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ROTATING BLACK HOLES

The Geometry of Kerr Spacetime

Anusar Farooqui

Copyright
All rights reserved by the author. Commercial distribution and sale of the
document is in violation of international copyright law. However, feel free to
copy and distribute this document free of charge.

Caveat emptor
This document contains material pertaining to the geometry of Kerr black holes.
The goal of the author in creating this document was to learn the material
himself. They are neither complete nor is there any guarantee of correctness
of the exposition. Important sections will be skimmed or skipped. For a more
substantial treatment of the material the reader is referred to Barrett O’Neill’s
excellent text, ‘The Geometry of Kerr black holes’.

Notational remark
Throughout this document we will follow the Einstein summation convention
without exception. Which is, if the same index appears both as a subscript and a
superscript
Pn on one side of an equation then we suppress the summation sign, e.g.,
i ∂ i ∂
i=1 x ∂xi will appear simply as x ∂xi . This will also apply, mutatis mutandis
to equations with multiple indices: no summation signs will ever appear for such
indices without an explanation.

1
1 Preliminaries
1.1 Manifolds
Differentiable Structures
A topological manifold is a topological space locally homeomorphic to Rn . An
atlas is a collection of smooth coordinate charts that cover the manifold and are
glued together consistently with smooth transition maps on overlapping neigh-
borhoods. An atlas endows a unique differentiable structure to a topological
manifold which is then called a smooth manifold. A map ϕ : M −→ N between
manifolds is smooth if, with coordinate charts ζ and ξ, the composition maps
ζ ◦ ϕ ◦ ξ −1 are smooth.
The set of all smooth, real-valued functions f : M −→ R is a commutative
ring under addition and multiplication of functions denoted by F(M ) or more
explicity by C ∞ (M ; R). A diffeomorphism is a smooth map ϕ : M −→ N with
a smooth inverse ϕ−1 , in which case M and N are said to be diffeomorphic.

Tangent Vectors
A tangent vector X to M at x ∈ M is an R-linear map X : F(M ) −→ R with
the Leibnizian property

X[f g] = Xf g(x) + f (x)Xg ; ∀f, g ∈ F(M ) (1.1.1)


where we supress x in the subscript and the brackets for clarity. The set of
all tangent vectors to a manifold M at a point x is denoted by Tx (M ). This
is a vector space under scaler multiplication by real numbers and addition of
functions.
Let x ∈ U an open subset of M and ξ : U −→ Rn be a chart with local
coordinates {x1 , . . . , xn }. Then the partials of the coordinate expression f ◦ ξ −1

of f are tangent vectors { ∂x 1
, . . . , ∂x∂n } and form a basis for the vector space
Tx (M ). The disjoint union of the tangent spaces at ` all points of the manifold is
itself a manifold called the tangent bundle T M = x∈M Tx (M ). The projection
π : T M −→ M sends Xx 7−→ x and (x1 , . . . , xn , ∂x ∂
1
, . . . , ∂x∂n ) : π −1 (U) −→ R2n
is a chart on T M .

Curves
A curve in a manifold M is a smooth map γ : I −→ M where I ⊂ R. The
tangent vector γ̇(s) to M at γ(s) for s ∈ I is defined by
d(f ◦ γ)
γ̇(s)[f ] = (s) ; ∀f ∈ F(M ) (1.1.2)
ds

Differential maps
Given a mapping ϕ : M −→ N , for each point x ∈ M there is a linear transfor-
mation dϕ|x : Tx M −→ Tϕ(x) N called the differential map or the push-forward

2
defined by

ϕ∗ |x [f ] ≡ dϕ(x)[f ] ≡ X[f ◦ ϕ] ; ∀X ∈ Tx M and f ∈ F(M ) (1.1.3)

An equivalent characterization is that dϕ preserves tangents, i.e., dϕ sends


γ̇(s) 7−→ (ϕ ◦ γ)0 (s). One can regard it as a single map dϕ : T M −→ T N of
tangent spaces.

Vector Fields
A vector field X is a cross section of T M , i.e., a smooth map X : M −→ T M
such that π ◦ X = idM . X is smooth means that Xf is smooth whenever
f is smooth. The set X(M ) of vector fields on M is a module over F(M ),
the ring of real-valued functions on M . X satifies the Leibnizian property (1)
and is therefore a derivation † . In terms of local coordinates, we can write

X = X i ∂x i with the Einstein summation convention. This is the fundamental

link between the invariant description of X and its tensor description as an n-


tuple of functions X i ≡ X(xi ).
The Lie bracket [X, Y ] of vector fields X and Y is characterized by

[X, Y ]f = X(Y f ) − Y (Xf ) ; ∀f ∈ F(M ) (1.1.4)


This operation is bilinear over R, skew-symmetric and satisfies the Jacobi
identity:

[X, [Y, Z]] + [Y, [Z, X]] + [Z, [X, Y ]] = 0 (1.1.5)

Integral Curves
A vector field on a manifold has another interpretation as a differential equation
whose solutions are curves, called integral curves, that at each point have the
tangent specified by the vector field. That is

γ̇(s) = Xγ(s) ; ∀s ∈ I (1.1.6)


In local coordinates,


γ̇(s) = γ̇(s)[xi ] (1.1.7)
∂xi
d i ∂
= (x ◦ γ) i (1.1.8)
ds ∂x
Thus the vector equation becomes a linear system of ordinary differential
equations:
† implicit definition

3
d i
(x ◦ γ) = X i (x1 , . . . , xn ) ; ∀i = 1, 2, . . . , n (1.1.9)
ds
Since X is smooth, local existence and uniqueness follows from standard
results, so that for each point x ∈ M, ∃! integral curve γx , with the largest
possible domain starting at x : γx (0) = x. And integral curves γ, β of X can
meet only if one is a reparametrization of the other, i.e., β(s) = γ(s + const).

A vector field is complete if each of its maximal integral curves is defined on


the entire real line. Suppose X is complete. For each s ∈ R, let ϕs : M −→ N
be the smooth mapping that sends each point x 7−→ γx (s). Clearly, ϕ0 = idM
and ϕs+t = ϕs ◦ ϕt ; ∀s, t ∈ R. Since it has a smooth inverse ϕ−s , each ϕs is a
diffeomorphism. The collection {ϕs : s ∈ R} is called the flow of X.

If X is not complete its flow is still defined locally:

∀x ∈ M, ∃ a neighborhood U of x and ε > 0, such that ∀y ∈ U, γy is


defined at least on (−ε, ε) so that ϕs : U −→ M is well defined with the above
properties. In this case, it is called a local flow.
Remark 1.1.1. We will learn in the next chapter that a vector field on a semi-
Riemannian manifold is Killing if its flow has the property that for each s, ϕs
is not just a diffeomorphism but an isometry. Killing vector fields are extremely
important for the geometry of Kerr black holes.

