TRANSILVANIA UNIVERSITY OF BRAOV

FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

AND COMPUTER SCIENCE

Control methods for power

converters in autonomous AC microgrid

PROJECT

Intelligent electrical micro-grids and distributed

generation systems

Supervised by : Students:

Conf. Dr. Ing. Ioan erban

Crciun Radu
Oprea Ioana
Vlcu Florin Mihi

Grupa 4757
Anul I SEA
2015 - 2016
Control of Power Converters in AC Microgrids
Basic AC microgrid architecture
 Cuprins
1. Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Foreword................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Preface .................................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 History..................................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Current situation of microgrid outside china and analysis ........................................................ 5
1.4.1 USA.................................................................................................................................. 5
1.4.2 Japan ............................................................................................................................... 6
1.4.3 European Union ............................................................................................................... 7
2 Control of Power Converters in AC Microgrids ................................................................................10
2.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................10
2.2 Structure of distributed power generation ..............................................................................12
2.3 Overview and design of the hierarchical control of microgrid..................................................13
2.3.1 Primary control (droop control) ......................................................................................15
2.3.2 Secondary control (frequency and voltage restoration and synchronization) ...................16
2.3.3 Tertiary control (P-Q import and export) .........................................................................16
2.4 Classification of power converters in ac microgrids .................................................................16
2.4.1 Grid-Forming Power Converters ......................................................................................18
2.4.2 Grid-Feeding Power Converter ........................................................................................20
2.4.3 Grid-Supporting Power Converter ...................................................................................22
2.5 Trends in the control of microgrids .........................................................................................25
3 Conclusion .....................................................................................................................................27
4 Bibliografy ......................................................................................................................................28
 1. Introduction

1.1 Foreword
With energy and environment issues becoming increasingly prominent, developing low-
carbon economy and promoting ecological progress to achieve sustainability has been widely
recognized all over the world, and use of clean, renewable resources has become an important
strategy. To coordinate macrogrids and distributed generation (DG), and maximize the strengths
of DG for economy, energy, and environment, scholars put forward the concept of microgrid. It
is a single controllable electric power system comprising DG, load, energy storage (ES), and
control devices. It can reduce feeder loss, and enhance local power supply reliability and energy
efficiency.

With the development of smart grid, microgrid and its key enabling technologies are becoming a
heated topic around the world. In an effort to further promote microgrid technologies and provide
guidance for construction of microgrids, the authors write this book based on their practices and
experience. In this book, the basic concept, key technologies, related standards, and practical
design methods and principles of microgrid are comprehensively and systematically discussed,
and a typical design case is presented and analyzed.

This book is organized into 11 chapters, as detailed below: Chapter 1 Overview of Microgrid
describes the history, current status, and trends of microgrids; Chapter 2 Composition and Clas-
sification of the Microgrid describes the composition, operation and control modes, integration
voltage, and classification of microgrids; Chapter 3 Microgrid and Distributed Generation
introduces types of DG commonly used in microgrids; Chapter 4 Control and Operation of the
Microgrid introduces control of connection to and disconnection from grids, operation control
(three-state control, inverter control), and operation processes in grid-connected mode and
islanded mode respectively; Chapter 5 Protection of the Microgrid discusses impacts of
connection of microgrids on distribution network relay protection, microgrid protection strategies,
and configuration scheme of protection for microgrids connected to distribution networks; Chapter
6 Monitoring and Energy Management of the Microgrid introduces composition of microgrid
monitoring system, energy management, and optimized control methods; Chapter 7
Communication of the Microgrid introduces special requirements, design principles, and
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schemes of microgrid communication system; Chapter 8 Earthing of a Microgrid introduces
microgrid earthing schemes; Chapter 9 Harmonic Control of the Microgrid introduces harmonic
control technologies; Chapter 10 Related Standards and Specifications presents standards and
specifications related to microgrid in and outside China; Chapter 11 A Practical Case introduces
engineering design and test schemes by taking a specific project as example. Given the short
history of microgrid, many technologies are still under study. This book sums up only existing
study results and practices. With studies on this subject going deeper, many new technologies will
definitely emerge in the future, and we will amend this book accordingly. This book is coauthored
by Li Fusheng (researcher), Li Ruisheng (professorate senior engineer), and Zhou Fengquan
(doctor), and Li Xianwei, Ma Hongwei, Yang Huihong, Tang Yunlong, Zhang Zhiwei, and Wang
Huijuan from Smart Grid Research Center of XJ Group contributed significantly to data sorting
and diagrams of the book. We also give our special thanks to Dr. Song Xiaowei from Zhongyuan
University of Technology who provided a large number of references for us before writing, and
Professor Yao Qinglin from Hefei University of Technology who carefully reviewed Chapter 5
Protection of Microgrid, and gave valuable comments and suggestions. We are also sincerely
grateful to the authors of books we referred to while writing this book. Owing to our limited
knowledge and time, there may be some flaws or even errors in this book. Your comments and
corrections are highly appreciated.

