Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A glance into
Ductile Iron properties, technology
and casting design
(CAD_Designers and FEA Designers)
Subjects to discuss
n Introduction
n Metallurgy
n Chemical composition and elements impact
n Microstructure
n Defects - issues causing the trouble
n Control and remedies which applies
n Design guidelines
2
Who I am?
n Per Magne Refstie
n Fund et Fort
n Kristiansand in Norway
n 40 years experience in
foundry technology at
Kristiansands Jernstperi A/S
n e-mail; kjern-a@online.no
3
Introduction
n The casting prosess has been used for more than
5000 years to produce both objects of art and
utilitarian items.
5
Fabrication
Increasing:
Production
Cost / ton
Casting
6
Materials advantages
n The deformation process used to manufacture forgings
and plate for fabrications produce laminations which
can result in a significant reduction in properties
transverse to the lamination.
7
Materials advantages
n First, material shape limitations often produce sharp
corners which increase stress concentrations.
9
Grey Cast Iron
n In grey cast iron the graphite
flakes acts as stress raisers and
under stress help crack
propagation.
n As a result, grey cast irons are
weak, with ultimate tensile
strenght of 150-400 Mpa. And
with practically no elongation.
12
Ductile iron
Approximate
ranges of carbon
and silicon for
steel and various
cast irons
13
Annual world production of DI
n 40 years of
continual growth
worldwide.
n Success caused
by versatility,
and higher
performance at
lower cost.
14
Microstructure in DI
n Graphite.
The stable form of pure carbon in cast iron. Its
important physical properties are low density, low
hardness and high thermal conductivety and lubricity.
15
Microstructure in DI
n Carbide
Carbide , or cementite, is extremely hard, brittle
compound of carbon with either iron or strong
carbide formation elements, such as chromium,
vanadium or molybdenum. Massive carbides increase
the wear resistence of cast iron, but make it brittle
and very difficult to machine. Dispersed carbides in
either lamelar or spherical forms play an important
role in providing strength and wear resistance in as-
cast and heat-treated irons.
16
Microstructure in DI
n Ferrite
This is the purest iron phase in cast iron. Ductile iron
ferrite produces lower strength and hardness, but
high ductillity and toughness. In Austempered Ductile
iron (ADI), extremely fine-grained accicular ferrite
provides an exceptional combination of high strength,
good ductility and toughness.
17
Microstructure in DI
n Pearlite
Pearlite, produced by the eutectoid reaction, is an
intimate mixture of lamellar cementite in a matrix of
ferrite.
Pearlite provides a combination of higher strength
with a corresponding reduction in ductility.
18
General
relationship
between tensile
properties and
hardness
19
Relative damping
behaviours of
steel, Ductile-,
Malleable- and
Grey iron
20
Impact of deficiences on costs at GE*
le
* G. K. Bouse et Al
21
Production flow example
Production flow and quality plan for Bonus 1MW Hub. item ; 512563
Analyse acc. to
Treat melt at KJ32 alloy
Run
Compose 1480C with Test mech.
preconditioning
charge MgFeSi alloy to properties at
procedure with
makeup to achieve t>=60-200mm acc.
0.2-0.3%
comply with 0.040.005 % Mg to KI13753
Desulco 9012.
KJ32F alloy Add 35g Sb and ECN4904. Prepare
Analyse TEU
1kg Disp. certificate as
pro ton required.
Sand filling
Moulding box
23
Moulding process
Separation of mould
from pattern
24
Moulding process
Assembled mould ready for pouring
vents
Running system
Core print
Core
25
Furane sand,
acid catalysed moulding media
26
Furane, acid catalysed moulding sand..
- furane resin FA
- urea - formaldehyde -furfuryl alcohol UF-FA
- phenol - formaldehyde - furfuryl alcohol PF-FA
- urea - formaldehyde - phenol - furfuryl alcohol UF-PF-FA
27
Furane, acid catalysed moulding sand..
28
Spartan III sand mixer machine
30
Filling sand into moulding flask
n Ready prosessed
furane silica-sand
from mixser.
31
Treating the mould right
32
Cope and drag assembling
n Assemble according to
established workmanship.
