕ z ⊥ . For v ∈ V , writing v = au + x for a timelike vector u and a
spacelike vector x we obtain
Since a cone is a subset closed under multiplication by positive scalars, the set
Λ of all null vectors of V is called the nullcone.
16
The nullcone Λ has two components Λ+ and Λ− with Λ− = −Λ+ . Each
component is a cone diffeomorphic to R+ × S n−2 . Λ+ and Λ− are also called
nullcones and there is no invariant way to distinguish between them. For n ≥ 3,
S n−2 is connected, hence the disjoint sets Λ+ and Λ− are actually the connected
components of the nullcone. Since S 0 = {±1} when n = 2, Λ+ and Λ− are not
connected.
The set I of all timelike vectors in V is called the timecone. It has two compo-
nents I + and I − . Each is an open convex cone with I − = −I + . The boundary
of the timecone is the nullcone along with the zero vector: I ± = Λ± ∪ {0}.
Two timelike vectors z and w are in the same timecone ⇐⇒ hz, wi < 0. A
vector that is not spacelike is called causal. A subspace W of V is
and its type is called the causal character of W . Note that {0} is spacelike.
W is spacelike ⇐⇒ it is an inner product space. For n ≥ 2, W is timelike
⇐⇒ W is a Lorentz vector space. In a Lorentz vector space, orthogonal null
vectors are collinear.
Let W be a null subspace of V . Then, there is a nonzero vector d ∈ W ,
unique upto multiplication by nonzero scalars, such that d ⊥ W . In particular,
d is null. Moreover, every vector in W −Rd is spacelike. For a spacelike subspace
W , extending an orthonormal basis to one for V shows that W ⊥ is timelike and
vice-versa so that V = W ⊕ W ⊥ . It follows that W is null =⇒ W ⊥ is null as
well.
Spacetimes
Let M be a Lorentz manifold, whose points are called events. We time-orient
M by selecting continuously, for the tangent space Tx M at each point x ∈ M
17
one of two components of the timecone I calling it the future timecone or simply
the futurecone. The others are called past timecones.
Einstein’s insight was that physical invariants of gravitational fields are pre-
cisely the geometric invariants of spacetime. Therefore, no concepts expressed
in terms of coordinates are of physical significance unless they are independent
of the coordinate descriptions.
Particles
A material particle α in a spacetime M is a future-pointing, timelike curve.
The proper time τ of α is its arc-length function, and its mass is m = |α̇| > 0.
Light or electromagnetic radiation has a special place is relativity. A photon
or lightlike particle γ in a spacetime M is a future-pointing null geodesic. A
lightlike particle has no proper time since |γ̇| = 0. A material particle is freely
falling if it is a geodesic. Moreover, it has a constant mass m since, for a geodesic
hα̇, α̇i = −m2 is constant.
d
The tangent vector γ̇ = ds α of a material particle is called energy-momentum
4-vector and denoted by p. Reparametrizing α by its proper time τ and denoting
it by α̃ we have
dα dα̃ dα dτ
p= =m since m= =
ds ds ds ds
The unit vector ddsα̃ is called the 4-velocity of the particle. In an abuse of notation
we often write just α for α̃ when the parametrization is clear from the context.
For a lightlike particle γ, the energy-momentum 4-vector is just p = γ̇.
Curvature
In special relativity, the curvature vanishes and spacetime is flat. A vaccum
spacetime has no sources of gravity, which is equivalent, via Einstein’s equation,
to the vanishing of Ricci curvature. Such a spacetime is called Ricci flat. Thus,
a model of gravitational field of a single star must be Ricci flat away from the
source of gravity. Of course, the Riemannian curvature need not be zero. When
Ricci curvature does not vanish, it describes the motion of the source of gravity.
Such models are useful in cosmology.
† Henceforth, this will serve as the definition for spacetime.
18
Stationary Observers
An observer in spacetime is simply a material particle parametrized by proper
time. Observers can send and receive messages and keep track of their proper
time. In special relativity, a freely falling observer can impose his proper time
and space on the entire Minkowski spacetime but in general relativity, we need
an entire family of observers to get analogous results.
A observer field U on a spacetime M is a future-pointing unit vector field.
Each integral curve of U is an observer called a U-observer. An observer field
U is stationary if there exists a smooth function f > 0 on M such that f U is a
Killing vector field. If U is also hypersurface orthogonal, i.e. U ⊥ is integrable,
then U is static.
A spacetime is absolutely stationary if it has a unique stationary observer
field, in which case the U -observers are said to be at rest. If U is static, the
integral manifolds of U ⊥ are 3-dimensional spacelike, submanifolds that are iso-
metric under the flow, and hence constitute a common space for the U -observers.
The gravitational field outside a single star is stationary if the physical prop-
erties of the star are not changing. It it is also not rotating, the spacetime is
static.