One-forms
The cotangent space to M at x, is the dual of the tangent space whose elements
are called covectors:

Tx∗ M ≡ (Tx M )∗ ≡ {ωx : Tx M −→ R, ωx linear} (1.1.10)

` The disjoint union of cotangent spaces is called the cotangent bundle, T ∗ M ≡



x Tx M . A section of the cotangent bundle is called a one-form. That is, a
1-form ω is a covector field, i.e., it assigns to each x ∈ M a covector ωx ∈ Tx∗ M .
The space of all 1-forms or covector fields on M , X∗ (M ) is a module over F(M )
under pointwise addition and multiplication by real valued functions on M .

A vector field X ∈ X(M ) and a one form ω ∈ X∗ (M ) combine naturally


to give a real valued function ωX ∈ F(M ). Each function f ∈ F(M ) gives rise
to a 1-form, its differential df . The cotangent space has a basis of coordinate
∂ ∂
one-forms {dx1 , . . . , dxn }, dual to { ∂x 1 , . . . , ∂xn } and each one-form can be ex-
∂ i
pressed as ω = ω( ∂x i )dx . In particular, computing in local coordinates, we

recover the multilinear calculus formula for the total differential of a function:
∂f i
df = ∂x i dx .

Remark 1.1.2. We the following transformation rules under change of local co-
ordinates:

4
∂ ∂y j ∂
= (1.1.11)
∂xi ∂xi ∂y j
∂xi j
dxi = dy (1.1.12)
∂y j

Bundles
A (left) action of a Lie group G on a manifold F : G 1 F , is a smooth map
G × F −→ F, (g, x) 7−→ gx such that

g(h(x)) = gh(x) ; ∀g, h ∈ G and x ∈ F

and with the identity e ∈ G

ex = x ; ∀x ∈ F

For a fixed g ∈ G, the map λg : F −→ F, x 7−→ gx is a differomorphism


with the smooth inverse λg−1 . The action of a Lie group is said to be effective
if
λg = idM =⇒ g = e (1.1.13)
In Kerr applications, the circle group acts effectively on the unit 2-sphere,
S1 1 S 2 by rotation around the z-axis as follows. For α ∈ R, we have

Rα (x, y, z) = (x cos α − y sin α, x sin α + y cos α, z) (1.1.14)

A smooth fiber bundle consists of a smooth map π : E −→ B, a Lie group


acting on a manifold: G 1 F , and a collection Φ of smooth mappings φ such
that

1. Local product condition: Each φ : π −1 (U ) −→ U × F is a diffeomorphism


for some open neighborhood U ⊂ B such that π(φ−1 (b, x)) = b ; ∀x ∈
F and b ∈ U , i.e., the following diagram commutes

π −1 (U )
φ
/ U ×F
tt t
t
tt
tt Proj.
 ty tt
U

2. Overlap condition: If φ, ψ ∈ Φ have intersecting domains U ∩ V in B,


there is a smooth map γ : U ∩ V −→ G such that

φ(b, x) = ψ(b, λγ(b) (x)) ; ∀b ∈ U ∩ V and x ∈ F

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Terminology: π is the projection, E is the total manifold, B is the base, F is the
fiber, G is the structure group and Φ is the set of bundle coordinate systems φ.
For brevity, one often writes

G
,
F /E π /B

That is, Structure group 1 Fiber / Total manifold / Base.


A vector bundle of rank k over M , is a bundle F −→ E −→ M with fiber
F = Rk with the general linear group as the structure group, in which case we
have the local trivialization†

π −1 (U )
Φ / U × Rk
s s
ss
s
ss Proj.
 sy ss
U
and the restriction of Φ to π −1 (x) is the linear isomorphism π −1 (x) ∼
= {x}×Rk ∼
=
k
R . In the case of vector bundles, we usually denote the bundle by E −→ M or
simply by E. For instance, the tangent bundle T M −→ M is a vector bundle
as is the cotangent bundle T ∗ M −→ M .
If there exists a map Φ such that

Φ/
E M × Rk
www
w
π ww
w
 w{ w Proj.
M
then Φ is called a global trivialization and E is said to be a trivial bundle.

1.2 Tensors
The Invariant approach
Let s and r be nonnegative integers, not both zero. A tensor field of type (r, s)
on M is an F-multilinear function

A : X∗ × · · · × X∗ × X × · · · × X −→ F
| {z } | {z }
r s

with the convention that a tensor field of type (0, 0) is just a function f ∈ F.
Thus, for every choice of r covector fields (1-forms) {ω1 , . . . , ωr } and s vector
fields {X1 , . . . , Xs }, A(ω1 , . . . , ωr , X1 , . . . , Xs ) is a real valued function and A
is linear over F in each argument separately. In particular, a function f can be
factored out of each slot.
† Definition

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Let Trs denote the set of all type (r, s) tensor fields on M . Clearly, T01 =
X . Now X is the dual of X∗ , indeed, we have X 3 X : X∗ −→ F such that

X(ω) = ω(X) , ∀ω. So we also have T10 u X. Only tensors of the same type
can be added but arbitrary tensors can be multiplied using the tensor product.
For example, if A is of type (1, 1) and B is of type (2, 3) the A ⊗ B is given by

(A ⊗ B)(θ, ω, X, Y, Z) = A(θ, X)B(ω, Y, Z) (1.2.1)


for all covector fields θ, ω and vector fields X, Y, Z on M .
The tensor product is F-bilinear and associative but may not be commuta-
tive. However, if A is covariant, that is, of type (0, s) and B is contravariant,
that is, of type (r, 0), then A and B commute.

The Classical approach


Let {x1 , . . . , xn } be local coordinates for a chart on a neighborhood U ⊂ M .
Then, on U , the components of A ∈ Trs are the real valued functions computed
as follows:
∂ ∂
Aij11,...,ir i1 ir
,...,js = A(dx , . . . , dx , j
, . . . , js ) (1.2.2)
∂x 1 ∂x
The superscripts are contravariant indices and the subscripts are covariant in-
dices. The operations given in the previous section can be easily computed in
local coordinates. For example, if A is a tensor field of type (1, 1) and we are

given ω = ωi dxi and X = X i ∂x i then

A(ω, X) = Aij ωi X j (1.2.3)

where we have applied the Einstein


P summation convention to multi-indices for
the first time and supressed i,j . The components of a sum of (r, s) tensors are
the sum of components. The components of a tensor product are the product
of the components in tensorial sense: if A is of type (1, 1) and B is type (1, 2)
then A ⊗ B has components:

(A ⊗ B)ij i j
k`m = Ak B`m (1.2.4)

Remark 1.2.1. Its useful to define tensors invariantly, since then we don’t have
to check that they are well defined. But they are more explicit and easier to
compute in local coordinates. Also, there is the built in error detection feature
called index balance: that the same unsummed subscripts and superscripts must
appear on each side of a tensor equation.

