Photographic film is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with

a gelatin emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes
and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast and resolution of the film.[1]
The emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete
to be of any practical use. Instead, a very short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is
used to produce only a very slight chemical change, proportional to the amount of light absorbed by
each crystal. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be
chemically developed into a visible photograph. In addition to visible light, all films are sensitive
to ultraviolet, X-rays and high-energy particles. Unmodified silver halide crystals are sensitive only to
the blue part of the visible spectrum, producing unnatural-looking renditions of some colored
subjects. This problem was overcome with the discovery that certain dyes, called sensitizing dyes,
when adsorbed onto the silver halide crystals made them respond to other colors as well.
First orthochromatic (sensitive to blue and green) and finally panchromatic (sensitive to all visible
colors) films were developed. Panchromatic film renders all colors in shades of gray approximately
matching their subjective brightness. By similar techniques special-purpose films can be made
sensitive to the infrared (IR) region of the spectrum.[2]
In black-and-white photographic film there is usually one layer of silver halide crystals. When the
exposed silver halide grains are developed, the silver halide crystals are converted to metallic silver,
which blocks light and appears as the black part of the film negative. Color film has at least three
sensitive layers, incorporating different combinations of sensitizing dyes. Typically the blue-sensitive
layer is on top, followed by a yellow filter layer to stop any remaining blue light from affecting the
layers below. Next come a green-and-blue sensitive layer, and a red-and-blue sensitive layer, which
record the green and red images respectively. During development, the exposed silver halide
crystals are converted to metallic silver, just as with black-and-white film. But in a color film, the by-
products of the development reaction simultaneously combine with chemicals known as color
couplers that are included either in the film itself or in the developer solution to form colored dyes.
Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and
development, the dye clouds formed are also in proportion to the exposure and development.
Following development, the silver is converted back to silver halide crystals in the bleach step. It is
removed from the film during the process of fixing the image on the film with a solution of ammonium
thiosulfate or sodium thiosulfate (hypo or fixer).[3] Fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes,
which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as
many as 12 emulsion layers,[4] with upwards of 20 different chemicals in each layer.

History of film
The earliest practical photographic process, the daguerreotype, introduced in 1839, did not use film.
The light-sensitive chemicals were formed on the surface of a silver-plated copper
sheet.[5] The calotype process produced paper negatives.[6] Beginning in the 1850s, thin glass plates
coated with photographic emulsion became the standard material for use in the camera. Although
fragile and relatively heavy, the glass used for photographic plates was of better optical quality than
early transparent plastics and was, at first, less expensive. Glass plates continued to be used long
after the introduction of film, and were used for astrophotography[7] and electron micrography until
the early 2000s, when they were supplanted by digital recording methods. Ilford continues to
manufacture glass plates for special scientific applications.[8]
The first flexible photographic roll film was sold by George Eastman in 1885,[9] but this original "film"
was actually a coating on a paper base. As part of the processing, the image-bearing layer was
stripped from the paper and attached to a sheet of hardened clear gelatin. The first transparent
plastic roll film followed in 1889.[10] It was made from highly flammable nitrocellulose ("celluloid"), now
usually called "nitrate film".
Although cellulose acetate or "safety film" had been introduced by Kodak in 1908,[11] at first it found
only a few special applications as an alternative to the hazardous nitrate film, which had the
advantages of being considerably tougher, slightly more transparent, and cheaper. The changeover
was completed for X-ray films in 1933, but although safety film was always used for 16 mm and
8 mm home movies, nitrate film remained standard for theatrical 35 mm films until it was finally
discontinued in 1951.[12]
Hurter and Driffield began pioneering work on the light sensitivity of photographic emulsions in 1876.
Their work enabled the first quantitative measure of film speed to be devised.[13] They developed
H&D curves, which are specific for each film and paper. These curves plot the photographic density
against the log of the exposure, to determine sensitivity or speed of the emulsion and enabling
correct exposure.[14]