Assemble cores
and n As furane cureing is in
boxes. Apply air prosess, vapour/gases will
be reaction products.
suction for
min. 2h from
n Alcohol/water-based coating
mould cavity liberate gaseous substance.
33
Cores assembly in drag
34
Core assembling
core
Mould
finished with
ceramic
coating
35
Sand testing
36
Sand testing
37
Prepare for melting
Doc
Compose charge
n Pick raw material of high
makeup to
quality for melt charge
comply with
makeup to satisfy
specification.
KJXXF alloy
38
Charge/melt makeup
OB pig iron:
30-35 %
Sorel and Tinfoss; 50/50
Returns;
Running system
Feeders
20-30 %
Flashes
Internal and external scrap
Chippings
39
Melt ready for further processing
nTapping from a
coreless induction
furnace
40
Desulfurization
n If the iron is to be treated with Mg (as desribed later) to
produce nodular cast iron, then sulfur levels >0.015%
should be neutralised to prevent later dross formation.
42
Preconditioning of the melt
43
Magnesium treatment methods
45
Magnesium ferro-silicon nodulalizer
Typical analysis %
Si Mg Ce TRE* Ca Al Size
46
Mg-treatment
47
Mg-treatment of ductile iron
n Tundish covered
ladle for Mg-
treatment of iron
melts.
48
Postinoculation
n Suitable inoculation provides sufficient
nucleation centers for solidification to take
place in the stable graphite-plus austenite
system.
49
Postinoculation
50
Inoculation in pouring basin
n Inoculation
blocks placed
in the pouring
basin
51
Mould inoculation
n Poor inoculated
ferritic, heavy
section ductile
iron casting.
Nital 70X
52
Mould inoculation
n Properly inoculated
ferritic, heavy
section ductile iron
casting.
Nital 70X
53
The moment of treatment
54
Pouring
55
Ductile iron- ferritic matrix- section modulus,
M>10
3.70 2.05 0.27 max .010 .040 max max max max 0.1 max max
70
0.1 0.1 .03 0.03 .002 .005 0.04 0.03 0.1 0.01 .03 0.06 0.06
F&F32 pmr_12
56
Mandatory types of testing
l Chemical analysis
l Mechanical testing
l Metallographic analysis
l Visual inspection (VT)
l Ultrasonic inspection (UT)
l Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)
l Dimensional measurements (DT)
57
EN1563
Cast-on samples:
Mechanical t Rm Re A5d KV
Material symbol
properties mm MPa MPa % J/-20C
Rm Re A5d KV
Material symbol
MPa MPa % J/-20C
pmr_05
Issues causing the trouble
59
Frame section drag pattern
Core print
Running system
60
Core box assembly
61
Part of corebox Core stripping
62
Filters and
inoculation
Mould assembly inserts
63
Topics to be controlled
n Chemical composition close to the eutectic point
n Inmould inoculation
n Controlled filling
n Surface turbulence
n Melt velocity
67
General types of running
systems
Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
68
Flow-3D filling simulation
70
*)
Weibull plot of
ultimate tensile
strength from
type 1, 2 and 3
filling systems
*)
71
Simulation and filling
sequence
72
Solidification pattern
73
F&F
Ease of removal
pmr_05
F&F
C a rb o n S h rin ka g e
F lo ta tio n of g ra p h ite
to analytical
S u lp hu r In ocu la tio n
capability D ro ss g e ne ra tion
M a g ne siu m N o du le fo rm a tion
D ro ss a n d sh rin ka g e
C e rium B a la n ce in g P b , S b e tc.
S hu n ky g ra p h ite
S h rink ag e a nd n od u le
T ita n iu m
form a tio n
T h e rm a l C on trol o f g ra p h ite
a n alysis stru ctu re
S hrin ka g e
pm r_05
Minimize chunky graphite
76
Haig diagram
showing anomalous
structure influence on
fatigue endurance *)
*)
Fraunhofer Nr FB-214(1998)
F&F
6
Strain amplitude for N > 2*10 cycles
types og defects *)
DI without defects 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
*) Structure with
0.83 0.72 0.85 0.72
anomalies
Fraunhofer Nr FB-214(1998)
pmr_05
Physics
of
fatigue
Crack initiation at grain boundaries
n The diagram shows how
the shear stresses result in
local plastic deformation
along slip planes.
n As the loading is cycled
sinusoidally, the slip planes
move back and forth like a
pack of cards, resulting in
small extrusions and
intrusions on the crystal
surface.
n These surface disturbances
are approximately 1 to 10
microns in height and
constitute embryonic
cracks.
