Annex 11 Road Transport To EU Labour Transport Updates 2015

Annex 11 Labour Market Road Transport (including
urban public transport)
Background information for the study Analysis of the

trends and prospects of jobs and working conditions in
transport
Contents
1 EU ROAD TRANSPORT LABOUR MARKET 5

1.1 Introduction 5
1.2 Submodes and professions 5
1.3 Analytical framework 6
2 PESTLE-ANALYSIS ON EU ROAD
TRANSPORT LABOUR MARKET 7
2.1 Political factors 7
2.2 Economic factors 12
2.3 Social factors 14
2.4 Technological factors 15
2.5 Legal factors 16
2.6 Environmental factors 22
3 EU ROAD TRANSPORT LABOUR MARKET

TRENDS 25
3.1 Trends in demand 25
3.2 Trends in supply 32
4 DISCREPANCIES EU ROAD TRANSPORT

LABOUR MARKET 37
4.1 Quantitative discrepancies 37
4.2 Qualitative discrepancies 40
4.3 Information asymmetries 51
5 REDUCTION OF DISCREPANCIES EU
ROAD TRANSPORT LABOUR MARKET 55
5.1 General solutions to discrepancies 55
5.2 Specific solutions to discrepancies road transport 55
5.3 Promoting inflow 57
5.4 Preventing outflow/diminishing labour demand 60
6 CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS 65
6.1 Sub-sectors and job types 65
6.2 Data and literature 66
6.3 Social dialogue 67
6.4 Road transport undertakings and policies 67
6.5 Demand and supply of labour and skills 69
6.6 Attractiveness of working in the sector 71
6.7 Education, training and certification 72
6.8 Conclusions: bottlenecks and risks 72
6.9 Policy suggestions 73
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1 EU road transport labour market
1.1 Introduction
This is Annex 11 to the Analysis of the trends and prospects of jobs and working
conditions in transport, commissioned by JRC and conducted by Panteia in
cooperation with PwC Italy. The Annex contains both detailed information and
analyses on the specific transport mode - often distinguishing road transport -
and the transport sector at large which allow the report to be read as a stand -
alone document along the main report.
This Annex covers the PESTLE-analysis, labour market trends, discrepancies in

the labour market, options to reduce the discrepancies and main findings. These
are treated in the consecutive chapters. The results of some specific research
steps and on specific topics are not included as they are presented en block in
the main report. This includes:
Detailed assessment of the relative job quality (Task 4);
Review of the human capital perspective aiming to draw a human capital map
for 2010 and 2020 of the EU transport sector (Task 5);
Findings targeted stakeholder consultation;
(Anecdotic) evidence on social dumping, cabotage and other social problems;
Lists of literature and internet sources.
The Annex does not aim to give a complete new overview of the labour market in
road transport but gives the findings as were anticipated during the execution of
the study. In itself labour market issues and its description are not of static
nature and would require continuous updating.
1.2 Sub-modes and professions
The road transport sector comprises three subsectors:

Trucking;
Coach;
Urban public transport.
The relevant job types considered in road transport are:

Drivers;
Attendants (passengers only);
Management;
Back-office;
Maintenance staff.
Different types of taxi drivers and chauffeurs are:

licensed cab drivers
unregulated minicabs
minibuses used for collective transport of specific passenger categories (e.g.
elderly or disabled passengers)
limousine drivers
company chauffeurs
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1.3 Analytical framework
The analytical framework that is applied in the study, comprises four

interconnected labour market models: flow model, discrepancies model, PESTLE -
analysis model and solutions model. On the basis of this analytical framework
the research questions to be answered in this study are formulated. This can be
described as follows:
The external factors influencing the development of the labour market can be
identified by looking at six specific domains. The six dimensions are the
political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental dimension,
together PESTLE. These six different dimensions can influence the situation
on the transport labour market to a large extent, though some are obviously
more important than others. The PESTLE-model provides, so to speak, a
common language to describe the challenges faced by the different actors.
The EU transport labour market has a demand side and a supply side.
The demand for labour has a quantitative side (number of jobs) as well as a
qualitative side (requirements on workers) and is being influenced by the
specific (labour market) characteristics of the sector.
Likewise, the supply of labour has a quantitative side (number of potential
workers) as well as a qualitative side (characteristics of workers, e.g.
competences).
An ideal sectoral labour market knows completely balanced demand and
supply. In the real world, however, this is mostly not the case: labour
shortages and redundancies cause problems for market agents. Hence, at the
centre of this analysis of the EU transport labour market is the discrepancies
model: the EU transport labour market is analysed according to the three
characteristics of market functioning: (1) quantitative discrepancies, (2)
qualitative discrepancies and (3) transparency of market functioning.
The chapters in this working document follow this struc ture, first the PESTLE
analysis is carried out. This is followed by description of supply and demand. This
is followed by a description of the discrepancies in the labour market. Thereafter
strategies to reduce discrepancies are discussed. Finally this lea ds to the main
findings within the specific labour sub-market, these are brought forward to the
main report.
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2 PESTLE-analysis on EU road transport
labour market
This section describes contextual factors influencing the EU road transport labour
market, the so-called PESTLE-factors: political, economic, social, technological,
legal and environmental factors. By differentiating into these elements of the
PESTLE-analysis a better and structured insight is obtained in the contextual
factors.
2.1 Political factors
2.1.1 Gen eral context EU tran sport labou r market
The following political factors play an important role for the EU transport labour
market as a whole:
EU Enlargement, Single Market and Market liberalisation : Transport
companies increasingly make use of more affordable labour from new
Member States and establish subsidiaries in those countries.
Remaining protectionism: Some Member States show in specific areas a
poor record of transposition and effectuation of EU market liberalisation
policy.
Integration of transport system: The EUs political objective is to
transform the European transport system into an integrated, sustainable and
efficient mobility network.
Central role of social dialogue in EU transport labour market: Social
dialogue figures as a central instrument of governance in the transport labour
market in the European Union and its Member States. At EU-level Sectoral
Social Dialogue Committees play a central role.
Political priority of Life Long Learning (LLL): LLL helps employees to
adapt to the changing circumstances in and requirements of their respective
professions.
Europe 2020 and Flexicurity: Flexicurity consists of ensuring no longer a
job for life ("job security") but of ensuring "employment security" thanks to
active employment policies and an appropriate safety net when one has lost
his/her employment.
Political priority of ecological focus: Emphasis on decarbonisation and
energy security leads to a modal shift and the introduction of alternative
energy and propulsion systems in transport means.
2.1.2 Specific con text EU road tran sport labour market
Market liberalisation
Over the last decade road freight transport in the EU-27 has seen considerable
activity growth (and hence employment growth), and an increase in competitive
pressure has been at work, also following the enlargement of the EU. This has
kept profit margins decreasing, despite remarkable increases in the industrys
turnover and productivity (even though load levels are still very low in certain
market segments). Considerable differences are to be seen among EU Member
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States in both operating costs and investment rates, with new Member States
exhibiting lower average personnel costs than the old Member States, but higher
investment rates.
Sitran and Pastori conclude: The implication of such reasoning, as well as a