Frame Fields
A frame field {E1 , . . . , En }, is an alternative basis for the tangent space Tx M
for each x ∈ U ⊂ M , where each basis element can be expressed in terms of the
∂ ∂
coordinate frame { ∂x 1 , . . . , ∂xn } as follows

7

Ei = Eij (1.2.5)
∂xj
The coframe field consists of the dual 1-forms {ω 1 , . . . , ω n } defined implicitly
by

ω i (Ej ) = δ i j (1.2.6)
For any vector field X, we have the following duality formula

X = ω i (X)Ei (1.2.7)
The components of a tensor field can be expressed relative to a frame field,
replacing the coordinate frames in (16) by the new basis vectors. One advantage
of using generalized frame fields is that we can often define them over larger
domains. For instance, these is a globally defined frame field on a torus while a
minimum of 4 charts are required to construct an atlas.
Change of coordinates is replaced by change of frame fields. Given a frame
field {Ei } with dual {ω i } and a new frame field {Fj } with dual {θj } on the
same domain U . There are unique n × n-matrix valued functions a, b on U such
that

Fj = akj Ek and θi = bim ω m (1.2.8)


By duality

bik akj = δji (1.2.9)


Note that in the special case of coordinate frames, a and b are just the Jacobian
∂y i ∂xi
matrices ∂x j and ∂y j . Akin to the coordinate frames case, we have a tensor

transformation rule for change of frame fields that determines a unique tensor
in the new frame field. For example, if A is a (1, 1) tensor with components Aij
relative to {Ei }, then its components in the new frame field {Fi } are given by

A(θi , Fj ) = A(bi` ω ` , akj Ek ) = bi` akj A`k (1.2.10)


Clearly, the tensor A is independent of the choice of frame field.

Contraction
This is a generalization of the concept of the trace of a linear operator to tensors.
For a choice of a contravariant index and a covariant index of the components
of A, take the trace. For example, is A is of type (2, 3) then choosing the
first contravariant superscript index and the second covariantsubscript index, the
resulting tensor C21 A has components A`i j`k and is called a contraction of A. In
general, contraction reduces type from (r, s) to (r − 1, s − 1).

8
Tensors at a point
Let x ∈ M . Then an (r, s) tensor at the point x ∈ M is an R-multilinear
function

A : Tx∗ (M ) × · · · × Tx∗ (M ) × Tx (M ) × · · · × Tx (M ) −→ R (1.2.11)


| {z } | {z }
r s

A tensor field on M determines at each point x ∈ M , a tensor Ax called its


value at x.
One can further replace, Tx (M ) by an finite dimensional real vector space V
and Tx∗ (M ) by V ∗ and define (r, s) tensors as before. In these terms, an inner
product g on V is a symmetric, positive definite (0, 2) tensor on V . g is scalar
product if, instead of positive definiteness we just require it to be nondegenerate:
g(v, w) = 0 , ∀w ∈ V =⇒ v = 0.

1.3 Differential Geometry


Metric Tensors
A metric tensor on a manifold M is a smooth covariant (0, 2) tensor that
assigns to each point on the manifold, a scalar product on the tangent space,
M 3 x 7−→ gx ∈ Tx M . Then (M, g) is called a semi-Riemannian manifold. For
vector fields V, W on M , g(V, W ) is a real valued function, sometimes denoted
by hV, W i.
If g is positive definite (the scaler products gx are inner products), then g
is a Riemannian metric and (M, g) is a Riemannian manifold. If each gx is a
Lorentz scaler product (see section 1.5), then g is a Lorentz metric and (M, g)
is called a Lorentz manifold.
On a chart U with local coordinates {x1 , . . . , xn }, the components of the
metric tensor are
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
gij = g( i
, j
)=h i
, i (1.3.1)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂xj

Hence, we can write g = gij dxi ⊗ dxj . The metric tensor is often replaced by
the line element ds2 ≡ q, which assigns to each point x the associated quadratic
form qx of gx . So the value of ds2 on a vector field V is g(V, V ) = hV, V i. The
metric tensor can be obtained from the line element by polarization. Locally,
we can express the line element as

ds2 = gij dxi dxj (1.3.2)


Indeed, given a vector field V , we have

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ds2 (V ) = hV, V i
∂ ∂
= hV i ,V j i
∂xi ∂xj
∂ ∂
= V iV j h , i
∂xi ∂xj
i j
= gij V V
= gij dxi (V )dxj (V )
= (gij dxi dxj )(V )

Key Examples
For 0 ≤ ν ≤ n, let Rnν be the manifold Rn furnished with the line element
ds2 = εi (dxi )2 , where 
−1 , ∀i ≤ ν
ε=
+1 , ∀i > ν
Rnν is called a semi-Euclidean n-space of index ν. When ν = 0 this is just or-
dinary Euclidean space, which is obviously a Riemannian manifold. And when
ν = 1 and n ≥ 2, it is Minkowski n-space, a Lorentz manifold.

The standard metric on Rn is denoted by gstd . The pullback of gstd un-


der the local coordinate maps endows every smooth manifold with a cannonical
Riemannian metric also denoted by gstd . Locally, this is clear. One only needs
to check for the consistency on the overlap to demonstrate this very important
existence result.

Isometries
A diffeomorphism φ : M −→ N of semi-Riemannian manifolds is an isometry if
it is preserves scarlar products:

hdφ(v), dφ(w)i = hv, wi for all tangent vectors v, w ∈ M (1.3.3)

Then M and N are isometric and are geometrically indistinguishable. Suppose


ds2N = g̃ij dy i dy j on V ⊂ N and ds2M = gij dxi dxj on U ⊂ M . Then, we have
the following useful criterion in terms of local coordinates.

The mapping φ : U −→ V is an isometry on U if ds2N pulls back to ds2M :

φ∗ (ds2N ) = ds2M (1.3.4)

10
The Levi-Civita Connection
1.3.1 The Fundamental Theorem of semi-Riemannian Geometry. On
a semi-Riemannian manifold there exists a unique function ∇ : X × X −→ X
such that

1. ∇V (W ) is F-linear in V

2. ∇V (W ) is R-linear in W

3. ∇V (f W ) = V [f ]W + f ∇V (W ) ;∀f ∈ F

4. [V, W ] = ∇V (W ) − ∇W (V )

5. XhV, W i = h∇X V, W i + hV, ∇X W i

∇ is called the Levi-Civita connection of M . For vector fields V and W ,


∇V (W ) is the covariant derivative of W with respect to V .