Stress intensity factor
( K=Q )
Q = size and material
konstant
n Crack path
propagation in ferritic
dutile iron under
tensile stress.
n Occurance of voids
n Deformation of
nodules
Fatiuge crack growth showing 3 stages
I II III
Log crack
growth rate Unstable crack growth
[da/dN]
Crack propagation
Crack formation
n Paris equation:
m
da/dN = C*K
where:
da/dN = crack rate increment
C and m = material constants
K = stress intensity range
84
Growth rates of cracks
Fatigue crack
growth rates
for
GJS-400-18U,
compared with
steel
Iron-carbon phase diagram
DI
Eutecktic
composition
is the choice
Carbon equivalent
The formula:
CE = C + 1/4 Si +1/2 P
87
Carbon equivalent
88
Carbon and silicon influence
* H. Hendersen
89
Carbon and silicon influense on
the mechanical properties
90
Element influence on solidification
91
Siliciumeinflu auf die Festigkeit
92
Influence of silicon on charpy-V
93
Charpy V as function of carbon
94
Effect of matrix on impact properties
95
Nodularity and charpy V
96
Nodule number and Charpy V
97
Influence of
Mg and Pb on
nodularity
98
Effect of nikkel
Tensile strenght in "as cast" ferritic DI as function of nikkel content
450
Rm = 71.65Ni + 356.38
Sampling type: D2 EN1563
R2 = 0.7789
400
350 Re
Rm
Rm [MPa]
Liner (Re)
300 Liner (Rm)
250
Re = 72.506Ni + 231.44
R2 = 0.7705
200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
pmr_06
Ni [%]
99
Pearlite promoting elements
pmr 11_06
100
Subversive elements
Influence of subversive elements are expressed
in the formula below:
101
Cleanliness of the melt
102
Influence of
non-metallic
inclusions on
rotory bending
fatigue.
103
Effect of inclusions on fatigue
104
J-integral in ferritic DI
J-integral as a
function of proof
stress (Rp0.2),
elongation(A5d and
mean distance ()
between graphite
particles.
Ferritic ductile iron
Metallographic
structure in a 2MW
Hub
(cast on sample, D)
3 32
4 16
5 8
6 4
7 2
8 1
Bulls eye structure
n Graphite nodules in
ferrite and mainly
pearlitic matrix.
Nital 200X
108
Segregation defect
n Graphite flotation
109
Effect of low magnesium level
n Consequently graphite
nodule structure suffers
and yields only ca. 30%.
110
Subvercieve elements
n Spiky graphite
caused by
lead (Pb)
contamination
300X
111
Intermetalic carbides
n Carbides formed
by segregated
Mo, V, Cr, Mn
and other minor
elements.
112
Volumetric defects
n Porosity due to
shrinkage.
113
Shrinkage defect CC 2 (ASTM)
114
Volumetric defects
n Porosity caused
by gas.
115
Darkened surface
n Darkened area on
large ductile iron
component, 200 mm
wide.
116
Futher excample of darkened surface
n Extreme excample of
darkened surface on
a ductile iron casting
showing cellular
structure.
Ref: Bouse at al
117
Chunky graphite
Structure showing
extensive volume
of chunky graphite
118
Kodak GrayScale
119
Dross inclusions
ariseing from
inadequate running
and filling systems.
Surface structure degeneration
n Surface structure
anomalous from
sulfur-containing
moulding sand.
121
Sulphur contamination of
the gating system
n Pouring big volumes
1.6 % S
n High metal velocity
n Incomplete filling
2.2 % S
n Sulphur potential in
moulding sand
Pmr_05
122
Sulphur content in downsprue
%S
y = 0.5141x -1.2127
R2 = 0.8815
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Position [mm]
123
Thermal analysis
Extraction of values
from the cooling curve
give rise for carbon
equvialent (CE) to be
calculated.
This is by far the most
precise method for the
determination of
carbon.