major conclusion of this study, is that the direction in which the road freight
transport market has evolved since the liberalisation process started in the
1990s has not entailed a convergence between increased competit ion and a
parallel process of social harmonisation across the EU Member States in the
employment and working conditions for road freight transport workers.
Differences in terms of labour and social market structures amongst the EU
countries remain significantly wide, and, especially in the presence of poor or
ineffective enforcement mechanisms, this may lead to unfair transport
companies adopting disloyal competition and social dumping practices. This
negatively contributes to the current downward trend that is being suffered
today by the road freight transport sector.
Again, enforcement remains a key measure through which the objective of
harmonised working conditions might be reached, together with a common
understanding and application of the relevant regulations, supported by a more
uniform definition of infringements and their associated penalties. 1
In their views expressed jointly with the ETF, the International Road Transport
Union (IRU)2 recognises that further liberalisation of road transport would be
very difficult to accept, unless further harmonisation of social and tax regimes
and enforcement on the current set of legislation will be implemented.
Otherwise, it will be counterproductive and only highlight and aggravate
problems in the social conditions. On the other hand, one should not forget the
road haulage is still a business that needs to compete and cost cutting is a
normal aspect of doing business.
UITP is also of the opinion that further liberalisation is not needed. They consider
it strange to reopen the dossier on what local authorities can decide upon.
UITP does not see a link between market liberalisation and working conditions in
urban public transport. UITP promotes quality of service and quality of work. The
main decisive factor for social conditions is the quality of the management.
A general issue that is highly valid for taxi drivers and chauffeurs is the
discussion whether they are (or should be) employees or self -employed. Fake
self-employment is said to be a serious problem. However, there is very little or
no data on this issue.
According to ETF, there is a problem due to the liberalisation/competition in this

mode. The companies from the old Member States (EU15)have an increased
interest to access cheaper labour from the new EU Member States (EU12).
Likewise, companies based in the new Member States will send their fleet to
1
Sitran, A. & E. Pastori (2013). Social and working conditions of road transport hauliers.
Commissioned by the European Parliament, Directorate General for Internal Policies.
2
See social dialogue library entries for joint statements of EU social partners:
http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=521&langId=en&day=&month=&year=&sector
Code=SECT23&themeCode=&typeCode=&recipientCode=&keyword=&mode =searchSubmi
t
8
operate entirely from the old Member States, since most of the road transport
activity is carried out here.
Experience/view of individual road transport companies c.q. national representatives

Competition exists, especially in a labour market with declining supply of workers. Of course,
issues such as wages and general working conditions determine competitive strength among
those who demand labour on the labour market.
Competition exists, but we dont experience unfair competition. It is actually like a level
playing field.
We do not experience competition on the labour market. We do not expect that to happen in
the near future. We will be able to find competent personnel and train them on the job .
Source: Enterprise survey by Panteia/PWC
Issue that is rather specific on urban transport: social return on investment.

Requirements in rules of concessions of transport services. Frequen tly local
governments require a percentage (e.g. 10%) of staff to be recruited from the
pool of unemployed. This frequently results in job losses of long-term
experienced employees that often dont have qualifications that will allow them
to easily find another job, especially in the case of older employees. This
requirement is called social return on investment. In the transport sector this is
common for mini-busses and collective transport of specific client types,
although most cases are currently based on circumstantial and/or anecdotal
evidence. In some cases this means that these experienced former employees
will need to receive unemployment benefits. It could very well be the case that
the companies involved will have lower labour cost, but the costs of employment
benefits will be the same, but sometime these are covered by another fund. In
total it could very well be a zero-sum solution. No evidence of similar issues
have come to our notice on national level so far.
There are reported issues with subcontracting within concessions. There is some
evidence of urban transport companies and taxi companies that subcontract
some of the work that falls within the framework of their concession. These
subcontracts typically require employees to work under worse conditions and at
lower pay than employees that work directly for the holder of the concession.
These lower conditions are typically not easily visible and are usually not
monitored or controlled. This could be an area where chain -responsibility to
avoid social dumping could be explored of as a possible solution.
Social dialogue
State of the art (partners, priorities)
European social dialogue in this sector covers passenger and freight transport by
road. The Sectoral Social Dialogue Committee Road Transport comprises the
employers organisation International Road Transport Union (IRU) and the
employees' organisation European Transport Workers' Federation (ETF). IRU has
signed a cooperation agreement with the International Association of Public
Transport (UITP) with regard to its participation in the committee.
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The Committee is currently (2013-2014) focusing on:
Better rest facilities;
Logistics qualifications;
The driver training directive;
Better enforcement of EU driving and rest time rules;
Driver shortages, image and recruitment in road transport;
The European Skills, Competences and Occupations Project (ESCO);
Illegal employment;
Urban public transport. 1
Achievements, difficulties and deficiencies

