QUANTITATIVE DESIGNS
During the late 19th and throughout the 20th collectionwith the intent of generalizing from a
century, strategies of inquiry associated with
quantitative research were those that invoked the
postpositivist worldview and that originated mainly in
psychology. These include true experiments and the
less rigorous experiments called quasiexperiments
(see, an original, early treatise on this, Campbell &
Stanley, 1963). An additional experimental design is
applied behavioral analysis or single-subject
experiments in which an experimental treatment is
administered over time to a single individual or a
small number of individuals (Cooper, Heron,
&Heward, 2007; Neuman& McCormick, 1995).
One type of nonexperimental quantitative
research is causal-comparative research in which
the investigator compares two or more groups in
terms of a cause (or independent variable) that has
already happened. Another nonexperimental form of
research is the correlational design in which
investigators use the correlational statistic to describe
and measure the degree or association (or
relationship) between two or more variables or sets of
scores (Creswell, 2012). These designs have been
elaborated into more complex relationships among
variables found in techniques of structural equation
modeling, hierarchical linear modeling, and logistic
regression. More recently, quantitative strategies have
involved complex experiments with many variables
and treatments (e.g., factorial designs and repeated
measure designs). They have also included elaborate
structural equation models that incorporate causal
paths and the identification of the collective strength
of multiple variables.
Survey research provides a quantitative or numeric
description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a
population by studying a sample of that population. It
includes cross-sectional and longitudinal studies using
questionnaires or structured interviews for data
sample to a population (Fowler, 2008).
Experimental research seeks to determine if a
specific treatment influences an outcome. The
researcher assesses this by providing a specific
treatment to one group and withholding it from
another and then determining how both groups scored
on an outcome. Experiments include true
experiments, with the random assignment of subjects
to treatment conditions, and quasi-experiments that
use nonrandomized assignments (Keppel, 1991).
Included within quasi-experiments are singlesubject
designs.
Reference: Cresswell, John Research Design:
Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches
QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Quasi-experimental research may look very much like
true experimental research in that it does involve the
manipulation of an independent variable.
However, it is not the same as true experimental
research because quasi-experimental research studies
lack one or both of the essential properties
of randomisation and a control group.
The major drawback with quasi-
experimental research is that, compared to
experimental research, it has a weakness in that is not
possible to deliver 'cause and effect' results.
In other words, we cannot infer from quasi-
experimental research that, for example, doing one
thing causes a particular phenomenon (e.g. smoking
cigarettes causes cancer).
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
This type of research describes what exists and may
help to uncover new facts and meaning.
The purpose of descriptive research is to
observe
describe
document
aspects of a situation as it naturally occurs
(Polit&Hungler 1999)
This involves the collection of data that will provide
an account or description of individuals, groups or
situations. Instruments we use to obtain data in
descriptive studies include
questionnaires
interviews (closed questions)
observation (checklists, etc.)
There is no experimental manipulation or indeed any
random selection to groups, as there is in
experimental research.
The characteristics of individuals and groups such as
nurses, patients and families may be the focus of
descriptive research. It can provide a knowledge base
which can act as a springboard for other types of
quantitative research methods.
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
Quantitative correlational research aims to
systematically investigate and explain the nature of
the relationship between variables in the real world.
Often the quantifiable data (i.e. data that we can
quantify or count) from descriptive studies are
frequently analysed in this way.
Correlational research studies go beyond simply
describing what exists and are concerned with
systematically investigating relationships between
two or more variables of interest (Porter & Carter
2000).
Such studies only describe and attempt to explain the
nature of relationships that exist, and do not examine
causality (i.e. whether one variable causes the other).
SURVEY RESEARCH
According to Polit and Hungler (1999), a survey is
used to obtain information from groups of people (i.e.
populations).
The information that is obtained may be concerned
with the prevalence, the distribution, and/or the
interrelationships between variables within these
groups.
Data collection tools include:
personal interviews
telephone interviews
questionnaires
As pointed out in the accompanying book (chapter 5),
depending upon the problem being investigated, this
type of research may be better explored by means of a
qualitative paradigm.
EVALUATION RESEARCH
This is an applied form of research that involved
finding out how well a programme, practice,
procedure or policy is working (Polit&Hungler
1999:201).The aim of this type of research is to
assess/evaluate the success of a particular practice or
policy, etc.
Examples of this type of research can be seen in
various types of analysis/evaluation, including:
process/implementation analysis (the analysis
of process and the implementation of
treatments/nursing cares, etc. - similar to
audits)
outcome analysis (the analysis of the outcome
of changes in processes, treatments, etc. -
again, similar to audits)
impact analysis (the analysis of the impact
that, for example, a new treatment will have
on the patients)
cost-benefit analysis (the analysis of the cost
to benefit ratio of , again for example, the
introduction of a new drug)
As with the survey research methods, this type of
research may best be carried out as a qualitative piece
or research, depending upon the original research
question.
References:
Cresswell, John Research Design: Qualitative,
Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches
Polit DF, Hungler BP (1999) Nursing Research:
Principles and Methods (6th Ed.) Philadelphia,
Lippincott
Porter, S., Carter, DE (2000) Common terms and
concepts in research. In Cormack, D. (Ed.) The
Research Process in Nursing (4th Ed.). Oxford,
Blackwell Science (pp. 17-28)
 SCALES
DATA COLLECTION (QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH) Rating scales can be used for observation as well as
There are a variety of techniques that can be used to self-reporting.
collect data in a quantitative research study. A rating scale allows the observer to rate the behaviour
However, all of them are geared towards numerical or event on a scale.
collection. Rating scales are the crudest form of measure involving
This numerical data can be collected by means of: scales.
observation
interview A rating scale lists an ordered series of categories of
questionnaires a variable that are assumed to be based on an
scales
physiological measurement underlying continuum.