In local coordinates, ∇ is described by Christoffel symbols, real-valued func-


tions Γkij such that ∇ ∂ i = Γkij ∂x∂ k for all i, j. Then,
∂x

1 `k ∂g i` ∂g ij ∂g j`
 
k
Γij = g − + (1.3.5)
2 ∂xj ∂xl ∂xi
For a curve γ in M with γ̇ 6= 0 and a vector field Y , the covariant derivative
of Y along γ is defined by Y 0 = ∇γ̇ Y which can be written locally as
 k
dY i dxj ∂

DY dY
≡Y0 = + Γkij (1.3.6)
dt ds ds ds ∂xk
where in a slight abuse of notation we have written xi in place of xi ◦ γ.

If Y 0 = 0, the vector field is said to be parallel for parameter values s


and t, Y (t) is said to be obtained by parallel transport along γ. The tangent γ̇
of γ is a vector field on γ, and the covariant derivative of γ̇ is the acceleration
γ̈ ≡ Ddtγ̇ ≡ ∇γ̇ γ̇ of the curve.

Geodesics
A curve γ is a geodesic if its acceleration is zero: ∇γ̇ γ̇ = 0. Straight lines
in Euclidean space generalize to geodesics. In local coordinates, a geodesic is
charaterized by the geodesic equations:

x¨k + Γkij ẋi x˙j = 0 for all k = 1, . . . , n (1.3.7)

11
Where we write xi for xi ◦ γ and supress the argument for γ(·). One uses
standard results from ODE theory to obtain the following result.
1.3.2 Local Existence and Uniqueness for Geodesics. Given a point x ∈
M and a tangent vector X ∈ Tx M , there exists a unique geodesic γ : I −→ M
passing through x with tangent vector X.
If every geodesic can be extended over the entire real line R then M is said
to be geodesically complete. A reprametrization β(s) = γ(h(s)) of a geodesic γ
is a also a geodesic only if it is affine, i.e., h(s) = as + b. A pregeodesic is a
curve that admits a reparametrization as a geodesic.

Here is a useful reformulation of the geodesic equations. Let L : T M −→ R


be a smooth function on the tangent bundle. A curve γ on M is extremal for L
if there is an atlas for T M such that the Euler-Lagrange equations hold:
" #
d ∂L ∂L
(γ̇) = , ∀i = 1, . . . , n (1.3.8)
ds ∂ ẋi ∂xi

For a semi-Riemannian manifold M , let L : T M −→ R, ν 7−→ 12 hν, νi.


In local coordinates, L = 12 gij (x1 , . . . , xn )ẋi x˙j . The resulting Euler-Lagrange
equations are
d  1 ∂gij ˙
gkl ẋl = ẋi xj , ∀k = 1, . . . , n (1.3.9)
ds 2 ∂xk
These equations are equivalent to the geodesic equations. This formulation
will be extremely useful in computing geodesics in Kerr spacetimes.

Type-changing
On a semi-Riemannian manifold, the metric tensor can be used to change any
tensor of type (r, s) to that of type (r0 , s0 ) with r +s = r0 +s0 . They are regarded
as being equivalent. It suffices to show how to change a tensor of type (r, s) to
that of type (r − 1, s + 1) and (r + 1, s − 1). Let A be a (r, s) tensor field with
components
Aij11,...,i r
,...,js

relative to a frame field {Ei }. We change A to type (r − 1, s + 1) by lowering


an index to obtain the components for the new tensor as follows:

Aji11,...,ν̂,...,i r i1 ,...,ε,...,ir
,...,ν,...,js = gνε Aj1 ,.........,js (1.3.10)

for a choice of contravariant index ν ∈ {i1 , . . . , ir }, where gνε ≡ hEν , Eε i are


the components of the metric tensor relative to the frame field. Similarly, we
change A to type (r + 1, s − 1) by raising an index

Aji11,...,ν,...,i r νε i1 ,.........,ir
,...,ν̂,...,js = g Aj1 ,...,ε,...,js (1.3.11)

where g νε is the inverse of the matrix gνε .

12
Lemma 1.3.1. Let {Ei } be an othonormal frame field, so gij = δ i j εj , with
εj = ±1. The effect of raising or lowering an index i on the components of a
tensor is just multiplication by εi .
On a semi-Riemannian manifold, the contraction operation can be extended
to two indices of the same variance. One needs only to raise or lower one of
them and use the natural contraction.

Curvature
The Riemannian curvature tensor of a semi-Riemannian manifold M is the
function R : X × X × X −→ X given by

RXY Z = ∇X (∇Y Z) − ∇Y (∇X Z) − ∇[X,Y ] Z (1.3.12)


If the Lie bracket of vector fields X and Y is zero then the Riemannian curvature
tensor measures the failure of ∇X and ∇Y to commute.

1.3.3 Symmetries of the curvature tensor. For all vector fields X, Y, Z, W


1. RXY Z = −RY X Z

2. hRXY Z, W i = −hRXY W, Zi

3. RXY Z + RY Z X + RZX Y = 0

4. hRXY Z, W i = hRZW X, Y i

In terms of the frame field {Ei }, the components of the curvature tensor are
i
Rjk` = ω i (REk E` Ej ) (1.3.13)
Using the duality formula X = ω i (X)Ei one obtains
 ∂  ∂
i
R ∂k ∂ ` j
= Rjk` i
(1.3.14)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
Due to the symmetries of the curvature tensor, it has only one nonzero
contraction modulo the sign called the Ricci curvature tensor denoted by Ric.
By convention, the sign is specified by the following lemma:
Lemma 1.3.2. In terms of an arbitrary frame field, the components of Ric are
k
Rij = Ric(Ei , Ej ) = Rikj (1.3.15)

In the orthonormal case, Ric(X, Y ) = εk hRXEk Ek , Y i.

13
Further contracting Ric one obtains the scaler curvature S = g ij Rij . The
sectional curvature K, a real valued function on the set of all 2-planes Π tangent
to M is defined as follows. For a basis {X, Y } of Π, we have

−hRXY X, Y i
K(Π) = (1.3.16)
hX, XihX, Xi − hX, Y i2
If S is a surface and x ∈ S, the sectional curvature K is just the classical
Gaussian curvature of S at x.

The Riemannian curvature tensor R has the following symmetry properties with
the covariant derivative:

(∇ξ R)XY Z = ∇ξ (RXY Z) − R∇ξ (X)Y Z − RX∇ξ (Y ) Z − RXY ∇ξ (Z) (1.3.17)


and the Bianchi curvature identities

(∇X R)Y Z + (∇Y R)ZX + (∇Z R)XY = 0 (1.3.18)


The various forms of curvature are geometric invariants, i.e., they are preserved
by isometries.