1.2 Preface
The electric power system is moving into the smart grid era.

Energy efficiency, environmental friendliness, and operational security are the primary concerns
for a smart grid. For the sustainability of the human society, it is a must to save nonrenewable
energy and reduce emissions of carbon dioxide; to ensure grid security and stability, a proper
proportion of power sources must be located in the load center so as to achieve local balance of
electricity. In this context, microgrid, encompassing load, power source, and regulation, emerges.

Microgrid is one of the major forms to connect distributed clean energy to grids. Clean energy
sources such as PV, wind, and energy storage are integrated into the microgrid on a household,
building, or community basis, and the microgrid can centrally manage the distributed resources
(DR) in the manner of virtual power plant (VPP), so as to adapt to the increasing penetration of
distributed clean energy and improve the grids capability to accommodate these energy forms.

Microgrid is a major means to achieve local balance of electricity. The core of microgrid control
and operation can be summed up as independence and mutual support. Independence allows
the microgrid to be impervious to grid failure, and operate in islanded mode with little or no load

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loss, while mutual support means the microgrid and main grid can support each other, which not
only ensures quality power supply of the microgrid, but also reduces the power transmission
burden of the main grid.

Explaining technologies by case and engineering application is one of the features of this book. At
present, quite a lot of books on microgrid are available. Instead of following the traditional way to
introduce microgrid technologies, this book gives examples on how to analyze the impact of
microgrids on traditional distribution networks. Through analysis, problems are raised and
technologies are described and explained in solving the problems. Finally, the technologies are
demonstrated in engineering application. This is helpful to make clear the viewpoints and provide
reference for engineering application.
Overview of microgrid
A microgrid is a single, controllable, independent power system comprising distributed generation
(DG), load, energy storage (ES), and control devices, in which DG and ES are directly connected
to the user side in parallel. For the macrogrid, the microgrid can be deemed as a controlled cell;
and for the user side, the microgrid can meet its unique demands, for example, less feeder loss and
higher local reliability. Being capable of autonomous control, protection, and management, a
microgrid can operate either in parallel with the main grid or in an intentional islanded mode. A
microgrid can be considered as a small electric power system that incorporates generation,
transmission, and distribution, and can achieve power balance and optimal energy allocation over
a given area, or as a virtual power source or load in the distribution network. Also, it can consist
of one or more virtual power plants (VPPs) to meet the demand of a load center, which can be
important offices, factories, or remote residences where the traditional way of electricity supply is
expensive. Compared with traditional transmission and distribution (T&D) networks, a microgrid
has a much more flexible structure.

1.3 History
In 2001, Professor R.H. Lasseter of the University of Wisconsin-Madison proposed the concept of
the microgrid. Later, the Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions (CERTS)
and the European Commission Project Micro-Grid also gave their definitions of a microgrid.

In 2002, the National Technical University of Athens (NTUA) built a small laboratory microgrid
project known as the NTUA Power System Laboratory Facility for tests on the control of
distributed resource (DR) and load with multiagent technology.

In 2003, the University of Wisconsin established a small laboratory microgrid (NREL Laboratory
Microgrid) with a capacity of 80 kVA, for tests on the control of various types of DRs in different

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operation modes; another 480 V laboratory microgrid was established in the Walnut test site,
Columbus, Ohio, for tests on the dynamic characteristics of various components of a microgrid.

In the same year, multiple demonstration projects were built across the world, including the 7.2
kV microgrid in Mad River Park, Vermont, USA; the 400 V microgrid in Kythnos Islands, Greece;
as well as the Aichi, Kyotango, and Hachinohe projects in Japan.

In 2004, the CESI RICERCA test facility was built in Milan, Italy, which can be restructured into
different topologies for steady-state and transient-operation tests and power quality analysis.

In 2005, the Imperial College London control and power research center was set up in London,
UK, for distribution network prototype tests and load tests.

Over the same period, multiple demonstration projects were successively built all over the world,
including Japans Sendai system (2004), Shimizu Microgrid (2005), and Tokyo Gas Microgrid
(2006); Spains Labein Microgrid (2005); USAs Sandia National Laboratories (2005) and
Palmdales Clearwell Pumping Station (2006); and Germanys Manheim Microgrid (2006).

Since 2006, the microgrid has been successively incorporated into Chinas 863 Program (State
High-Tech Development Plan) and 973 Program (National Basic Research Program). In 2006,
Tsinghua University began studies on the microgrid and established a laboratory microgrid
encompassing DG, ES, and loads utilizing the facilities in the National Key Laboratory on Power
System and Generating Equipment Safety Control and Simulation under the Department of
Electrical Engineering.