Spectral sensitivity
Early photographic plates and films were usefully sensitive only to blue, violet and ultraviolet light. As
a result, the relative tonal values in a scene registered roughly as they would appear if viewed
through a piece of deep blue glass. Blue skies with interesting cloud formations photographed as a
white blank. Any detail visible in masses of green foliage was due mainly to the colorless surface
gloss. Bright yellows and reds appeared nearly black. Most skin tones came out unnaturally dark,
and uneven or freckled complexions were exaggerated. Photographers sometimes compensated by
adding in skies from separate negatives that had been exposed and processed to optimize the
visibility of the clouds, by manually retouching their negatives to adjust problematic tonal values, and
by heavily powdering the faces of their portrait sitters.
In 1873, Hermann Wilhelm Vogel discovered that the spectral sensitivity could be extended to green
and yellow light by adding very small quantities of certain dyes to the emulsion. The instability of
early sensitizing dyes and their tendency to rapidly cause fogging initially confined their use to the
laboratory, but in 1883 the first commercially dye-sensitized plates appeared on the market. These
early products, described as isochromatic or orthochromatic depending on the manufacturer, made
possible a more accurate rendering of colored subject matter into a black-and-white image. Because
they were still disproportionately sensitive to blue, the use of a yellow filter and a consequently
longer exposure time were required to take full advantage of their extended sensitivity.
In 1894, the Lumire Brothers introduced their Lumire Panchromatic plate, which was made
sensitive, although very unequally, to all colors including red. New and improved sensitizing dyes
were developed, and in 1902 the much more evenly color-sensitive Perchromo panchromatic plate
was being sold by the German manufacturer Perutz. The commercial availability of highly
panchromatic black-and-white emulsions also accelerated the progress of practical color
photography, which requires good sensitivity to all the colors of the spectrum for the red, green and
blue channels of color information to all be captured with reasonable exposure times.
However, all of these were glass-based plate products. Panchromatic emulsions on a film base were
not commercially available until the 1910s and did not come into general use until much later. Many
photographers who did their own darkroom work preferred to go without the seeming luxury of
sensitivity to reda rare color in nature and uncommon even in man-made objectsrather than be
forced to abandon the traditional red darkroom safelight and process their exposed film in complete
darkness. Kodak's popular Verichrome black-and-white snapshot film, introduced in 1931, remained
a red-insensitive orthochromatic product until 1956, when it was replaced by Verichrome Pan.
Amateur darkroom enthusiasts then had to handle the undeveloped film by the sense of touch alone.

Color[edit]
Experiments with color photography began almost as early as photography itself, but the three-color
principle underlying all practical processes was not set forth until 1855, not demonstrated until 1861,
and not generally accepted as "real" color photography until it had become an undeniable
commercial reality in the early 20th century. Although color photographs of good quality were being
made by the 1890s, they required special equipment, long exposures, complex printing or display
procedures and highly specialized skills, so they were then exceedingly rare.
The first practical and commercially successful color "film" was the Lumire Autochrome, a glass
plate product introduced in 1907. It was expensive and not sensitive enough for hand-held
"snapshot" use. Film-based versions were introduced in the early 1930s and the sensitivity was later
improved. These were "mosaic screen" additive color products, which used a simple layer of black-
and-white emulsion in combination with a layer of microscopically small color filter elements. The
resulting transparencies or "slides" were very dark because the color filter mosaic layer absorbed
most of the light passing through. The last films of this type were discontinued in the 1950s,
but Polachrome "instant" slide film, introduced in 1983, temporarily revived the technology.
"Color film" in the modern sense of a subtractive color product with a multi-layered emulsion was
born with the introduction of Kodachrome for home movies in 1935 and as lengths of 35 mm film for
still cameras in 1936.[15] During the next several decades, color remained much more expensive than
black-and-white and required much more light, factors which combined to delay its widespread
adoption. Decreasing cost and increasing sensitivity gradually overcame these impediments. By the
1970s color film predominated in the consumer market, while the use of black-and-white film was
increasingly confined to photojournalism and fine art photography.