Suppose we have local coordinates ξ = (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ), where the coordinate
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
vector field ∂x 0 is timelike future-pointing and span{ ∂x1 , ∂x2 , ∂x3 } is spacelike.
0
Then, the coordinate slices {x = constant} are 3-dimensional Riemannian man-
ifolds. Moreover, we have the following
∂
Lemma 1.6.1. If (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) are local coordinates such that ∂x 0 is timelike
∂gij
future-pointing and suppose ∂x0 = 0 for all i, j. Then, the observer field U =
∂ ∂
∂x0 /| ∂x0 | is stationary. Conversely, for a stationary U such a coordinate system
can be found at every point. If in addition g0i = 0 for i > 0, then the observer
field U is static and conversely.
∂g ∂ ∂
Proof. ∂xij0 = 0 for all i, j =⇒ ∂x 0 is a Killing vector field. Then, f U = ∂x0
∂
with f = | ∂x0 |. Conversely, let f > 0 be a function such that f U is Killing. Since
f U is nonvanishing, at each point there is a coordinate system (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 )
∂ ∂ ∂gij
such that ∂x 0 = f U . But ∂x0 Killing =⇒ ∂x0 = 0 for all i, j.
Instantaneous Observers
An instantaneous observer at an event p ∈ M , is a future pointing timelike
unit vector u ∈ Tp M . u has the instantaneous information common to every
ordinary observer α whose 4-velocity is u as it passes through p. In particular,
u knows Tp M ∼ = Ru ⊕ u⊥ ∼ = Ru ⊕ R3 . There is a natural way for u to measure
the speed of any particle as it passes through p at proper time τ0 . If α is a
material particle, then α̇(τ0 ) = au + x, where x ∈ u⊥ . Note that a is the
instantaneous rate at which u’s time, t, is increasing relative to α’s time τ , so
we write a = dt/dτ . Similarly, |x| is the rate at which the arc length σ in u⊥
is increasing relative to τ , so |v| = dσ/dτ . Thus, u measures the speed of α at
event p as
19
dσ dσ/dτ |x|
= = <1 (1.6.1)
sτ dτ /dt a
Where the last inquality holds since
α is timelike =⇒ 0 > hα̇, α̇i|p = −a2 + |x|2 .
For a lightlike particle γ, since γ̇ is null we have 0 = hγ̇, γ̇i = −a2 + |x|2 , and
therefore dσ/ds = 1. So instantaneous observers always measure the speed of
light to be c = 1.
Now let u and v be two instantaneous observers at an event p ∈ M . u writes
u = 1 · u + 0 and dσ/ds = 0 so he is at rest. Then writing v = a · u + x he
concludes that v is moving since u 6= v =⇒ x 6= 0. But v writes v = 1 · v + 0
and u = b · v + y, concluding that he is at rest and it is u that is moving. Now
a = dtu /dtv , but −1 = hu, vi = −a2 + |x|2 so a = (1 + |x|2 )1/2 > 1. So according
to u, his time runs faster than v’s. Since u sees himself at rest and v moving,
he claims: Moving clocks run slower. v measures dtv /dtu > 1, so his time runs
faster than u’s, but he agrees with the slogan. Their disagreements derive from
their different decompositions of Tp M into space and time.
Special Relativity
Special relativity is general relativity of a spacetime isometric to Minkowski
spacetime R41 , where the subscript denotes the index. For an arbitrary spacetime
M , special relativity obtains in each tangent space Tp M ≈ R41 .
Let α be a material particle with energy momentum vector p = dα/ds =
m dα/dτ , and u be an infinitisimal observer at some event p = α(τ0 ). Let ᾱ be
the projection of α onto the space u⊥ .
Tp M = Ru + u⊥ =⇒ α(τ ) = t(τ )u + ᾱ(τ )
where t is the observers time and τ is the proper time of the particle. Hence,
dα dt dᾱ
= u+
dτ dτ dτ
and since this is a timelike unit vector we get
dt 2 dᾱ 2
−1 = − +
dτ dτ
Now v = |dᾱ/dt| = dσ/dt is the Newtonian speed of α as measured by u and
by chain rule |dᾱ/dτ | = v dt/dτ . Thus, dt/dτ = (1 − v 2 )−1/2 . Consequently,
dα m m dᾱ
p=m =√ u+ √
dτ 1−v 2 1 − v dt
2
20
1.7 Submanifolds
Smooth Submanifolds
A manifold P is a submanifold of a manifold M if it is a topological subspace†
with a smooth inclusion map : P ,→ M whose push-forward, ∗ is one-to-
one. If P has dimension one less than M it is called a hypersurface. We say
that submanifold is closed if it is a closed set of M . Every smooth manifold
is diffeomorphic to a submanifold of some Euclidean space. The following is a
useful way to get submanifolds:
Lemma 1.7.1. Let f be a smooth real valued function on M . If the push-
forward f∗ = df is nonvanishing on a level set {f = const}, then the level set
is a closed hypersurface of M .