Achievements are amongst others:
Joint social partner project on skills, training and the road transport sector
(STARTS) (2010-12);
Joint project on women employment in urban public transport sector (WISE)
(2010-12);
Joint statement on parking along Europe's road transport network (2011) ;
Joint statement on the review of the tachograph regulation (2010);
Statement on the economic crisis (2009). 2
Two problems appear to occur in Sectoral Social Dialogue in road transport:

In fear of certain clashes, social partners are reluctant to agree with the
principle of the establishment of a social code which would set minimum
working condition rules in the road haulage sector. 3 The reluctance to agree,
stops the Commission from formalising these social standards in legislative
acts.
Self-employed may be disadvantaged in Social Dialogue because of the
absence of representing trade unions.
One must as a general principle be realistic about what social dialogue can
do. Social dialogue is an instrument to gain agreement, but it is not the way for
the Commission to tell partners what to do. Furthermore, because of the
atomised structure of the road transport sector the vast majority of companies
are SMEs. This means that marginal changes (can) have major consequences for
(companies in) the sector. The road transport sector is also characterised by
small companies and social dialogue is limited. There is also a lot of competition.
According to IRU, Sectoral Social Dialogue goes quite well. Though reaching
agreement in the negotiations is always difficult, all-in-all there are no serious
problems. The Sectoral Social Dialogue is showing convergence of views.
Common views have been drafted and policy scenarios have been formulated and
1
Sectoral Social Dialogue Committee Road Transport (2012). Working Programme 2013-
2014.
2
http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=480&langId=en&intPageId=1850
3
In line with the principles of the Social Dialogue, if they social partners can agree on
these social standards, the Commission then formalises these agreements in legislative
acts. Partners are afraid of certain clashes, they cannot agree and social dialogue grind to
a halt. In the particular case of the 2002 sectoral working time directive this happened.
The Commission had to step in and propose its own minimum social requirements.
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provided to the Commission. Best practices are projects run together with ETF,
such as TRACE 1 on enforcement and STARTS 2 on skills and training.
In the view of UITP, the process of Sectoral Social Dialogue in urban public
transport which has been going on for ten years - has not been very
satisfactory as it is included in the road transport dialogue. Urban public
transport should have its own dialogue as it represents 1.2 million jobs.
According to ETF, Sectoral Social Dialogue in road transport (including urban

public transport) is going well. There is a common understanding between
employers and employees, due to the existence of unfair competition in the
sector and the demand of clients for cheaper transport.
As far as the representation of self-employed drivers in social dialogue is

concerned, unfortunately, very few self-employed drivers are unionised. This will
prevent self-employed drivers to be covered by collective bargaining
agreements, particularly in Member States such as Romania and Greece where
collective bargaining can only be conducted at company level.
They also indicate that lack of political will can sometimes be a problem at EU
Commission level. In their view the EC disregard the lack of enforcement of key
directives and regulations such as the working time directive and the regulation
on access to occupation. The latter was which was supposed to eradicate the
letter box companies which still exist today, in an even bigger number than a
few years ago. However, in general enforcement is a Member State competence
and the EC follows up on implementation of these pieces of legislation, for
instance by launching infringement procedures against M ember States which
don't apply the Working Time Directive to self-employed personnel which are not
connected to European Register of Road Transport Undertakings (ERRU), or by
asking Member States to carry out targeted checks of companies not complying
with the stable establishment criterion of Regulation 1071/2009.
Regarding enforcement the High Level Group on the Development of the EU Road
Haulage Market3 (2012) indicated that enforcement in road freight transport has
proved to be particularly challenging due to the intrinsic characteristics of the
sector. It is a service sector and less easy to control than other sectors such as
manufacturing, it is also highly mobile in space and time. Cabotage is by its
nature even less predictable in terms of its operations than international
transport, depending as it does on the matching of empty returns and local
demand, and the information linking these two components. The limit of three
1
http://www.traceproject.eu/
2
http://starts.iru.org/en_home
3
An important input for this study are the Report of the High Level Group on the
Development of the EU Road Haulage Market (2012) which was chaired by B T Bayliss .
The High Level Group was mandated to examine the extent to which the necessary
framework conditions for the full opening and integration of the EU market have been
achieved and, if relevant, what remaining obstacles needed to be tackled. The High Level
Group identified and researched four key obstacles to the creation of a Single European
Transport Area, namely driver shortage, enforcement practices, cabotage practices and
lack of innovations and applications of good practice.
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cabotage operations permissible following an international trip is seen as
particularly difficult to enforce. 1
2.2 Economic factors
As discussed in the main text of this report, the following economic factors play
an important role for the EU transport labour market as a whole:
General economic growth and the crisis: The current economic and
financial crisis lowers demand for transport services and leads to the
postponement or halting of investments in transport, infrastructure and
business in general. It also leads to rationalisation and outsourcing.
Furthermore, it creates high unemployment in the economy as a whole in
some countries which puts pressure on labour markets.
Geopolitical changes and globalisation: Geopolitical changes and
globalisation of economies and trade lead to redistribution of transport flows,
increasing transnational recruitment and impact on transport prices and
wages.
Regional differences in economic development & specialisation:
Successful regions specialise in a number of economic areas, leading to
specific development in transport
Congestion hampering and redistributing growth: Congestion of road
transport routes, but also specifically in urban areas, will increase and
seriously affect accessibility.
Operators particularly the small and medium-sized enterprises in road