Effect on lens and equipment design[edit]

Photographic lenses and equipment are designed around the film to be used. Although the earliest
photographic materials were sensitive only to the blue-violet end of the spectrum, partially color-
corrected achromatic lenses were normally used, so that when the photographer brought the visually
brightest yellow rays to a sharp focus, the visually dimmest but photographically most active violet
rays would be correctly focused, too. The introduction of orthochromatic emulsions required the
whole range of colors from yellow to blue to be brought to an adequate focus. Most plates and films
described as orthochromatic or isochromatic were practically insensitive to red, so the correct focus
of red light was unimportant; a red window could be used to view the frame numbers on the paper
backing of roll film, as any red light which leaked around the backing would not fog the film; and red
lighting could be used in darkrooms. With the introduction of panchromatic film the whole visible
spectrum needed to be brought to an acceptably sharp focus. In all cases a color cast in the lens
glass or faint colored reflections in the image were of no consequence as they would merely change
the contrast a little. This was no longer acceptable when using color film. More highly corrected
lenses for newer emulsions could be used with older emulsion types, but the converse was not true.
The progression of lens design for later emulsions is of practical importance when considering the
use of old lenses, still often used on large-format equipment; a lens designed for orthochromatic film
may have visible defects with a color emulsion; a lens for panchromatic film will be better but not as
good as later designs.
The filters used were different for the different film types.

Film basics[edit]
Layers of 35mm color film: 1. Film base; 2. Subbing layer; 3. Red light sensitive layer; 4. Green light sensitive
layer; 5. Yellow filter; 6. Blue light sensitive layer; 7. UV Filter; 8. Protective layer; 9. (Visible light exposing film).

There are several types of photographic film, including:

Print film, when developed, yields transparent negatives with the light and dark areas and
colors (if color film is used) inverted to their respective complementary colors. This type of film is
designed to be printed onto photographic paper, usually by means of an enlarger but in some
cases by contact printing. The paper is then itself developed. The second inversion that results
restores light, shade and color to their normal appearance. Color negatives incorporate an
orange color correction mask that compensates for unwanted dye absorptions and improves
color accuracy in the prints. Although color processing is more complex and temperature-
sensitive than black-and-white processing, the wide availability of commercial color processing
and scarcity of service for black-and-white prompted the design of some black-and-white films
which are processed in exactly the same way as standard color film.
Color reversal film produces positive transparencies, also known as diapositives.
Transparencies can be reviewed with the aid of a magnifying loupe and a lightbox. If mounted in
small metal, plastic or cardboard frames for use in a slide projector or slide viewer they are
commonly called slides. Reversal film is often marketed as "slide film". Large-format color
reversal sheet film is used by some professional photographers, typically to originate very-high-
resolution imagery for digital scanning into color separations for mass photomechanical
reproduction. Photographic prints can be produced from reversal film transparencies, but this
process requires the use of an internegative to convert the positive transparency image into a
negative transparency, which is then printed as a positive print.[16]
Black-and-white reversal film exists but is very uncommon. Conventional black-and-white
negative film can be reversal-processed to produce black-and-white slides, as by dr5
Chrome.[17] Although kits of chemicals for black-and-white reversal processing may no longer be
available to amateur darkroom enthusiasts, an acid bleaching solution, the only unusual
component which is essential, is easily prepared from scratch. Black-and-white transparencies
may also be produced by printing negatives onto special positive print film, still available from
some specialty photographic supply dealers.[18]
In order to produce a usable image, the film needs to be exposed properly. The amount of exposure
variation that a given film can tolerate while still producing an acceptable level of quality is called
its exposure latitude. Color print film generally has greater exposure latitude than other types of
film. Additionally, because print film must be printed to be viewed, after-the-fact corrections for
imperfect exposure are possible during the printing process.
Plot of image density (D) vs. log exposure (H), yields a characteristic S-curve (H&D curve) for each type of film
to determine its sensitivity. Changing the emulsion properties or the processing parameters will move the curve
to the left or right. Changing the exposure will move along the curve, helping to determine what exposure is
needed for a given film. Note the non-linear response at the far left ("toe") and right ("shoulder") of the curve.[19]