Killing Vector Fields


Let X be a vector field on a semi-Riemannian manifold M with flow {ϕs }. If
each ϕs is not just a diffeomorphism but an isometry then X is called a Killing
vector field or sometimes an infinitisimal isometry.
1.3.4 Proposition. The following are equivalent:
1. X is a Killing vector field

2. XhY, Zi = h[X, Y ], Zi + hY, [X, Z]i

3. h∇Y X, Zi = −h∇Z X, Y i

We have the following important conservation lemma:


Lemma 1.3.3. If X is a Killing vector field on M and γ is a geodesic, then
the scalar product hX, γ̇i is constant along γ.
d
Proof. Since γ̈ = 0, ds hX, γ̇i = h∇γ̇ X, γ̇i = 0 by part 3 of the previous proposi-
tion.
If M is connected, then any isometry ϕ of M is completely determined by
its differential map dϕx at a single point x ∈ M . So a Killing vector field is
completely determined by its values on a arbitrarily small neighborhood of a
single point.

14
1.4 Extending Manifolds
Coordinate Extension
Let U be a semi-Riemannian manifold that we want to extend. Find a diffeo-
morphism φ : U −→ V ⊂ M a smooth or analytic manifold. Choose a metric
g0 on V that makes φ an isometry. Extend the tensor field g0 to a larger set
W ⊃ V such that g|V = g0 and g is still a metric tensor on W .

Let (U, ξ) be a coordinate chart with local coordinates {x1 , . . . , xn } and


let gij be the components of a metric tensor g on U . So ξ is a diffeomorphism of
U onto its image ξ(U ) ⊂ Rn . Assign ξ(U ) the metric that makes ξ an isometry.
The components gij have the same expressions as before but with {x1 , . . . , xn }
now considered as the natural Cartesian coordinates of Rn . Now it we may
be able to extend the functions gij to an open set containing ξ(U ) and in the
analytic case such extensions are unique.

Gluing Topological Spaces


Given two semi-Riemannian manifolds M and N , together with an isometry µ
from U ⊂ M to V ⊂ N . There is a natural way to glue them together along
U ≈ V producing a new manifold Q. We call {M, N, µ} the gluing data and µ
the matching map.
Consider M and N as topological spaces. Define on M t N , the equivalence
relation ∼ defined by

x ∼ y ! [x = y or x = µ(y) or y = µ(x)]
Then Q = M tµ N ≡ M t N/ ∼. The natural injections ı : M ,→ Q and
 : N ,→ Q combine to give the natural projection π : M t N  Q for a quo-
tient space. In particular, a subset S ⊂ Q is open ⇐⇒ both ı−1 (S) ⊂ M and
−1 (S) ⊂ N are open. Equivalently, a map ϕ : Q −→ X is continuous ⇐⇒
both ϕ ◦ ı and ϕ ◦  are continuous.
The natural injections ı and  are homeomorphisms onto their respective
images. If ϕM : M −→ P and ϕN : N −→ P agree on M ∩ N then they define
well a map ϕ : Q −→ P . And if ϕM and ϕN are continuous, and suppose
ϕ|M = ϕM and ϕ|M = ϕM , then ϕ is continous as well.
Note that even if M and N are Hausdorff, Q need not be. As a counterex-
ample, consider M = N = R and U = V = {t : t < 0} with µ the identity map.
We say that the gluing data {M, N, µ : U −→ V } safisfies the Hausdorff
condition if there does not exist any sequence {xn } in U such that both

lim xn ∈ M − U and lim µ(xn ) ∈ N − V

If the gluing data satisfies the Hausdorff condition and if M and N are Hausdorff,
then so is Q.

15
Gluing Semi-Riemannian Manifolds
For smooth manifolds it suffices to assign Q the atlas consisting of all charts
of M ≈ ı(M ) and N ≈ (N ). Its straightforward to check that they agree on
the overlaps and the transition maps are smooth. Moreover, the same holds for
analytic manifolds as well.
Furthermore, on semi-Riemannian manifolds with the matching map an
isometry the metric tensors agree on M ∩ N and hence we obtain a metric
tensor on Q. We will use this such extensions often in the construction of
maximal extensions of Kerr spacetimes.

1.5 Lorentz Vector Spaces


Let V be a vector space over the reals of dimension n. A scalar product g on V is
a symmetric, nondegenerate bilinear form on V . Vectors v and w are orthogonal
if g(v, w) ≡ hv, wi = 0 and we write v ⊥ w. g is nondegenerate asserts that zero
is the only vector orthogonal to all the vectors, i.e., v ⊥ V =⇒ v = 0. A useful
criterion for nondegeneracy is that one, and hence every, basis {v1 , . . . , vn } for
V the matrix gij = g(vi , vj ) is invertible.

(V, g) is called a scalar product space. If g is positive definite, it is an inner


product and V is then called an inner product space. The norm is defined as
1
|v| ≡ |hv, vi| 2 . If |u| = 1 then u is called a unit vector and a set of orthogonal
unit vectors is called orthonormal. Every scalar product space has an orthonor-
mal basis. Indeed, any orthonormal set can be enlarged to an orthonormal basis.

Associated to an orthonormal basis {e1 , . . . , en } are n numbers εi = ± such


that hei , ej i = δ i j εj . Modulo the order, every orthonormal set has the same
signs. (ε1 , . . . , εn ) is called the signature of V , usually listing the negative signs
first. The number ν of negative signs is called the index of V .

A Lorentz vector space is a scalar product space of dimension n ≥ 2 with


index ν = 1. A vector v in a Lorentz vector space V is

¶ spacelike if hv, vi > 0 or v = 0


¶ timelike if hv, vi < 0 and v 6= 0
¶ null if hv, vi = 0

The type that a vector falls into is called its causal character. A vector or-
thogonal to a timelike vector z is spacelike. Thus, z ⊥ is an inner product space
and V = Rz ⊕ z ⊥ . For v ∈ V , writing v = au + x for a timelike vector u and a
spacelike vector x we obtain

hv, vi = −a2 + |x|2 (1.5.1)

Since a cone is a subset closed under multiplication by positive scalars, the set
Λ of all null vectors of V is called the nullcone.

16
The nullcone Λ has two components Λ+ and Λ− with Λ− = −Λ+ . Each
component is a cone diffeomorphic to R+ × S n−2 . Λ+ and Λ− are also called
nullcones and there is no invariant way to distinguish between them. For n ≥ 3,
S n−2 is connected, hence the disjoint sets Λ+ and Λ− are actually the connected
components of the nullcone. Since S 0 = {±1} when n = 2, Λ+ and Λ− are not
connected.
The set I of all timelike vectors in V is called the timecone. It has two compo-
nents I + and I − . Each is an open convex cone with I − = −I + . The boundary
of the timecone is the nullcone along with the zero vector: I ± = Λ± ∪ {0}.
Two timelike vectors z and w are in the same timecone ⇐⇒ hz, wi < 0. A
vector that is not spacelike is called causal. A subspace W of V is

¶ spacelike if g|W is positive definite


¶ timelike if g|W is nondegenerate and has index 1
¶ null if g|W is degenerate

and its type is called the causal character of W . Note that {0} is spacelike.
W is spacelike ⇐⇒ it is an inner product space. For n ≥ 2, W is timelike
⇐⇒ W is a Lorentz vector space. In a Lorentz vector space, orthogonal null
vectors are collinear.
Let W be a null subspace of V . Then, there is a nonzero vector d ∈ W ,
unique upto multiplication by nonzero scalars, such that d ⊥ W . In particular,
d is null. Moreover, every vector in W −Rd is spacelike. For a spacelike subspace
W , extending an orthonormal basis to one for V shows that W ⊥ is timelike and
vice-versa so that V = W ⊕ W ⊥ . It follows that W is null =⇒ W ⊥ is null as
well.