transport must cope in an environment dominated by fierce intra-modal
competition and with the impact of external factors (such as the economic crisis
and high fuel prices)2:
Road freight transport companies operate in a highly competitive
environment. Maintaining and enhancing competitiveness is a major
challenge. Greater demands from customers for precision, speed and
flexibility in the delivery of goods result in just in time deliveries. Combined
with tough competition, this causes tight deadlines, increased work intensity
and reduced control of pace and organisation of work. 3
The opening of the market for European freight cabotage transport services
in the EU has been a major driver of change in the past ten years. The
gradual market opening has had significant impacts on competition,
especially in EU15 Member States 4. It is mentioned that as long as socio-
1
2
EESC (2011), TEN/445. Social aspects of EU Transport Policy.
3
Eurofound (2004). EU road freight transport sector: Work and employment conditions.
4
Steer Davies Gleave (2013), Development and implementation of EU road cabotage,
prepared for Directorate General for internal policies policy department B: Structural; and
cohesion policies transport and tourism
12
economic differences between the old and new EU Member States have not
been reduced, unrestricted cabotage will have too much of a negative effect
on the sector in various countries. Infringements of the cabotage rules
(which imply distortion of the competitive level playing field) are an
additional problem which are frequently mentioned although hard evidence is
not publicly available.
Moreover, the sector is also characterised by a particular susceptibility to the
economic climate. The current economic crisis in the EU has had a negative
impact on growth of road freight transport.
To the consequences of the economic crisis, the impact of other external
factors such as high fuel prices has to be added. 1
On the other hand, the transport of persons, a public service in many
Member States, is generally less affected by economic crises. 2
Commission staff notes that road transport activities have actually started to
increase again in recent years following a sharp drop with the economic crisis
(+3% in tkm between 2009 and 2010, with total volumes albeit still below pre-
crisis levels).
In the opinion of IRU, at the moment the impacts of the economic crisis are
paramount. As a result of the economic crisis, demand for transport and thus
demand labour in the sector are lower. As a result, also the labour shortages are
temporarily lower. It remains unsure when the economy will move upward again.
According to UITP, the International Association of Public Transport, the crisis

has had only limited impact on employment on urban public transport. Despite
reduced frequencies of transport services, dismissals are very rare. Some
decreases of salaries have been noted, however.

We have an economic crisis. This is the most important factor.
Economy has huge impact especially the cost of fuel. Every year the cost fuel ration increases
in our cost breakdown. Fuel prices together with the demand of EU customers demand for cost
reduction give a mixture of killing transport companies. Most of the people are able to buy an
expensive car, but most of the manufacturers would like to pay minimum for transport. Good
transport service should have the same high value as the transported goods. Our employees
would like to buy luxury goods, too. So our income as company should give them safety of life .
Because of the economic circumstances and the power of the market (multinationals for
example), our drivers experience more pressure. On the other hand, press ure from shippers
who have more logistic requirements will cause longer waiting times. We should do something
about this productivity problem.
1
2
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2.3 Social factors
As discussed in the main text of this report, the following social factors play an
important role for the EU transport labour market as a whole:
Demographic development: Growing population (even if slowly, means
more demand for transport of passengers and thus more demand for labour)
and an ageing workforce (less supply of labour)
High level of unemployment in many EU countries: This puts a downward
pressure on wages and working conditions and may make that past training
and formation of the unemployed becomes obsolete or forgotten.
Underrepresentation of women in the workforce: As a result of difficult
working conditions, stereotypical masculine image of the transport sector and
disadvantageous work-life balance not many women are attracted to the
transport sector.
Continuous monitoring of employee performance: Increased control over
employees performance - made possible by IT developments can lead to
perceived pressure and possibly create stress.
Violence in the public domain: Violence has also manifested in the
transport sector and is particularly reported in the passenger transport sector.
Organised crime: The transport sector suffers from crime increasing
organised crime, especially in road freight transport and maritime transport
(piracy).
Development of a liability culture: Transport employees are facing legal
action when incidents occur under their responsibility.
Social aspects in road transport

Social conditions in road vary widely between the old and new Me mber States.
Especially on international routes the limited enforcement of the existing acquis
communautaire is leading to detrimental working conditions for some categories
of workers 1.
Urbanisation
About half of the worlds population currently lives in urban areas. The worlds
urbanisation rate is growing steadily and it is set to reach 70% in 2050. Cities
are thus becoming evermore crucial for economic development and job creation.
The harmonious development of cities critically relies on efficient mobility and
high quality public transport. UITP has addressed this challenge by setting out
the ambitious objective of doubling the public transport market share worldwide
by 2025 2.
1
Openness of International Road Freight Transport Markets in the UNECE Region, Economic
Commission for Europe Inland Transport Committee Working Party on Road Transport
107th session, Peter Krausz dr. oec. univ., consultant, mandated by the Transport
Division of the United Nations Economic Commission
2
UITP (2013), Observatory of employment in public transport. Report 1 - April 2011.
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Organised crime
The road transport sector, in particular the road freight transport sector,
increasingly suffers from organised crime. Amongst others, this is due to longer
days on the road and sleeping in trucks on unsecured parking areas. This
increasing organised crime is detrimental for both the job quality and image of
the transport labour market.
2.4 Technological factors
As discussed in the main text of this report, the following technological factors
play an important role for the EU transport labour market as a whole:
Increasing use of IT
Technological innovations
Faster and larger transport means
Intermodality: Making use of the advantages of different transport modes
(e.g. between rail and road) that are neatly tuned to each other, thus keeping
transfer time and cost (for passengers and freight) between the different
modes at a minimum.
These technological developments lead to:

Efficiency & productivity gains, economies of scale and smarter
mobility & logistics (less demand for labour or more demand if activity
grows as a result of lower prices)
Diversification of requirement leading to specialised jobs
Upgrading of labour (more complex job requirements).
Specific technological developments such as the introduction of the digital

tachograph, satellite tracking devices (GPS) and on-board computers, as well as
the use of mobile telephones result in changes both, positive and negative.
Positive effects are that technological developments increase road safety, result
in more accessible drivers (e.g. for family information), lead to less
administration, more efficient planning and more accurate cost calculations. The
negative effects are higher levels of control, resulting in feelings of restricted
autonomy. On the other hand, they also make enforcement easier (e.g.
tachograph). These technological changes also affect the required skills for
workers in the sector 1.
Commission staff points at the fact that, as intermodal transport has been
embraced by many, logistics training must be adapted to this principal. This is
also discussed in the Sectoral Social Dialogue Committee.
1
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2.5 Legal factors
As discussed in the main text of this report, the following legal factors play an
important role for the EU transport labour market as a whole:
Different social regimes between Member States: In general wages,
working conditions and social security are less favourable in new Member
States compared to the other Member States. As discussed in the main text,
this may lead to social dumping of which little evidence, but a great number
of actual suspicions and cases is available.
Different social legislation between transport modes: Besides horizontal
EU social legislation, transport modes have their own social regulat ions
(especially in the field of (harmonisation of) training and certification and
working times). EU specific regulations on the phenomenon of false self-
employment are still lacking. A problem remains the enforcement of the EU
Directives at national level.
Non-EU workers under lower standard legal regime: The co-existence of
non-EU-workers carrying out intra-EU transport, who may choose as State of
Residence a Member State with less favourable legal and social regimes, has
an impact on average working conditions and remuneration packages.
Although non-EU workers must always be subject for a start to the legislation
of a Member State, they easily fall prey to illegal practices. Their weight on
labour supply reduces the negotiating position of the other workers.
Safety regulations to protect both transport workers and society: As a
result of EU safety regulations the safety conditions for transport workers and
society at large (i.e. passengers and other road users) have increased.
2.5.2 Specific con text EU road tra n sport labour market
Social legislation
EU regulations concerning (harmonisation of) training and certification

In road transport, training and recognition of competences is governed by a
number of EU legislations:
Council Directive 96/26/EC of 29 April 1996 on admission to the occupation of

road haulage operator and road passenger operator and mutual recognition of
diplomas, certificates and other evidence of formal qualifications intended to
facilitate for these operators the right to freedom of establishment in national
and international transport operations. In this context, the Directive most
relevant provision is that Member States must accept as sufficient proof the
certificates and documents issued by another Member State.
The unsatisfactory application of the abovementioned Directive in Member States

raised the necessity to produce Regulation (EC) 1071/2009 establishing common
rules concerning the conditions to be complied with to pursue the occupation of
road transport operator. The aim of this Regulation is to achieve further
harmonisation of standards, facilitate the right of establishment in other Member
States and thus improving standing and quality of road transport. Harmonised
16
standards and certificates are expected to lead to a geographical and intra-
market increase in mobility of workers.
Regulation (EC) No 484/2002 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 1
March 2002 amending Council Regulations (EEC) No 881/92 and (EEC) No
3118/93 for the purposes of establishing a driver attestation (Drive Licence).
This regulation aims to establish a uniform Community attestation permitting the
effective checking of the regularity of the employment status of drivers from
third countries employed by hauliers in the MS and engaged in the internati onal
carriage of goods. This Regulation was repealed by Regulation (EC) No
1072/2009 on access to the international road haulage market. This Regulation
also sets down the conditions for issuing Community licenses. It repeals
Regulations (EEC) No 3118/93 and Directive 2006/64/EC.
Directive 2003/59/EC of 15 July 2003 on the initial qualification and periodic

training of drivers of certain road vehicles for the carriage of goods or
passengers, amending Council Regulation (EEC) No 3820/85 and Council
Directive 91/439/EEC and repealing Council Directive 76/914/EEC aimed at
enabling drivers to meet the new demands arising from the development of the
road transport market by obliging existing drivers to undergo periodic retraining
in the skills essential for their profession in order to maintain their qualification
of driver. The directive also requires that the State makes arrangements to
approve training programs and certify trainers delivering those programmes.
As a result professional drivers in the European Union cannot work anymore