In 2008, Tianjin University and Hefei University of Technology conducted tests and studies on
the microgrid. Tianjin University focused on scientific dispatch of various energy resources in the
hope of improving energy efficiency, meeting various demands, and improving reliability, while
Hefei University of Technology placed the focus on operation control and energy management.
In 2010, the State Grid Corporation of China (SGCC) built a demonstration project in Zhengzhou
for study on operation control of a microgrid combining distributed PV (photovoltaic) generation
and energy storage and engineering application and another in Xian for study on control
technologies for microgrid combining distributed generation/energy storage.

In 2010, the China Southern Power Grid Company built a distributed energy supply combined
cooling and power (CCP) demonstration project in Foshan as a subject under Chinas 863
Program.

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1.4 Current situation of microgrid outside china and analysis
The worlds power sector has been facing great challenges like increasing loads,
environmental issues, low energy efficiency, and users higher requirements on power quality.
Microgrids can utilize and control DG in an effective, flexible, and smart manner, and hence, can
best address these problems. Many countries are now carrying out studies on the microgrid and
their own concepts and goals of a microgrid. As a new technology, the microgrid is showing
distinct features in different countries.

1.4.1 USA
The United States is where the concept of microgrid originated, and its definition is the most
authoritative among all others. The architecture proposed by CERTS consists of power electronic
technologies-based micro sources with a capacity of 500 kW or below and loads, and integrates
power electronic technologies-based control schemes. Power electronic technologies are
indispensable to smart and flexible control and the basis for the plug and play and peer to peer
control and design concepts. CERTSs preliminary study results have been verified with the
laboratory microgrid. The Department of Energy (DOE) took microgrid engineering seriously. In
2003, then US President Bush set the goal of grid modernization, that is, to widely integrate IT
technologies and communication technologies into power systems to achieve grid smartness. In
the later published Grid 2030, the DOE developed power system study and development plans
for the coming decades, in which the microgrid is an important part. On the microgrid meeting
convened in 2006, the DOE gave detailed accounts of its microgrid development plans. In view of
grid modernization, improving reliability for critical loads, meeting various customized quality
demands, minimizing the cost, and realizing smartness will be the focus of the United States
future microgrid.
Figure 1. shows the microgrid model proposed by CERTS. This model shows that power
electronics interfaces are provided for all micro sources, including PV, wind, small rotary
machines, and various types of ESs. The core equipment is a smart static switch that controls the
connection to and disconnection from the main grid. For each type of micro source, digital, smart
relay protections are used to isolate the protected area from faults, and protection equipment is
interconnected via special digital communication links.

5
 FIGURE 1. Microgrid model proposed by CERTS.

1.4.2 Japan
Given the increasing energy shortage and load, Japan studied the microgrid concept with
the aim of diversifying energy mix, reducing pollution, and meeting customized demands. In
Japan, independent power systems based on traditional sources are also considered as a
microgrid, which is a huge extension to the CERTSs definition. On this basis, Japan has
implemented multiple microgrid projects. In addition, Japanese scholars put forward the concept
of Flexible Reliability and Intelligent Electrical Energy Delivery System (FRIENDS), that is, to
add flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) to the distribution network to make full use of
their advantages in quick and flexible control, optimize the energy mix of the distribution
network, and meet varying power quality demands. So far, FRIENDS has become an important
form of deployment of microgrids in Japan, and some researchers are considering including the
system in combined heat and power systems for better environmental friendliness and higher
energy efficiency. Japan has been committed to using new energy for many years. It set up the

6
New Energy & Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) to coordinate studies
and use of new energy among universities, companies, and national key laboratories.

1.4.3 European Union

Considering market demands, power supply security, and environmental protection, the European
Union (EU) proposed the Smart Power Networks program in 2005, and released the strategies
in 2006. It called for efficient and close synergy of centralized generation and DG by making full
use of distributed energy resource (DER), smart technologies, and advanced power electronic
technologies, and called upon all sectors to actively participate in the electricity market and work
together to promote the development of grids. Microgrids will be a major part of the European
electricity networks thanks to its smartness and diversified energy mix. Currently, theories on
operation, control, protection, security, and communications have been established and verified
with the laboratory microgrid. The future focus will be more advanced control strategies,
standards, and demonstration projects to build the foundation for large-scale integration of DG and
transition from the traditional grid to the smart grid. Figure 2 shows the microgrid model proposed
by the EU with the efforts of ABB, Fraunhofer IWES, and SMA (Germany); ZIV (Spain); The
University of Manchester (the UK); EMforce (Holland); and NTUA (Greece).
The microgrid model shown in Figure 2 has a more complete structure, where not all micro sources
have power electronics interfaces, all protection equipment is digital and smart, and
interequipment communication is via controller area network (CAN). Centralized and
decentralized monitoring is configured. In centralized monitoring, the central monitoring unit
communicates with various switches, gives orders, and sets the switch action range. The mon-
itoring mode is easy and cheap, but has the disadvantage that operation of all switches relies on
the central monitoring unit, the failure of which will cause collapse of the entire protection system.
A decentralized monitoring system is composed of multiple central monitoring units fulfilling
different functions. When one unit fails, the others will automatically take over, thus avoiding
system collapse. This mode offers high reliability but calls for more investment. Apart from the
United States, Japan, and the European Union, Canada, Australia, and some other countries have
also carried out studies on the microgrid. From their grid strategies, studies on, and practices in
microgrid technologies, it can be clearly seen that the development of the microgrid does not
represent a revolution to traditional centralized, large-scale grids, but an improvement of the power
sectors consciousness of services, energy utilization, and environmental protection. The
microgrid is an important means for efficient, environment friendly, and quality power supply by
large grids in the future, and hence, a beneficial enhancement to the large grid.