1.6 General Relativity


Let S be a 3-dimensional Riemannian manifold called Space. A particle in space
is a curve γ : I −→ S where we think of t ∈ I as the time parameter. The classic
Newtonian case is a mass m located at the origin in S = R3 , and particles of
various masses m  m move in S according to Newton’s laws of motion and
the gravitational law.
Now consider the Riemannian manifold S × R with R as the time axis. Call
this manifold spacetime. Each point (x, t) is called an event. A particle is a
curve t 7−→ (γ(x), t) in spacetime. Now replace the Riemannian line element
dσ 2 + dt2 by the Lorentz line element dσ 2 − dt2 . With S = R3 and setting m
= 0 gives us Minkowski spacetime. A particle moving solely under the influence
of the central mass is said to be free falling. The key idea of relativity is that
freely falling particles are geodesics in spacetime.

Spacetimes
Let M be a Lorentz manifold, whose points are called events. We time-orient
M by selecting continuously, for the tangent space Tx M at each point x ∈ M

17
one of two components of the timecone I calling it the future timecone or simply
the futurecone. The others are called past timecones.

So, a spacetime † is a connected time-oriented 4-dimensional Lorentz manifold.


A timelike tangent vector is z is future-pointing if it is in a future timecone,
otherwise its past-pointing. A nullcone in the boundary of each future timecone
is a future nullcone, and its vectors are future-pointing. A non-spacelike curve
or vector field is future-pointing if all its tangent vectors are future-pointing.

Einstein’s insight was that physical invariants of gravitational fields are pre-
cisely the geometric invariants of spacetime. Therefore, no concepts expressed
in terms of coordinates are of physical significance unless they are independent
of the coordinate descriptions.

Particles
A material particle α in a spacetime M is a future-pointing, timelike curve.
The proper time τ of α is its arc-length function, and its mass is m = |α̇| > 0.
Light or electromagnetic radiation has a special place is relativity. A photon
or lightlike particle γ in a spacetime M is a future-pointing null geodesic. A
lightlike particle has no proper time since |γ̇| = 0. A material particle is freely
falling if it is a geodesic. Moreover, it has a constant mass m since, for a geodesic
hα̇, α̇i = −m2 is constant.
d
The tangent vector γ̇ = ds α of a material particle is called energy-momentum
4-vector and denoted by p. Reparametrizing α by its proper time τ and denoting
it by α̃ we have
dα dα̃ dα dτ
p= =m since m= =

ds ds ds ds
The unit vector ddsα̃ is called the 4-velocity of the particle. In an abuse of notation
we often write just α for α̃ when the parametrization is clear from the context.
For a lightlike particle γ, the energy-momentum 4-vector is just p = γ̇.

Curvature
In special relativity, the curvature vanishes and spacetime is flat. A vaccum
spacetime has no sources of gravity, which is equivalent, via Einstein’s equation,
to the vanishing of Ricci curvature. Such a spacetime is called Ricci flat. Thus,
a model of gravitational field of a single star must be Ricci flat away from the
source of gravity. Of course, the Riemannian curvature need not be zero. When
Ricci curvature does not vanish, it describes the motion of the source of gravity.
Such models are useful in cosmology.
† Henceforth, this will serve as the definition for spacetime.

18
Stationary Observers
An observer in spacetime is simply a material particle parametrized by proper
time. Observers can send and receive messages and keep track of their proper
time. In special relativity, a freely falling observer can impose his proper time
and space on the entire Minkowski spacetime but in general relativity, we need
an entire family of observers to get analogous results.
A observer field U on a spacetime M is a future-pointing unit vector field.
Each integral curve of U is an observer called a U-observer. An observer field
U is stationary if there exists a smooth function f > 0 on M such that f U is a
Killing vector field. If U is also hypersurface orthogonal, i.e. U ⊥ is integrable,
then U is static.
A spacetime is absolutely stationary if it has a unique stationary observer
field, in which case the U -observers are said to be at rest. If U is static, the
integral manifolds of U ⊥ are 3-dimensional spacelike, submanifolds that are iso-
metric under the flow, and hence constitute a common space for the U -observers.
The gravitational field outside a single star is stationary if the physical prop-
erties of the star are not changing. It it is also not rotating, the spacetime is
static.
Suppose we have local coordinates ξ = (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ), where the coordinate
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
vector field ∂x 0 is timelike future-pointing and span{ ∂x1 , ∂x2 , ∂x3 } is spacelike.
0
Then, the coordinate slices {x = constant} are 3-dimensional Riemannian man-
ifolds. Moreover, we have the following

Lemma 1.6.1. If (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) are local coordinates such that ∂x 0 is timelike
∂gij
future-pointing and suppose ∂x0 = 0 for all i, j. Then, the observer field U =
∂ ∂
∂x0 /| ∂x0 | is stationary. Conversely, for a stationary U such a coordinate system
can be found at every point. If in addition g0i = 0 for i > 0, then the observer
field U is static and conversely.
∂g ∂ ∂
Proof. ∂xij0 = 0 for all i, j =⇒ ∂x 0 is a Killing vector field. Then, f U = ∂x0

with f = | ∂x0 |. Conversely, let f > 0 be a function such that f U is Killing. Since
f U is nonvanishing, at each point there is a coordinate system (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 )
∂ ∂ ∂gij
such that ∂x 0 = f U . But ∂x0 Killing =⇒ ∂x0 = 0 for all i, j.