solely on the basis of their driving licence but are required to achieve knowledge
on the construction and main component parts of a vehicle, general knowledge
on transport and administrative procedures and practical experience on driving
goods or passenger vehicles.
Besides improved road safety, the objective of Directive 2003/59/EC is also the
enhancement of the quality of the profession. In the view of the EESC, this is a
good example of a regulatory measure that will have a further positive impact on
the status of the driver ultimately helping to make the profession more
attractive, especially as substantial technological progress in this sector requires
highly skilled professional drivers. However, all now depends on the Membe r
States' implementation of the directive. The challenge consists in establishing
sufficient, high-quality training provision, a quality training curriculum and the
funding of initial and continuous training. With regard to the latter, practices
have emerged whereby costs of the initial and/or continuous training are
imposed on the driver, which will only render, in the mid -term, recruitment
problems in the sector more severe 1.
A specific topic is also the relation between the Rome I Regulation and the
Posted Workers Directive. The Rome I Regulation (Regulation (EC) No 593/2008
of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 2008 on the law
applicable to contractual obligations) is a regulation which governs the choice of
law in the European Union. The EU Posted Workers Directive (96/71/EC) is an EU
directive concerned with the free movement of workers within the European
1
17
Union. It makes an exception to the Convention on the Law Applicable to
Contractual Obligations 1980, which ordinarily requires that workers are
protected by the law of the member state in which they work. After a
controversial set of decisions by the European Court of Justice, the Directive has
come under criticism for reducing rights of posted workers and undermining the
rights of workers in a home nation. There have been criticisms that employees
are suffering lower social protection by creative use of the legal framework by
employer, which in some cases is considered abuse by employee representatives.
EU regulations concerning working conditions
To protect workers health and safety, minimum rules are needed on working
time in all EU Member States. For all the sectors, the basic Directive is Directive
2003/88/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 November 2003
concerning certain aspects of the organisation of working time (in short: the
Working Time Directive, see main text). European Community has set specific
regulations on driving time and rest periods in road transport, international
railway transport and air transport. In road transport, the general working time
directive applies to some road transport workers who are not covered by the
provisions of the specific road transport working time directive (see below) such
as small commercial vehicles (less than 3.5 tonnes or less than 10 passengers,
including a driver) or regular passenger transport services whose route is less
than 50 km.
Driving time and rest periods

Relevant for road transport is the Regulation (EC) No 561/2006 of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 15 March 2006 on the harmonisation of certain
social legislation relating to road transport. The main provisions include:
The daily driving period shall not exceed 9 hours, with an exemption twice a
week when a maximum period of 10 hours is allowed.
There can be six driving periods per week.
The total weekly driving time may not exceed 56 hours and the total
fortnightly driving time may not exceed 90 hours.
The daily rest period shall be at least 11 hours, although by way of exception
this may be reduced to 9 hours three times a week.
There is provision for a split rest of 3 hours followed by 9 -hour rests to make
a total of 12 hours rest per day.
Weekly rest is 45 continuous hours, which can be reduced to 24 hours.
Compensation arrangements apply for reduced weekly rest periods.
Breaks of at least 45 minutes (separable into 15 minutes followed by 30
minutes) should be taken after 4 hours at the latest.
The latest biennial implementation report (2009-2010) shows that the general
effectiveness of enforcement is gradually improving and so is the correctness of
implementation of the legislation. The increasingly widespread use of the digital
tachograph and the package of measures adopted by the Commission in 2009
18
aimed at detecting and preventing abuses of the tachograph system have played
a significant role in such positive developments. 1
Working time
Directive 2002/15/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March
2002 on the organisation of the working time of persons perform ing mobile road
transport activities lays down minimum requirements with regard to the
organisation of the working time for all persons performing mobile road transport
activities, including self-employed drivers, in order to improve road safety,
health and safety of drivers, and prevent distortion of competition. It also
supplements the provisions of the abovementioned Regulation (EC) 561/2006
which lays down common rules on drivers' driving time and rest periods. More
particularly, it contains the following general provisions:
Definitions of working time, periods of availability, workstation, mobile
worker, self-employed driver, week, night time and night work;
Maximum working week: 48 hours (this can be extended to 60 hours
provided an average of 48 hours per week is not exceeded in any 4 month
period);
Breaks: not more than 6 hours should be worked consecutively without a
break (at least 30 min when 6 to 9 hours are worked per day);
Rest time: the provisions of Regulation (EC) 561/2006 are maintained;
Night work: not more than 10 hours worked in any 24-hour period when a
night shift is performed.
The rules are applicable to all mobile workers from 23 March 2005, while self -
employed drivers were temporary excluded until 23 March 2009. A proposal for a
Directive by the Commission to make this exclusion permanent while tackling the
problem of false self-employed drivers was rejected by the European Parliament.
An assessment of the impact of the working time directive on collective
bargaining in the road transport sector concluded that the current working time
rules combined with enhanced clarity of the scope of the Directive and
accompanied by clear enforcement rules will reduce distortion of competition and
enable better social protection of workers and assimilated groups. 2 Working time
rules are thus applicable to all drivers, including self-employed ones, as of 23
March 2009.
1
European Commission (2012). Report on the implementation in 2009-2010 of Regulation
(EC) No 561/2006 on the harmonisation of certain social legislation relating to road
transport and of Directive 2002/15/EC on the organisation of the working time of persons
performing mobile road transport activities (26th report from the Commission on the
implementation of the social legislation relating to road transport).
2
Source: Commission staff working document - Impact assessment accompanying the
proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council amending Directive
2002/15/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 2002 on the
organisation of the working time of persons performing mobile road transport activities
{COM(2008)650} {SEC(2008)2631} /* SEC/2008/2632 */. See also other relevant
(underlying) documents: Eurofound (2007). Impact of the working time directive on
collective bargaining in the road transport sector. Other relevant older documents in
this respect are: COM(2007) 266 final. Report from the Commission to the council and
the European Parliament on the consequences of the exclusion of self employed drivers
from the scope of the Directive 2002/15/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council of 11 March 2002 on the organisation of the working time of persons performing
mobile road transport activities; TNO (2006). R0622373/018-31364; Road Transport
Working Time Directive Self-employed and Night Time Provisions.
19
Achievements, difficulties and deficiencies in EU social legislation
According to the EESC the road transport sector benefits from its own social
legislation. The chief problem is the failure to enforce working, driving and rest
time regulations, although legislation has been improved and more checks are
carried out. The same is true for the application of the posted workers' directive
for road transport workers engaged in cabotage services 1. In the main report
some examples are provided.
Also in the view of the Commission, enforcement at national level could be