7
 FIGURE 2 Microgrid model proposed by the EU. CB, circuit breaker; SWB, switch board; G, micro source; L,
load; MV, medium voltage; LV, low voltage

A microgrid is an interconnection of distributed energy sources, such as micro turbines,wind

turbines, fuel cells and PVs integrated with storage devices,suchas batteries, flywheels andpower
capacitors on low voltage distributions ystems [1]. Each feeder has circuit breakers and a power
flow controller. The basic microgrid architecture is shown in Fig. 3

8
Fig. 3. Basic ACmicrogridarchitecture

9
 2 Control of Power Converters in AC Microgrids

2.1 Introduction
Centralized power generation, unidirectional power flow, passive electricity distribution, and
demand-driven operation are concepts coined more than one century ago, when the first power
systems were designed. In the last decades, modern solutions such as distributed generation
(DG), mainly based on renewable energies, electrical energy storage (EES), flexible ac
transmission systems, active demand management (ADM), microgrids, and smart control and
management based on information and communication technologies (ICTs), have made it possible
to plan new horizons for conventional power systems. However, not all the work for planning the
future power systems is concluded yet, as an intensive research effort should be still conducted to
make such advanced systems a reality today. DG is a crucial issue for the development of modern
power systems. However, technical constrains, mainly related to voltage stability and power flow
limitations, raise questions about reliability of such a generation scheme as penetration of
DG grows. This is partly due to the fact that such distributed generators had been classically
considered as supplementary generation units, with low controllability from the transmission/
distribution system operators (TSO/DSO), which results in predominantly passive and inflexible
distribution networks, without the possibility of insolating given sections to work as microgrids
when faults and contingencies occur in the main grid. Moreover, this lack of controllability does
not allow an efficient exploitation of the DG capacity and makes necessary to maintain
conventional power plants operational, working at their minimum operating point, as auxiliary
reserves, thereby resulting in an overrated increase of the overall installed capacity as the
penetration of DG grows. However, a high-level integration of DG systems can play in favor of a
more efficient and flexible operation of the grid. The DG systems are normally connected at the
distribution networks, thus closer to the end consumers if compared with large-scale power plants,
something that permits reducing the overall transport losses. In addition, a proper control of DG
plants, combined with the integration of EES, would permit providing a broad scope of ancillary
services, as well as improving the continuity of supply, by enabling the creation of active islands,
namely microgrids, supplied by local generation. Therefore, microgrids are foreseen to play an
important role in the electrical grids of the future, mainly in low-voltage (LV) distribution
networks, where the vast majority of DG systems are connected. A microgrid is conceptually
considered as a small-scale grid, formed by DG systems, EES devices, and loads that are
electrically interconnected and hierarchically controlled, with the capability to operate either as a
grid connected or as an intentionally islanded system [2], [3]. Among renewables, wind and
10
photovoltaic (PV) power plants are specially suitable to be integrated as generators in microgrids,
since they are smaller and more scalable than central power plants, meanwhile they
can be potentially connected to any point of the power system [4][5]. Likewise, other
nonrenewable-based power systems, such as diesel or gas fuelled generators, whose generation
profile can be easily controlled, are also likely to be integrated into microgrids. In addition to
generators, the EES systems are claimed to be very important in microgrids as well, especially
if renewable energy sources, which are characterized by having a stochastic and intermittent
behavior [6], are the main energy sources in the microgrid. At the present time, modern DG
systems, which are one of the main actors in microgrids, present a higher controllability and
operability degree than conventional generators. This feature will permit these systems to play a
major and decisive role in maintaining the stability of the electrical networks in the future. This
role has been already translated into changes in the grid codes that regulate the connection of DG
to the grid. This is the case, for instance, of the regulations about the operation of DG under grid
fault conditions. In the first DG units, the standards required their disconnection in the case of grid
faults occurrence [7], [8]. However, this operation mode is no longer permitted in modern DG
plants. For instance, in wind power systems, the low-voltage ride-through (LVRT) requirements
demand wind power plants to remain connected to the grid and to provide specific grid support
services during grid faults [9]. In some countries, these requirements have been also extended to
PV systems [10]. As a difference with LVRT requirements, which are mandatory almost
worldwide, in most of the countries, it is not currently allowed to form energized islands when the
main electrical network experiences an outage, in order to avoid any risk in the maintenance
operations as well as for protecting electrical systems against prospective damages. As a
consequence of this requirement, and in spite of the obvious advantages that would provide the
capability of feeding isolated parts of the grid, microgrids are forced to shut down during
blackouts, thus interrupting the energy supply to consumers that could be in fact fed by local
generators. However, the advances in the control of microgrids and DG systems, the integration
of communication technologies in DG plants and loads, as well as the higher interaction between
generation and demand, permits us to foresee that the intentional islanding will not be much longer
a restriction, but a mandatory requirement, among others, in near future rid codes, [11], [12]. In
this scenario, the implementation of hierarchical control schemes for microgrids enables us to
perform a coordinated interaction with management and control operations of the main grid,
whereby the interoperability of microgridswith themain grid is improved, as well as their effective
integration. In this framework, this paper carries out an overview about microgrids structures and
control techniques, at different hierarchical levels, for the operation of grid-connected power
converters forming ac microgrids. This work starts with a discussion about the classification of
11
power converters according to their role in a microgrid. Their main operation features and the
detailed control schemes in each case will be introduced and discussed. After that, and due to its
high influence in the nperformance of a microgrid control, a short glance to the ac synchronization
techniques used in this kind of applications will be given. Finally, the common low- and high-
level control structures for the power converters forming a microgrid will be eviewed and the
hierarchical control structure of the microgrid will be discussed in detail. This paper will end up
with a presentation of the main grid services that microgrids can offer to the main network, as well
as the future trends in the development of microgrids operation and control for the next future.