As an example, consider the function f (x) = i (xi )2 on Rn . For r > 0, the
P
level set {f = r} is a closed hypersurface, the (n − 1)-sphere of radius r.
Remark 1.7.1. Let S 2 be the unit sphere in R3 . Let ϑ denote colatitude and ϕ
longitude. We treat ϕ as circular so that the coordinate system ϑ, ϕ covers all
of the sphere except the poles (0, 0, ±1). ϕ is undefined at the poles, but its
∂
coordinate vector field ∂ϕ is well defined and smooth on the entire sphere and
is zero at the poles. Defining ϑ(0, 0, +1) = 0 and ϑ(0, 0, −1) = π extends ϑ to
the entire sphere, with 0 ≤ ϑ ≤ π. At the poles, ϑ is only continuous but sin ϑ
and cos ϑ are analytic on all of S 2 .
Foliations
A distribution Π of dimension k on a smooth manifold M is a smooth field of
k-planes on M . That is, Π assigns to each point p ∈ M a k-dimensional sub-
space Πp of Tp M , and locally Π has a basis of k smooth vector fields.
Thus, a distribution Π is a subbundle of the tangent bundle T M . A subman-
ifold P of M such that Tp P = Πp for all p ∈ P is called an integral submanifold
of Π. If there is an integral manifold of Π through every point x ∈ M , then Π
is said to be integrable.
A vector field V is said to be in a distribution Π if Vp ∈ Πp for all p ∈ M ,
i.e., if it is a section of the subbundle Π.
1.7.1 Frobenius’ Theorem. A distribution
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Every one-dimensional distribution is integrable since the bracket condition
is trivial. Such foliations are called congruences. Every nonvanishing vector field
determines a unique congruence on the manifold. For a given one dimensional
distribution Π, such a vector field need not exist; if it does, Π is said to be
orientable. Then Π supplies a direction at each point p ∈ M , i.e., an oriented
tangent line Πp ∈ Tp M .
Hypersurfaces
If a curve α meets a hypersurface S at α(s0 ) ∈ S the meeting is transverse if
α̇(s0 ) is not tangent to S. For a closed hypersurface S in M , a neighborhood N
of S is tubular if there is a line bundle π : E −→ S over S and a diffeomorphism
φ : E −→ N such that φ(0p ) = p, ∀p ∈ S. Then, N is foliated by curves that
cut transversally across S.
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these can be denoted C + and C − so that any future pointing timelike curve α
that meets S tranversally crosses S from C − to C + .
A nonvanishing vector field X is hypersurface-orthogonal if X ⊥ is integrable.
Then its integral manifolds are hypersurface normal to X. For example, the
∂
radial vector field X = xi ∂x n
i in R − 0 has this property since X is everywhere
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Lemma 1.8.1. One forms {ω 1 , . . . , ω n } are a coframe field on M and {ε1 , . . . , εn }
is the signature of M if and only if
ds2 = εi (ω i )2 (1.8.1)
The connection forms for a frame field {E1 , . . . , En } are the one-forms
{ω i j }{1≤i,j≤n} such that for all tangent vectors Xx
∇X Ej = ω ` j E` (1.8.3)
In the Cartan approach, connection forms replace Christoffel symbols. The
matrix (ω i j (X)) tells us how the frame is changing in the direction X.
Lemma: The First Structural Equation 1.8.2.
dω i = −ω i ` ∧ ω ` (1.8.4)
Lemma 1.8.3.
ω i j = −εi εj ω j i (1.8.5)
In particular, ω i i = 0
Consequently, all connection forms are determined by {ω i j }i<j . Further-
more, for a coframe field {ω 1 , . . . , ω n }, the connection forms {ω i j }{1≤i,j≤n} are
the unique one-forms that satisfy equations 1.8.4 and 1.8.5.
Ωi j = dω i j + ω i ` ∧ ω ` j , ∀i, j (1.8.7)
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The above results imply that considered as matrix valued forms Ωi j and ω i j
take their values in the appropriate Lie algebra† .
The components of the curvature tensor R with respect to the frame field
are
ωi 0 = ω0 i (1.8.11)
but
ω i j = −ω j i for i, j > 0 (1.8.12)
and similarly for Ωi j .
Corollary 1.8.6. Let u, v be orthogonal coordinates in a semi-Riemannian sur-
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
face S. Write h ∂u , ∂u i = E = ε1 e2 , h ∂v , ∂v i = G = εe g 2 where ε1 and ε2 are
±1, and e, g > 0. The Gaussian curvature of S is given by
" #
1 e
v
g
u
KS = − ε1 + ε2 (1.8.13)
eg g v e u
† For Minkowski spacetime M = Rn this is possibly the Lie algebra o (n) of the Lorentz
1 1
group O1 (n) which is the group of isometries of M.
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