improved. This goes especially for enforcement of rules on working time rul es
(the rules on driving time and rest periods are better designed and better
enforced 2). There are no minimum general checking mechanisms in the Member
States because it is a Directive, which allows for national interpretation and
provisions.
It was mentioned that when the driving times Regulation was being revised the
Commission proposed the enforcement directive (now 2006/22/EC) which would
cover also controls of the working time directive 2002/15 the Council did not
agree to it. Hence the lack of enforcement of the working time is not only due to
the type of the legislative act but rather low attention or lack of control
arrangements in Member States which is linked to the lack of the EU specific
requirements on it.
Also Member States differ in ways and capacity to enforce the rules. The current
situation discourages new drivers as many companies break the rules, set up
disruptive work patterns and set drivers up to unlawful practices (not abiding
with legal framework).
Commission staff also points at (the involvement of the social partners in) the
current review of Regulations (EC) No 1071/2009 and 1072/2009, which state
rules on cabotage services. These regulations have an effect on labour costs and
working conditions. According to IRU, lack of clarity of these regulations
remains. IRU still has to explain to the market what was discussed and agreed
upon in 2009.
According to IRU, the main challenge is to develop a pan -European policy on

social aspects with realistic and workable solutions, for instance on the working
time Directive and the posted workers Directive. Further legislative actions would
be beneficial on harmonisation of enforcement. The common initiative that
defines categories of infringements is very important in this aspect. At the sa me
time, IRU continues to support exclusion of self-employed drivers from the
working time rules for road transport workers. This is considered a purely
theoretical discussion as the rules are not enforceable.
1
2
The driving time rules are also better enforceable because te chnical measures such as the
tachograph make it much easier to check drivers. Working time rules, however, are much
harder to check as drivers can have other duties than driving, and these times are not
registered.
20
The most pressing deficiencies in the opinion of IRU concern rising demands and
costs associated with the directive on initial qualification and periodic training of
drivers. There are differences between the Member States whether the country,
the companies or the drivers themselves have to pay. There is also a clear lack
of harmonisation in training models, leaving room for manoeuvre. In general,
price is the winner, which means lower quality. There are fake certificates out
there (including ADR certificates for transport of dangerous goods), leadin g to
non- recognition by some Member States. There is a need for revision and
improvement of the supervisions quality. The problems are documented in the
STARTS-project 1 and a comparative study by the Commission.
ETF points at various problems in EU legislation:

There is a problem with the exclusion of the light goods vehicles (LGVs) from
EU legislation regarding driving/rest times in road transport. This results in
no limits to driving/rest time for LGV drivers. They are covered by national
legislation.
According to the ETF, excluding self-employed drivers from the working time
rules in road transport would negatively impact health and safety. It would
mean that self-employed drivers are allowed to work more than 80 hours per
week 2. Driving time rules alone will fail to address fatigue. 3
Enforcement of the regulations remains a problem. While the driving time is
well monitored the working time is not. Other problems are the regulatory
framework that aims to avoid the creation and operation of letterbox
companies, but which is difficult for Member States to enforce, 4 and the lack
of interconnection of registers of Road Transport Companies at EU -level5.
UITP considers the directive on initial qualification and periodic training of drivers
to be sufficient.
Regarding urban public transport, ETF points at the missing driving/rest times
regulation and the lack of enforcement of the existing regulations.

When it comes to legislation at EU and/or national level, the most pressing problems are the
1
Skills, Training And The Road Transport Sector (STARTS), Pillar 1 Survey on driver
training issues / Implementation of Directive 2003/59/EC prepared by Transport and
Logistics Research Department (DETL) for DG EMPL (2012).
2
The Commission argues that since before the sunset clause of Dir 2002/15 kicked in, self-
employed drivers (like all other self-employed workers) were excluded from the scope of
Dir 2002/15 and could work as long (or little) as they pleased. There was therefore never
an obligation to work an 80 or 86 hour week. They were/are however subject to the
driving time and rest periods of Reg 561/2006 like all other drivers. In any case they are
now subject to the working time restrictions of Dir 2002/15 which makes such a working
week impossible, although it is difficult to see how this can be enforced
3
ETF (2010), The ETF contribution to the future European Commission Road Safety Action
programme for the period 2011-2020.
4
In road transport, still a large number of letterbox companies exists. The have not been
closed down by the Member States. An example of this is Denmark in which the
enforcement of the regulations in this field has been problematic.
5
Member States are obliged to set up national electronic registers of road transport
undertakings and to establish an interconnection between these before 31 December
2012 under Regulation (EC) No 1071/2009, but not all of them are interconnected. The
Commission is taking measures, including infringement procedures and is supporting
Member States in solving technical difficulties related to interconnecting registers.
21
working and rest time directives at EU level and the rules on cabotage. For the first mentioned
category of rules we would like to see that the provisions allow more flexibility fo r drivers to
choose their rest times. For instance, if a driver may choose to rest at home and not a
mandatory stop in e,g. Spain, this may greatly increase his work/life balance. The 2009
regulation on cabotage is often attacked for being hard to enforce. We agree, but it is up to the
member states to take up this challenge. Our position is that cabotage services should be
liberalised, in a step-by-step fashion, especially if we, as Europeans, want a common market.
We would like to see that legislation gives transport companies the possibility and environment
to make business instead of blocking it. We hope we get no new limitations by the European
Commission, so theres a need of further deregulation.
On the other hand, there is a need for more socia l legislation for drivers. The European
Commission should participate in the discussion of, for example, the AETR. In our opinion, it is
important to make more social legislation for (truck) drivers like decreasing hours, and longer
rest times. We should give the drivers the possibility to have a reasonable time for a rest that
allows him to work efficiently. A driver has to wait 45 hours far away from home just to fulfil
the legal regulations.
2.6 Environmental factors
As discussed in the main text of this report, the following environmental factors
play an important role for the EU transport labour market as a whole:
Implementation of (EU and national) sustainability policie s: Emphasis
on sustainability increases and affects job requirements in the transport
sector.
Modal shift and clean power transport: There is shift towards cleaner
modes of transport and cleaner technologies within each mode with an
increasing demand for public transport and electro-mobility.
Eco-driving, consolidation of flows and smarter logistics: These
developments affect both job requirements and labour demand in the
transport sector
Employment potential of Green transport Europe needs to change to a
green, low carbon and resource efficient-economy. Transforming the economy
in this direction will provide an important source of jobs if the right skills are
provided. The Commission has developed this subject under its "Towards a
job-rich recovery" Communication 1. The Commission also participates in THE
PEP: This UNECE partnership aims at exploring new options for job creation
and economic development, and maximising at the same time the potential
gains for environment and health through innovative transport policies.
1
http://ec.europa.eu/social/BlobServlet?docId=7619&langId=en
22
The road transport sector has undergone significant changes aimed at