2.2 Structure of distributed power generation

DG is defined as, Generation of electricity by facilities that are sufficiently smaller than central
generating plants so as to allow interconnection at nearly any point in the power system[13,14].
The structure of distributed generation power system contains the input power source, different
configurations are possible: photo- voltaic, fuelcell, wind turbine, etc. ;the converter which can be
a single-stage converter (DC-ACconverter) or a double stage converter (DC-DCandDC-
ACconverter). They have two separate operation modes, acting as a current source if they are
connected to the grid and as a voltage source if they work autonomously [9]. An output filter (L,
LC, LCL, and LCL with damping resistor) connected in series with the inverter improves
harmonic performance at lower switching frequencies [1516]. Recently, the LCL filter has been
widely applied to the grid-interfaced inverters [15,17]. The general structure having different input
power sources is depicted in Fig. 4. The Distribution Generation (DG) unit can be connected to
the utility grid through single Point of Common Coupling (PCC). It is respon- sible for generation
of electricity and it has to be able to import/ export energy from/to the grid,control the active and
reactive power flows and manage the energy storage [18]. From Table 1, the main task of the
input controller is to extract the maximum power from the renewable energy sources and protect
the input side converter while, the grid side controller must check the active and reactive power
transferred from renew- able energy systems to the grid.

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 Fig. 4. General structure for distributed power system

2.3 Overview and design of the hierarchical control of microgrid

Most current microgrid implementations combine different distributed energy resources [19] (PV
arrays,small wind turbines, or fuel cells) or storage devices (flywheels, superconducto rinduc- tors,
orcompressed ai rsystems) [19,,20,21]. However,at the present time it is necessary to conceive a
flexible microgrid which should be able to import/export energy from/to the grid (control of active
and reactive power flow) [19], and with capabilities for standalone and grid-connected applications
Hierarchical control for microgrids has been proposed recently to standardize the microgrid
13
operation and functions.This hierarchical control can be divided into three levels of control namely
primary, secondary and tertiary level, each of these levels has objectives and methods of
controlling which are designed and manipulated by different controllers . Fig. 5 shows the
schematic diagram of the hierarchical architecture of a microgrid using these three levels of
control.

Fig.5. Hierarchical architecture of a microgrid

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 2.3.1 Primary control (droop control)
The primary controller is responsible for the reliability and improving the system performance and
stability for the local voltage control; adjusting at the same time the frequency and the magnitude
of the output voltage to get the reference of innercurrent and voltage control loops; and for ensuring
a proper power sharing (active and reactive power among DG units). Eachinverter will have an
external power loop based on droop control [22,23], that allows each DG unit to operate
autonomously. The primary control is based only on local measurements; com- munication is often
avoided for reliability reasons. The control of the parallel inverters in DG systems is based on [24
25]:

the inner voltage and current regulation loops (feedback and feed forward; linear and non
linear control loops can be performed to regulate and supervise the inductor current or the
capacitor current of the output filter to reach a fast dynamic response while maintaining
the system stable);
the intermediate virtual impedance loop (to emulate physicaloutput impedance);
the outer active and reactive power sharing loops (whose function is to regulate the output
voltage).
The droop control introduces the droops in the amplitude E and the frequency of the
inverter; they can bee xpressed as(Fig. 6):
Where * and E* are the angular frequency and the amplitude of the no load output
voltage, respectively, m and n coefficients define the corresponding slopes for the
frequency and amplitude, respectively. P* and Q* are the active and reactive power
references, which are commonly set to zero when we connect DG units in parallel

15
 autonomously, forming the energetic island [4].