124
Accurate carbon
determination
n Use of thermal analyses
125
Some math
Temperature liquidus:
Tl = f (C,Si,P)
which is the most recognised equation for the determination
of temperature liquidus (Tl), in carbon rich iron alloys
and transformed..
CTl = 13.459 - 0.008065Tl - 0.22Si - 0.54P
Pmr_05
126
Jet type filling mode
J. Campbell
127
Surface entrainment event
Gas phase
Liquid DI
alloy
Dobble film
J. Campbell
128
Oxide flow tube defect from a fall
Dobble film
entrainment
caused by fall
J. Campbell
129
Advancing front.
Film trapped and
held against mould
wall by friction.
Film entrainment
from retreating
front.
J. Campbell
Profile of melts of
aluminium and
cast iron
emerging from
ingate at various
speeds.
Runyoro et al 1992
Reliabilities and ingate speeds
J. Campbell
Exfoliated dross
core
J. Campbell
133
Rising bubbles
(a) Schematic
illustration of
rising bubbles and
associated trails.
(b) Cross-section
illustrating the
progressive
collapse of the
bubble trail. (a) (b)
J. Campbell
134
Datums
136
Location/tooling points
137
Tooling points
n Whereas the casting datums are invsible planes,
defining the consept of a zero in the dimensional space
in and around the casting, the tooling points are real bits
on the casting. The datums are the software, whereas
the the tooling points are the hardware of the
dimesioning system.
n For the greatest accuracy, all six points are moulded in
one mould half, usually the drag. For castings whose
critical features are all internal, all six tooling point are
to be moulded in the internal core. The separation of
points between mould halves, or having some defined
from the mould and some from cores, will compromise
accuracy.
138
Tooling points
139
Solidification
n
t= solidification time
B= mould constant
V= casting volume
A= cooling surface
n= 2
1940
140
Casting modulus
141
Exercise
142
Draft
143
Draft angle
144
a) Simple cake core and
drag assembly
c) An apparently lower-cost
alternative to b), but
resulting in possible loss
of dimensional control
Heat extraction from mould
An improved
design of square
or rectangular
corners would
involve rounding
off corners to
promote more
equal heat
extraction through
the mould wall.
146
Design for soundness
n Design so that all Riser
members of the parts
increase in dimension
progressively to more
suitable locations Shrink
where feeder heads defect
cannot be fed
147
Design for soundness
148
Avoid hot spots
Avoid stress
concentration
and hotspot
Incorrect Correct
149
Internal hot spot corner
150
V and Y-formed sections
In case of V or Y sections and other angular
forms, always design so as to allow a generous
radius to avoid localization of heat
Hot
spot
POOR IMPROVED
151
Arm and leg influence in a T-junction
50
Slope 2 Slope 1
40
30 "Hot spot"
T/mm Avoid this area
20
Slope 1/2
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
t/mm
152
A cross joinment
To reduce
solidification
time for the
design in fig.A,
fig.E version
has to be
chosen.
153
Fillet radius
Apply a minimum
fillet radius of at
least 25mm.
Generally adopt fillet
radius equel to wall
thickness T.
154
Dobbel leg design
n In design a) the
distance A ought
to be 8-10 times A to
solve solidification
problems.
nA better solution
would be the design
under b).
155
Design advice
Bad design Good design
Design advice
Bad design Good design
Design advice
Bad design Good design
Design like nature grows
Design like nature grows
Design like nature grows
SKO und CAO!! Sprechen Sie deutsch?
SKO and CAO approach
163
Design advice
Obtain uniformety
in section wall
thickness.
164
Design guidelines
n Consult Foundryman - communicate requirements,
service functions and where it fits into total assembly.
n Design sections as uniform in thickness as possible.
Avoid abrupt section changes. Make transitions
gradual, blending heavier sections into light once.
n Design so that all members of the parts increase
progressivly in thickness to convenient locations where
risers can be placed.
n Reduce bosses, lugs and pads and other projections to
a minimum.
165
Design guidelines
n Bring the minimum number of sections together.
Three is inviting trouble; four is bad. Shrink and
porosity troubles most often occur at member
junctions. Stagger if possible.
n Avoid multiple cores.
n In designing adjoining sections, replace corners with
radii, and avoid heat and stress concentration.
n Apply datums at a casting feature.
168