The concentration of dyes or silver halide crystals remaining on the film after development is referred
to as optical density, or simply density; the optical density is proportional to the logarithm of the
optical transmission coefficient of the developed film. A dark image on the negative is of higher
density than a more transparent image.
Most films are affected by the physics of silver grain activation (which sets a minimum amount of
light required to expose a single grain) and by the statistics of random grain activation by photons.
The film requires a minimum amount of light before it begins to expose, and then responds by
progressive darkening over a wide dynamic range of exposure until all of the grains are exposed and
the film achieves (after development) its maximum optical density.
Over the active dynamic range of most films, the density of the developed film is proportional to the
logarithm of the total amount of light to which the film was exposed, so the transmission coefficient of
the developed film is proportional to a power of the reciprocal of the brightness of the original
exposure. The plot of the density of the film image against the log of the exposure is known as an
H&D curve.[14]This effect is due to the statistics of grain activation: as the film becomes progressively
more exposed, each incident photon is less likely to impact a still-unexposed grain, yielding the
logarithmic behavior. A simple, idealized statistical model yields the equation density = 1 - ( 1
- k) light, where light is proportional to the number of photons hitting a unit area of film, k is the
probability of a single photon striking a grain (based on the size of the grains and how closely
spaced they are), and density is the proportion of grains that have been hit by at least one photon.
The relationship between density and log exposure is linear for photographic films except at the
extreme ranges of maximum exposure (D-max) and minimum exposure (D-min) on an H&D curve,
so the curve is characteristically S-shaped (as opposed to digital camera sensors which have a
linear response through the effective exposure range.[20] The sensitivity (i.e., the ISO speed) of a film
can be affected by changing the length or temperature of development, which would move the H&D
curve to the left or right (see figure).[21][22]
If parts of the image are exposed heavily enough to approach the maximum density possible for a
print film, then they will begin losing the ability to show tonal variations in the final print. Usually
those areas will be considered overexposed and will appear as featureless white on the print. Some
subject matter is tolerant of very heavy exposure; for example sources of brilliant light such as a light
bulb or the sun generally appear best as a featureless white on the print.
Likewise, if part of an image receives less than the beginning threshold level of exposure, which
depends upon the film's sensitivity to lightor speedthe film there will have no appreciable image
density, and will appear on the print as a featureless black. Some photographers use their
knowledge of these limits to determine the optimum exposure for a photograph; for one example,
see the Zone System. Most automatic cameras instead try to achieve a particular average density.

Film speed[edit]

A roll of 400 speed Kodak35mm film.

Main article: Film speed

Film speed describes a film's threshold sensitivity to light. The international standard for rating film
speed is the ISO scale which combines both the ASA speed and the DIN speed in the format
ASA/DIN. Using ISO convention film with an ASA speed of 400 would be labeled 400/27.[23] A fourth
naming standard is GOST, developed by the Russian standards authority. See the film speed article
for a table of conversions between ASA, DIN, and GOST film speeds.
Common film speeds include ISO 25, 50, 64, 100, 160, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200, and 6400.
Consumer print films are usually in the ISO 100 to ISO 800 range. Some films, like
Kodak's Technical Pan,[24] are not ISO rated and therefore careful examination of the film's properties
must be made by the photographer before exposure and development. ISO 25 film is very "slow", as
it requires much more exposure to produce a usable image than "fast" ISO 800 film. Films of ISO
800 and greater are thus better suited to low-light situations and action shots (where the short
exposure time limits the total light received). The benefit of slower film is that it usually has
finer grain and better color rendition than fast film. Professional photographers of static subjects
such as portraits or landscapes usually seek these qualities, and therefore require a tripod to
stabilize the camera for a longer exposure. Photographing subjects such as rapidly moving sports or
in low-light conditions, a professional will choose a faster film.
A film with a particular ISO rating can be push-processed, or "pushed", to behave like a film with a
higher ISO, by developing for a longer amount of time or at a higher temperature than
usual.[25]:160 More rarely, a film can be "pulled" to behave like a "slower" film. Pushing generally
coarsens grain and increases contrast, reducing dynamic range, to the detriment of overall quality.
Nevertheless, it can be a useful tradeoff in difficult shooting environments, if the alternative is no
usable shot at all.