In quantitative research, the data are collected and A numerical value is then assigned to each category in
recorded systematically, and these are then organised each item.
so that they can be entered into a computer database. This type of scale is often used in observational
OBSERVATION measurement to guide data collection.
In quantitative research, the observation must be There is, however, another type of scale that you will
structured so that there is a defined purpose to the often see in research papers - the Likert Scale.
observation. quantitative data collection data analysis collecting
The first step in structured observational measurement is data
to very carefully define what is to be observed. PHYSIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT
Once the decision has been made as to what is to be Much of nursing practice is linked to physiological
observed, the next step is to make decisions as to how dimensions of health.
the observations are to be: Physiological measurements can be obtained by using a
variety of methods, namely:
made;
self-report;
recorded;
observation;
coded.
direct measurement;
In most cases, a category system is developed for
organising and sorting the behaviour or events that are indirect measurement;
being observed. laboratory tests;
The categories that are to be observed should be electronic monitoring;
mutually exclusive. other creative methods of obtaining these
The observer may use checklists as an aid to the measurements.
structured observation. QUESTIONNAIRES
quantitative data collection Questionnaires can be useful for collecting data on simple and
INTERVIEWS well-defined issues.
Their design should be carefully planned and piloted to ensure
Although interviews are usually associated with that they provide:
qualitative research, they can have a role to play in the required data;
quantitative research as well. data that can be analysed and used;
In the case of quantitative research, the interview will be an unbiased response.
totally structured, with the interviewee only being able to
choose a response (usually one word) from a series on There are two types of questions that you can include in a
the interview form. questionnaire, depending particularly upon whether it is going
Often the reply can only be 'yes' or 'no', or it may just be to be a quantitative or a qualitative questionnaire.
a number. These are:
Alternatively, the interviewee may be asked just to closed questions;
choose one item from a list. open-ended questions.
These replies can then be coded and entered into a Often, we are warned against 'leading questions' in
questionnaires - however, all questions are 'leading'.
computer database for statistical analysis.
Some questions, however, lead more than others; but they all
The interview may well be linked to a checklist. lead towards an answer.
An interview is used often in research studies where Constructing a reliable and valid questionnaire to collect high-
there is a poor return rate of postal questionnaires and quality data is a subtle and sophisticated art.
checklists. Poorly designed questionnaires collect poor quality data.
quantitative data collection collecting data
Instrument is the generic term that researchers use for a
measurement device (survey, test, questionnaire, etc.).
To help distinguish between instrument and
instrumentation, consider that the instrument is the
device and instrumentation is the course of action (the
process of developing, testing, and using the device).
Instruments fall into two broad categories, researcher-
completed and subject-completed, distinguished by those
instruments that researchers administer versus those that
are completed by participants. Researchers chose which
type of instrument, or instruments, to use based on the
research question. Examples are listed below:
Researcher-completed Instruments Subject-
completed Instruments Rating scales
Questionnaires Interview schedules/guides
Self-checklists Tally sheets
Attitude scale Flowcharts
Personality inventories Performance checklists
Achievement/aptitude tests Time-and-motion logs
Projective devices
Observation forms
Sociometric devices
WRITING METHODOLOGY
Writing the methodology lies at the core of the paper,
and fulfills one of the basic principles underlying the
scientific method.
Any scientific paper needs to be verifiable by other
researchers, so that they can review the results by
replicating the experiment and guaranteeing the validity.
To assist this, you need to give a completely accurate
description of the equipment and the techniques used for
gathering the data.
Finally, you must provide an explanation of how the raw
data was compiled and analyzed.
Writing Methodology Allows Verification
Other scientists are not going to take your word for it,
and they want to be able to evaluate whether your
methodology is sound.
In addition, it is useful for the reader to understand how
you obtained your data, because it allows them to
evaluate the quality of the results.
For example, if you were trying to obtain data about
shopping preferences, you will obtain different results
from a multiple-choice questionnaire than from a series
of open interviews.
Writing methodology allows the reader to make their
own decision about the validity of the data.
If the research about shopping preferences were built
upon a single case study, it would have little external
validity, and the reader would treat the results with the
contempt that they deserve.
The Structure Behind
Whilst there are slightly different variations according to
the exact type of research, the methodology can be
divided into a few sections.
Describe the materials and equipment used in the
research.
Explain how the samples were gathered, any
randomization techniques and how the samples were
prepared.
Explain how the measurements were made and what
calculations were performed upon the raw data.
Describe the statistical techniques used upon the data.
That is the very basic structure of writing methodology,
and it will clarify all of the information.
The writing for the method should be clear and direct,
concise and straight to the point. The major point is not
to stray off into irrelevance, and this process is helped by
making a few basic assumptions.
For example, in a psychology paper, there is no need to
describe a Skinner box, as that is well known to
psychologists. However, you would need to explain
exactly how the box was used, to allow exact replication.
Whilst not always possible, the methodology should be
written in chronological order, always using the past
tense.
Writing Methodology at the Core of the Research Paper
A well laid out and logical methodology will provide a
great backbone for the entire research paper, and will
allow you to build an extremely strong results section.
The only real difficulty with the methods section is
finding the balance between keeping the section short,
whilst including all of the relevant information.
The other problem is finding the correct style of writing:
APA guidelines suggest that you should use 'I' and 'We',
but most supervisors still prefer an impersonal passive
tense. Check this with your supervisor before you start
writing, to avoid unnecessary editing!
https://explorable.com/writing-methodology