Fig. 6. P/Q Droop characteristic when supplying capacitive or inductive loads

2.3.2 Secondary control (frequency and voltage restoration and synchronization)

The secondary controller is responsible to restore the frequency and amplitude deviations produced
by the virtual inertias and output virtual impedances. Also, this control takes on the function to
synchronize the microgrid with the main grid before performing the interconnection, the transition
from islanded to grid-connected mode. The secondary control must measure the frequency and
amplitude levels in the microgrid g and Eg and compares them with the references n and E*,
and send the errors and E to all the units to restore the output voltage.The phase between the
grid and the microgrid are measured and send to all the modules to synchronize the microgrid
phase.

2.3.3 Tertiary control (P-Q import and export)

This level controls the power flow (themicrogrid imports/exports energy), the set points of the
microgrid inverters can be adjusted The tertiary control level is responsible for regulating the
power flows (the import or export of energy) between the grid and the microgrid at the PCC and
to provide load balancing by using an optimal power flow solver.Thus,the activ eand reactive
power flows can be exported or imported independently

2.4 Classification of power converters in ac microgrids

Depending on their operation in an ac microgrid, power converters can be classified into grid-
feeding, grid-supporting, and grid-forming power converters [26], [27]. The grid-forming

16
converters can be represented as an ideal ac voltage source with a low-output impedance, setting
the voltage amplitude E and frequency of the local grid by using a proper control loop, as
illustrated in Fig. 7(a) On the other hand, the grid-feeding power converters are mainly designed
to deliver power to an energized grid. They can be represented as an ideal current source connected
to the grid in parallel with high impedance. The simplified scheme of the grid-feeding power
converter is depicted in Fig. 7(b), where P and Q represent the active and the reactive powers
tobe delivered, respectively. In this application, it is important to outline that this current source
should be perfectly synchronized with the ac voltage at the connection point, in order to
regulateaccurately the active and reactive power exchanged with the grid. Finally, the grid-
supporting converters can be represented either as an ideal ac-controlled current source in parallel
with ashunt impedance, or as an ideal ac voltage source in series with a link impedance, as shown
in Fig. 7(c) and (d), respectively. These converters regulate their output current/voltage to keep
the value of the grid frequency and voltage amplitude closeto their rated values. In case of
controlling a grid-supporting converter as a voltage source, the effect of the link impedanceis
usually emulated by the internal control loop. A grid-feeding power converter, controlled as a
current source, needs a generator or a power converter to form the grid voltage in order to be able
to operate. Therefore, this kind of converter cannot operate independently in island mode. On the
contrary, a grid-forming power converter usually operates specifically in islanded mode, since in
the main grid the ac voltage is conventionally formed by synchronous generators [2]. A grid-
supporting power converter is in between a grid-feeding and a grid-forming power converter, being
its main objective to deliver proper values of active and reactive power to contribute to the
regulation of the grid frequency and the voltage. In case of implementing it as current source, as
shown in Fig. 7(c), it needs at least one grid former to operate. However, if it is controlled as a
voltage source with link impedance, as detailed in Fig. 7(d), it can operate in both grid-connected
and island mode, as a synchronous generators does in a conventional grid.

17
 Fig. 7. Simplified representation of grid-connected power converters. (a) gridforming,
(b) grid-feeding, (c) current-source-based grid-supporting, and (d)
voltage-source-based grid-supporting.

2.4.1 Grid-Forming Power Converters

The grid-forming power converters are controlled in closed loop to work as ideal ac voltage
sources with a given amplitude E and frequency . As voltage sources, they present a low-
output impedance, so they need an extremely accurate synchronization system to operate in
parallel with other gridforming converters. Power sharing among grid-forming converters
connected in parallel is a function of the value of their output impedances. A practical example of
a grid-forming power converter can be a standby UPS. This system remains disconnected from the
main grid when the operating conditions are within certain limits. In the case of a grid failure, the
power converter of the UPS forms the grid voltage. In a microgrid, the ac voltage generated by the
grid-forming power converter will be used as a reference for the rest of grid-feeding power

18
converters connected to it. Fig. 8 shows an example of a controller for a grid-forming power
converter, which is implemented by using two cascaded synchronous controllers working on the
dq reference frame. The inputs to the control system are the amplitude E and the frequency
of the voltage to be formed by the power converter at the point of common coupling (PCC). The
external loop controls the grid voltage to match its reference value, while the internal control loop
regulates the current supplied by the converter. Therefore, the controlled current flowing though
the inductor LF charges the capacitor CF to keep the output voltage close to the reference provided
to the voltage control loop. Usually, in industrial applications, these power converters are fed by
stable dc voltage sources driven by batteries, fuel cells, or another primary source.