Instantaneous Observers
An instantaneous observer at an event p ∈ M , is a future pointing timelike
unit vector u ∈ Tp M . u has the instantaneous information common to every
ordinary observer α whose 4-velocity is u as it passes through p. In particular,
u knows Tp M ∼ = Ru ⊕ u⊥ ∼ = Ru ⊕ R3 . There is a natural way for u to measure
the speed of any particle as it passes through p at proper time τ0 . If α is a
material particle, then α̇(τ0 ) = au + x, where x ∈ u⊥ . Note that a is the
instantaneous rate at which u’s time, t, is increasing relative to α’s time τ , so
we write a = dt/dτ . Similarly, |x| is the rate at which the arc length σ in u⊥
is increasing relative to τ , so |v| = dσ/dτ . Thus, u measures the speed of α at
event p as

19
dσ dσ/dτ |x|
= = <1 (1.6.1)
sτ dτ /dt a
Where the last inquality holds since
α is timelike =⇒ 0 > hα̇, α̇i|p = −a2 + |x|2 .
For a lightlike particle γ, since γ̇ is null we have 0 = hγ̇, γ̇i = −a2 + |x|2 , and
therefore dσ/ds = 1. So instantaneous observers always measure the speed of
light to be c = 1.
Now let u and v be two instantaneous observers at an event p ∈ M . u writes
u = 1 · u + 0 and dσ/ds = 0 so he is at rest. Then writing v = a · u + x he
concludes that v is moving since u 6= v =⇒ x 6= 0. But v writes v = 1 · v + 0
and u = b · v + y, concluding that he is at rest and it is u that is moving. Now
a = dtu /dtv , but −1 = hu, vi = −a2 + |x|2 so a = (1 + |x|2 )1/2 > 1. So according
to u, his time runs faster than v’s. Since u sees himself at rest and v moving,
he claims: Moving clocks run slower. v measures dtv /dtu > 1, so his time runs
faster than u’s, but he agrees with the slogan. Their disagreements derive from
their different decompositions of Tp M into space and time.

Special Relativity
Special relativity is general relativity of a spacetime isometric to Minkowski
spacetime R41 , where the subscript denotes the index. For an arbitrary spacetime
M , special relativity obtains in each tangent space Tp M ≈ R41 .
Let α be a material particle with energy momentum vector p = dα/ds =
m dα/dτ , and u be an infinitisimal observer at some event p = α(τ0 ). Let ᾱ be
the projection of α onto the space u⊥ .
Tp M = Ru + u⊥ =⇒ α(τ ) = t(τ )u + ᾱ(τ )
where t is the observers time and τ is the proper time of the particle. Hence,
dα dt dᾱ
= u+
dτ dτ dτ
and since this is a timelike unit vector we get
 dt 2 dᾱ 2
−1 = − +

dτ dτ
Now v = |dᾱ/dt| = dσ/dt is the Newtonian speed of α as measured by u and
by chain rule |dᾱ/dτ | = v dt/dτ . Thus, dt/dτ = (1 − v 2 )−1/2 . Consequently,
dα m m dᾱ
p=m =√ u+ √
dτ 1−v 2 1 − v dt
2

In the binomial expansion


E = m(1 − v 2 )−1/2 = m + 12 mv 2 + O(v 4 )
the second term 12 mv 2 is kinetic energy, and Einstein declared this scalar E
to be the energy of the particle measured by u, with rest mass m = E|v=0 as
merely one form of energy. This is the famous formula E = mc2 .

20
1.7 Submanifolds
Smooth Submanifolds
A manifold P is a submanifold of a manifold M if it is a topological subspace†
with a smooth inclusion map  : P ,→ M whose push-forward, ∗ is one-to-
one. If P has dimension one less than M it is called a hypersurface. We say
that submanifold is closed if it is a closed set of M . Every smooth manifold
is diffeomorphic to a submanifold of some Euclidean space. The following is a
useful way to get submanifolds:
Lemma 1.7.1. Let f be a smooth real valued function on M . If the push-
forward f∗ = df is nonvanishing on a level set {f = const}, then the level set
is a closed hypersurface of M .
As an example, consider the function f (x) = i (xi )2 on Rn . For r > 0, the
P
level set {f = r} is a closed hypersurface, the (n − 1)-sphere of radius r.
Remark 1.7.1. Let S 2 be the unit sphere in R3 . Let ϑ denote colatitude and ϕ
longitude. We treat ϕ as circular so that the coordinate system ϑ, ϕ covers all
of the sphere except the poles (0, 0, ±1). ϕ is undefined at the poles, but its

coordinate vector field ∂ϕ is well defined and smooth on the entire sphere and
is zero at the poles. Defining ϑ(0, 0, +1) = 0 and ϑ(0, 0, −1) = π extends ϑ to
the entire sphere, with 0 ≤ ϑ ≤ π. At the poles, ϑ is only continuous but sin ϑ
and cos ϑ are analytic on all of S 2 .

Foliations
A distribution Π of dimension k on a smooth manifold M is a smooth field of
k-planes on M . That is, Π assigns to each point p ∈ M a k-dimensional sub-
space Πp of Tp M , and locally Π has a basis of k smooth vector fields.
Thus, a distribution Π is a subbundle of the tangent bundle T M . A subman-
ifold P of M such that Tp P = Πp for all p ∈ P is called an integral submanifold
of Π. If there is an integral manifold of Π through every point x ∈ M , then Π
is said to be integrable.
A vector field V is said to be in a distribution Π if Vp ∈ Πp for all p ∈ M ,
i.e., if it is a section of the subbundle Π.
1.7.1 Frobenius’ Theorem. A distribution

Π on M is integrable ⇐⇒ {X, Y ∈ Π =⇒ [X, Y ] ∈ Π} (1.7.1)

Through each point of M there is a unique largest connected integral mani-


fold of Π. The collection of all such maximal integral manifolds on Π is called
a foliation of dimension k = dim(Π). For example, on Rn − 0 the spheres
{f = r}r>0 constitute a (n − 1)-dimensional foilation, with Π consisting of their
tangent spaces.
† So it has the relative topology.

21
Every one-dimensional distribution is integrable since the bracket condition
is trivial. Such foliations are called congruences. Every nonvanishing vector field
determines a unique congruence on the manifold. For a given one dimensional
distribution Π, such a vector field need not exist; if it does, Π is said to be
orientable. Then Π supplies a direction at each point p ∈ M , i.e., an oriented
tangent line Πp ∈ Tp M .

Hypersurfaces
If a curve α meets a hypersurface S at α(s0 ) ∈ S the meeting is transverse if
α̇(s0 ) is not tangent to S. For a closed hypersurface S in M , a neighborhood N
of S is tubular if there is a line bundle π : E −→ S over S and a diffeomorphism
φ : E −→ N such that φ(0p ) = p, ∀p ∈ S. Then, N is foliated by curves that
cut transversally across S.

A hypersurface is said to be two-sided if there exists a continuous vector


field Z of M on S such that Z is never tangent to S, and is therefore nowhere
vanishing. Let N be a tubular neighborhood of S. Suppose S is two sided,
then, N − S has two connected components. Otherwise, S is called one-sided
and N − S is connected. A closed hypersurface S in M separates M if M − S
is not connected.
Lemma 1.7.2. Let S be a closed connected hypersurface of M. If S is two-sided,
then, M − S has at most two components. On the hand, if S is one-sided then
M − S is connected.