Special films[edit]
Instant photography, as popularized by Polaroid, uses a special type of camera and film that
automates and integrates development, without the need of further equipment or chemicals. This
process is carried out immediately after exposure, as opposed to regular film, which is developed
afterwards and requires additional chemicals. See instant film.
Films can be made to record non-visible ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) radiation. These films
generally require special equipment; for example, most photographic lenses are made of glass and
will therefore filter out most ultraviolet light. Instead, expensive lenses made of quartz must be
used. Infrared films may be shot in standard cameras using an infrared band- or long-pass filter,
although the infrared focal point must be compensated for.
Exposure and focusing are difficult when using UV or IR film with a camera and lens designed for
visible light. The ISO standard for film speed only applies to visible light, so visual-spectrum light
meters are nearly useless. Film manufacturers can supply suggested equivalent film speeds under
different conditions, and recommend heavy bracketing (e.g., with a certain filter, assume ISO 25
under daylight and ISO 64 under tungsten lighting). This allows a light meter to be used to estimate
an exposure. The focal point for IR is slightly farther away from the camera than visible light, and UV
slightly closer; this must be compensated for when focusing. Apochromatic lenses are sometimes
recommended due to their improved focusing across the spectrum.
Film optimized for sensing X-ray radiation is commonly used for medical imaging by placing the
subject between the film and a source of X-rays, without a lens, as if a translucent object were
imaged by being placed between a light source and standard film. Unlike other types of film, X-ray
film has a sensitive emulsion on both sides of the carrier material. This reduces the X-ray exposure
for an acceptable image a desirable feature in medical radiography. The film is usually placed in
contact with a thin layer of lead which also enhances its sensitivity.
Film optimized for sensing X-rays and for gamma rays is sometimes used for
radiation dosimetry and personal monitoring.
Film has a number of disadvantages as a scientific detector: it is difficult to calibrate for photometry,
it is not re-usable, it requires careful handling (including temperature and humidity control) for best
calibration, and the film must physically be returned to the laboratory and processed. Against this,
photographic film can be made with a higher spatial resolution than any other type of imaging
detector, and, because of its logarithmic response to light, has a wider dynamic range than most
digital detectors. For example, Agfa 10E56 holographic film has a resolution of over 4,000
lines/mmequivalent to a pixel size of 0.125 micrometersand an active dynamic range of over five
orders of magnitude in brightness, compared to typical scientific CCDs that might have pixels of
about 10 micrometers and a dynamic range of 34 orders of magnitude.[26][not in citation given]
Special films are used for the long exposures required by astrophotography.

Decline[edit]
Film remained the dominant form of photography until the early 21st century, when advances in
digital photography drew consumers to digital formats. The first consumer electronic camera,
the Sony Mavica was released in 1981, the first digital camera, the Fuji DS-X released in
1989,[27] coupled with advances in software such as Adobe Photoshop which was released in 1989,
improvements in consumer level digital color printers and increasingly widespread computers in
households during the late 20th century facilitated uptake of digital photography by
consumers.[20] Although modern photography is dominated by digital users, film continues to be used
by enthusiasts. Film remains the preference of some photographers because of its distinctive
"look".[a]

DX codes[edit]
135 Film Cartridge with DX barcode (top) and DX CAS code on the black and white grid below the barcode.
The CAS code shows the ISO, number of exposures, exposure latitude (+3/1 for print film).

DX film edge barcode

DX Encoding (Digital indeX), or DX coding was initially developed by Kodak in the 1980s, and
eventually adapted by all camera and film manufacturers.[30] It provides information on both the film
cassette and on the film regarding the type of film, number of exposures, speed (ISO/ASA rating) of
the film. It consists of three types of identification. First is a barcode near the film opening of the
cassette, identifying the manufacturer, film type and processing method (see image below left). This
is used by photofinishing equipment during film processing. The second part is a barcode on the
edge of the film (see image below right), used also during processing, which indicates the image film
type, manufacturer, frame number and synchronizes the position of the frame. The third part of DX
coding, known as the DX Camera Auto Sensing (CAS) code, consists of a series of 12 metal
contacts on the film cassette, which beginning with cameras manufactured after 1985 could detect
the type of film, number of exposures and ISO of the film, and use that information to automatically
adjust the camera settings for the speed of the film

Resource: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_film