Fig. 8. Basic control structure in a three-phase grid-forming voltage source

inverter generating a sinusoidal voltage determined by a nominal voltage amplitude

v and reference frequency .

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 2.4.2 Grid-Feeding Power Converter
Grid-feeding power converters are controlled as current sources, presenting high parallel output
impedance. These power converters are suitable to operate in parallel with other mgrid-feeding
power converters in grid-connected mode. Actu-ally, most of the power converters belonging to
DG systems operate in grid-feeding mode, like in PV or wind power systems [28]. These
converters can participate in the control of the microgrid ac voltage amplitude and frequency by
adjusting, at a higher level control layer, the references of active and reactive powers, P and Q,
to be delivered [29], [30]. Grid-feeding power converters cannot operate in island mode if there is
no grid-forming or grid-supporting power converter, or a local synchronous generator, setting the
voltage amplitude and frequency of the ac microgrid. Fig. [10] shows a typical control structure
foran ac grid-feeding power converter. The operation of the gridfeeding converters is often
regulated by a high-level controller, like a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) controller or a
power plant controller, which sets reference values for P and Q The grid-feeding power
converters are mainly designed to deliver (draw) a specified amount of active and reactive power
to enenergized grid. These components do not contribute to power balancing [81]. Grid-feeding
power converters are con- trolled in current and can be represented as ideal current sources
connected to the grid in parallel and presenting high parallel output impedance. These power
converters are suitable to operate in parallel with other grid-feeding power converters in grid-
connected mode.Actually,most of the power converters belonging to DG systems operate in grid-
feeding mode, likein PVor wind power systems [31]. The scheme control of the grid-feeding power
converter is depicted in Fig. 9, where Pn and Qn represent the active and the reactive powers to be
delivered, respectively. Control of the output voltage is no longer a purpose, and thus the control
scheme comprises only the primary current control [32]. The grid-feeding should be perfectly
synchronized with the ac voltage at the connection point, in order to regulate accurately the active
and reactive power exchanged with the grid. This is why we must use phase locked loop. Based
on the choice of dq reference,the amplitude of Vq has a null value, while Vd is equal to the
amplitude of the voltage; the current id has control overthe active component while the current iq
has control over the reactive component. Henceforth the desired direct id and quadrature iq current
components are easily derived from the active P* and reactive Q* power components by dividing
them by the direct voltage component Ud. Grid- feeding power converters can not operate in
island mode if there is no grid-forming or grid-supporting power converter, or a local synchro-
nous generator, setting the voltage amplitude and frequency of the ac microgrid

20
Fig. 9. Basic control scheme of a grid-feeding voltage source inverter

21
 Fig. 10. Basic control structure in a three-phase grid-feeding power converter.

2.4.3 Grid-Supporting Power Converter

A grid-supporting power converter is controlled as a voltage source with a link impedance, as
shown in Fig. 1(d), oralternatively, as a current source with a parallel impedance, as shown in Fig.
1(c). In any case, its main objective is to participate in the regulation of the ac grid voltage
amplitude E and frequency by controlling the active and reactive power delivered to the grid
[18]. Two main types of power converters can be found within the grid-supporting group. 1) The
power converter is controlled as a current source, as in Fig. 11(a), in which the main objective is
22
not only to supply the load connected to the microgrid, but it shouldadditionally be adjusted to
contribute to regulate the voltage amplitude and frequency of both the ac grid and the microgrid.
For example, the grid codes regulating the grid connection of wind turbines [19] are defined so
that they should be designed to provide a given amount of power to the grid for regulatory
purposes. The effect of the delivered power on the regulation of the grid frequency and voltage
amplitude is explained in detail in Section IV. 2) The power converter is controlled emulating the
behavior of an ac voltage source, as shown in Fig. 11(b), which isconnected to the grid through a
link impedance, like in the simplified scheme of a synchronous generator [20]. In such a control
scheme, the active and reactive power delivered by the power converter is a function of the ac
gridvoltage, the ac voltage of the emulated voltage source, and the link impedance, as explained
in [21]. The link impedance in this power converter can be either a physical device connected
between the VSI and the grid, or a virtual component, emulated within the current control loop.
This kind of converters can participate in regulating the amplitude and the frequency of the grid
voltage in both grid-connected and island modes, with no need of connecting any grid-forming
converter in themicrogrid.An example of grid-supporting power converters can be found in line-
interactive UPS systems. Such power converters can operate in parallel in amicrogrid, regulating
power sharing without using any communication line, by implementing droop and virtual output
impedance controllers, which dynamically modify their operating parameters according to the
microgrid conditions [26].