Submanifolds of Lorentz Manifolds


A submanifold P of M is spacelike, timelike or null provided each tangent space
Tx P of P is spacelike, timelike or null respectively, as a vector subspace of Tx M .
A spacelike submanifold is intrinsically a Riemannian manifold and a timelike
one is a Lorentz manifold. On the other hand, for a null submanifold P , the
restriction of g to P is degenerate, so there is not much to say about this case
even though they show up all the time in GR.

A submanifold N is nontimelike if it has no timelike tangent vectors. If a


timelike curve α meets N then it must cut transversally. Now, every nontimelike
hypersurface S is two-sided, for being time orientable, M admits a globally
defined timelike vector field Z that cannot be tangent to S.

Proposition 1.7.2. Let S be a closed connected nontimelike hypersurface in a


spacetime M. If N is a tubular neighborhood of S, then the two components of
N − S can be denoted by N + and N − in such a way that any future-pointing
timelike curve α with α(s0 ) ∈ S crosses S transversally from N − to N + .
Corollary 1.7.3. Let S be a closed connected nontimelike hypersurface in a
spacetime M. If S separates M, then M − S has exactly two components and

22
these can be denoted C + and C − so that any future pointing timelike curve α
that meets S tranversally crosses S from C − to C + .
A nonvanishing vector field X is hypersurface-orthogonal if X ⊥ is integrable.
Then its integral manifolds are hypersurface normal to X. For example, the

radial vector field X = xi ∂x n
i in R − 0 has this property since X is everywhere

orthogonal to the spheres {x : |x| = const}.

Totally Geodesic Submanifolds


A submanifold P of a semi-Riemannian manifold M is totally geodesic if vector
fields X, Y are tangent to P , then the covariant derivative ∇X Y is also tangent
to P . Examples are hyperplanes in Rn and great spheres in S n .
Proposition 1.7.4. Let P be a totally geodesic submanifold of M. If a geodesic
γ of M meets P at a point γ(s0 ) where γ̇(s0 ) is tangent to P, then γ(s) remains
in P for s near s0 .
Of course, γ need not be contained in P globally. However, if the submanifold
is closed there is no escape:
Corollary 1.7.5. If a geodesic γ : I −→ M is tangent to a closed, totally
geodesic submanifold P at a single point of I, then γ lies entirely in P.
The following is a prime source for closed, totally geodesic submanifolds.
Theorem 1.7.6. The following two are always closed, totally geodesic subman-
ifolds of M :
1. The set of fixed points of an isometry φ : M −→ M .

2. The set of zeros of a Killing vector field.


Remark 1.7.2. A connected, totally geodesic submanifold of a Lorentz manifold
has causal character since parallel transport preserves character.
Remark 1.7.3. The failure of a submanifold to be totally geodesic can be mea-
sured by its shape tensor or the second fundamental form S. For X, Y ∈ X(M )
tangent to P , define S(X, Y ) = nor∇X Y , the component normal to P † .
Consequently,
P is totally geodesic ⇐⇒ S = 0

1.8 Cartan Computations


Let {E1 , . . . , En } be an orthonormal frame field on an open neighborhood of
a semi-Riemannian manifold M , with orthonormal coframe field {ω 1 , . . . , ω n }.
Such coframe fields can be directly recognized from the line element ds2 as
follows.
† It is easy to check that S is a tensor, i.e., it is well defined and F(P )-bilinear.

23
Lemma 1.8.1. One forms {ω 1 , . . . , ω n } are a coframe field on M and {ε1 , . . . , εn }
is the signature of M if and only if

ds2 = εi (ω i )2 (1.8.1)

The connection forms for a frame field {E1 , . . . , En } are the one-forms
{ω i j }{1≤i,j≤n} such that for all tangent vectors Xx

ω i j (X) = ω i (∇X Ej ) , ∀i, j (1.8.2)


Hence, by the duality formula

∇X Ej = ω ` j E` (1.8.3)
In the Cartan approach, connection forms replace Christoffel symbols. The
matrix (ω i j (X)) tells us how the frame is changing in the direction X.
Lemma: The First Structural Equation 1.8.2.

dω i = −ω i ` ∧ ω ` (1.8.4)

Lemma 1.8.3.
ω i j = −εi εj ω j i (1.8.5)
In particular, ω i i = 0
Consequently, all connection forms are determined by {ω i j }i<j . Further-
more, for a coframe field {ω 1 , . . . , ω n }, the connection forms {ω i j }{1≤i,j≤n} are
the unique one-forms that satisfy equations 1.8.4 and 1.8.5.

For tangent vectors X, Y let Ωi j (X, Y ) be the matrix of curvature operator


RXY relative to the frame {Ei }. Explicitly,

RXY (Ej ) = Ωi j (X, Y )Ei , ∀j (1.8.6)


So {Ωi j }{1≤i,j≤n} are 2-forms called the curvature forms of the frame fields.
Theorem: The Second Structural Equation 1.8.4.

Ωi j = dω i j + ω i ` ∧ ω ` j , ∀i, j (1.8.7)

As with the connection forms, lowering an index of Ω gives Ωij = εi Ωi j ,


which by symmetry of curvature is skew-symmetric in i and j. Hence,
Corollary 1.8.5.
Ωi j = −εi εj Ωj i (1.8.8)
i
In particular, Ω i = 0.

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The above results imply that considered as matrix valued forms Ωi j and ω i j
take their values in the appropriate Lie algebra† .
The components of the curvature tensor R with respect to the frame field
are

Ri jk` = Ωi j (Ek , E` ) (1.8.9)


Hence, Rijk` = εi Ri jk` . The sectional curvatures of the frame field 2-planes
are

K(Πij ) = K(Ei , Ej ) = εi εj Rijij = εj Ri jij (1.8.10)


2
and the curvature invariant κ can be written as κ = εi εj εk ε` (Rijk` ) .
Remark 1.8.1. If M is a Riemannian manifold (ν = 0) with frame field {Ei },
raising and lowering indices does not require a sign change. Hence, the matrices
(ω i j )1≤i,j≤n and (Ωi j )1≤i,j≤n are skew-symmetric.
Remark 1.8.2. If M is a Lorentz manifold, then a sign change is required for
the timelike index. The skew-symmetry of ω i j leads to

ωi 0 = ω0 i (1.8.11)

but
ω i j = −ω j i for i, j > 0 (1.8.12)
and similarly for Ωi j .
Corollary 1.8.6. Let u, v be orthogonal coordinates in a semi-Riemannian sur-
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
face S. Write h ∂u , ∂u i = E = ε1 e2 , h ∂v , ∂v i = G = εe g 2 where ε1 and ε2 are
±1, and e, g > 0. The Gaussian curvature of S is given by
" #
1 e 
v
g 
u
KS = − ε1 + ε2 (1.8.13)
eg g v e u

† For Minkowski spacetime M = Rn this is possibly the Lie algebra o (n) of the Lorentz
1 1
group O1 (n) which is the group of isometries of M.

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