23
Fig. 11. Basic control structure of three-phase grid-supporting power converters. (a) Grid-
supporting power converter operating as a current source. (b) Gridsupporting
power converter operating as a voltage source.

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2.5 Trends in the control of microgrids
Advances in the control of microgrids have improved their potential to be integrated into the
conventional electrical systems, not only improving their connection and disconnection procedures

in the aim of limiting negative effects in the network in its neighborhood, but also providing grid
support functionalities oriented to enhance the global operation of the network under generic
conditions. Even though microgrids are not extensively exploited nowadays, being its installation
mostly restricted to demonstrative projects, these control advances should positively contribute to
increase its participation in electrical networks boosting thus its presence and competitiveness in
future electrical markets [10]. Regarding the current development of microgrids and its futurerole
in the new electrical networks, the route map of the new developments in microgrids can be
grouped into three main areas, which are closely linked to each other: 1) grid integration of EES
systems in microgrids and power generation facilities, 2) active management of the demand, and
3) improvement of the microgrid controllability and monitoring. The integration of EES
technologies is a key issue in the development of the future smart electrical networks [33], as
thecapability for storing energy permits the development of control strategies that shall permit
solving many of the drawbacks that nowadays hinder the high-scale integration of DG systems.As
a straightforward application, the integration of EES systems would permit damping the power
variations in the generation facilities whose energy resource is stochastic, like in PV and
windpower plants. The implementation of EES is providing promising results already in WT
applications [34], [35] and PV [34], where such systems enhance the peak power response as
wellas firming energy production. Likewise, EES systems will also be used to smooth the load
profile [36], offering load-leveling and load-tracking functionalities. The load-leveling service
isused to smooth the load profile, while the load-tracking services regulate power in response to
the frequency variations originated by load fluctuations. It is important to point out that the
participation of EES in microgrids should not only take into account generation facilities, but also
some external systems which are not linked directly to the generation technologies, but whose role
can be decisive in the next future. This is the case of the vast amounts of EES which are foreseen
to be present in the future electrical grids in the form of millions of electric vehicles (EV) [33]. In
such grids, the EV are not understood as passive loads but also as active elements being able to
support grid services and guarantee supply continuity [23], [34], and thereby the vehicle-to-
gridconcept being stated. The second area where relevant contributions are expected to arise in the
next future is related to the active management of demand and supply, i.e., the active coordination
of distributed consumers and generators to optimize the energy use and power flows [28]. The
ADM is based on regulating the user electricity consumption in response to the power system

25
operating conditions The demand response should help us to compensate fluctuations in the
electrical power generated from renewable energies and uses economic incentives to increase the
participation from consumers. One of the tools used in the ADM is the load shedding, whose
objective is to reduce the voltage amplitude and frequency excursions in the presence of severe
grid disturbances. The load-shedding capability is a reserve itself, which allows the frequency to
return to its rated value in a fast mode. Finally, the third area, which is focused on improving the
microgrid controllability and monitoring, collects all trends related with the integration of ICTs in
themicrogrid management to optimize the capability for predicting its performance, increasingthe
information flow and improving its controllability. As an example, one of these improvements
deals with the incorporation of the probability of availability concept for limiting risksin smart
grids dispatching [28]. ICT is essential to improve the demand response and prediction,to apply
generation predictability and almost in all the new functionalities to be implemented in microgrids.
Advanced two-way communication systems and smart meters improve the ability of electricity
suppliers and consumers facilitate the adoption of optimal decisions about how and when energy
should be produced and consumed. The efficient monitoring, management, and control of all the
units composing distributed power systems and microgrids require ICT as enabling technologies.

Intelligent measurement systems (smart meters and communications) and diagnosis can reduce the
power reserve, maintaining a low uncertainty level in a microgrid power generation scheme.

26
 3 Conclusion
This paper has conducted an overview of different aspects related to the control of ac microgrids.
The control techniques of the power converters forming the microgrid have been presented
according to the power converter role, thereby the low-level control loops for grid-feeding, grid-
forming, and grid-supporting have been described for both grid-connected and islanded
operationmodes. The droop control schemes for inductive, resistive, and generic lines have been
presented as an effective solution to support the amplitude and frequency of the voltage in ac
microgrids. Likewise, the virtual impedance concept has been introduced and its suitability to
control power sharing in paralleled power converters has been pointed out. The hierarchical control
structure on microgrids has been presented as well and the functionality of each layer has been
discussed, being highlighted the importance of high-level control layers for optimizing efficiency
and performances, meanwhile generation costs are reduced. The grid services provided by
microgrids have been reviewed as well and their requirements on the control scheme layers have
been pointed out. By the same token, it has been stressed that the integration of decentralized EES
systems facilitates the energy balance in the microgrids, improves the grid stability, and improves
the performance of active electrical islands. Finally, new trends in the control of microgrids have
been reviewed, highlighting the importance of the role that ICT will play in the grid integration
and active management of future microgrids.

27
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