environmental protection. This includes requirements for certification of drivers.
Enforcement of these requirements seems insufficient in some Member States.
Public transport is a fast-growing sector which plays an active role in the

development of the urban economy. While green growth is tagged as a major
factor of economic recovery in developed economies, and a condition for
sustainability in developing economies, the potential of public transport to
provide green, stable jobs that develop professional skills is one of its key
assets 1.
1
23
3 EU road transport labour market trends
This section describes trends in demand for and supply of labour on the EU road
trasport labour market.
3.1 Trends in demand
3.1.1 Gen eral tren ds in deman d
As discussed in the main text of this report, the following trends hold for the EU
transport labour market as a whole:
Employment (number of jobs): Following upon a long period of
employment growth, in 2009 and 2010 in the EU 27 the transportation and
storage sector showed a decrease in employment. In 2010, the total number
of occupied persons in the transportation and storage sector (excluding
postal and courier activities) amounted to 9,344,700 (against 9,433,500 in
2009 and 9,571,00 in 2008). In 2010, more than half of the occupied persons
(56.4%) worked in road transport and nearly a third in logistics (29.0%).
Labour mobility: As concerns labour mobility, people can move from job to
job within the same transport company, from company to company within the
same transport (sub)mode, between different (sub)sectors and/or between
different regions or countries (geographical mobility).
Number of vacancies: Compared to employment figures, vacancies are
much more vulnerable to cyclical factors and economic conditions and must
be interpreted as such. For the EU-27 the figures point towards a decline of
labour demand in transport for the period 2008-2011. No recent figures on
vacancies are available. Expectations are that after the economic crisis
labour demand will rise again.
Job requirements/ job types: In the transport sector, there is a general
trend towards job polarisation (employers mainly look for highly or lowly
qualified workers, not for medium qualified workers). Furthermore, demand
for IT personnel and multi-skill jobs increases. At all skill levels, most jobs in
demand will be more and more characterised by non-routine tasks which are
not easily replaced by technology or organisational change.
Prognoses labour demand 2020: Future employment trends in transport
depend on a number of factors such as the development of trade and
economic activities, an ageing population and people's mobility patterns,
technological developments, energy availability and prices, measures towards
sustainable transport, alternative transport modes etc.
In the period 2010-2020 total employment in the transport and storage
sector in the EU-27 is expected to decrease with annually 0.1%; the
decrease being concentrated in non-transport related labour. Significant
employment losses are expected in warehousing and support activities. Land
transport is on average, whereas employment increases in water transport
and air transport.
Overall, employment of transport-related occupations is expected to remain
constant over the next decade. Results per occupation are closely related to
the employment results for individual sectors of industry. Results per
occupation are closely related to the employment results for individual
25
sectors of industry. For instance, the significant increases for air controllers,
air traffic safety technicians, aircraft pilots, conductors (to some extent) and
travel attendants are closely related to the employment increase in air
transport. Similar reasoning applies to ships personnel. Conversely,
employment of land transport related occupations is expected to decrease.
3.1.2 Specific deman d tren ds road tran sport
Employment development (number of jobs)

The figure and table below illustrate the development of employment in road
transport.
Figure 3.1 Employment development (yearly change in occupied persons, in %) in

land transport (rail, road) and transport via pipelines and transportation
and storage (excl. postal and courier activities) as a whole, EU 27, 2003 -
2010
3,00
2,50
2,00
1,50
1,00
0,50
0,00
-0,50 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
-1,00
-1,50
-2,00
transportation and storage excl. postal and courier activities

land transport and transport via pipelines
Source: Panteia based on Eurostat
26
Table 3.1 Employment (occupied persons, in 1000s) in road transport and
transportation and storage (excl. postal and courier activities) as a whole,
EU 27, 2008, 2009 and 2010
2008 2009 2010 Change

2009-
2010
(in
1000s)
Total
9571,7 9433,5 9344,7 -88,8
Land transport and transport via pipelines 6020,7 6036,3 5977,3 -59,0
Passenger rail transport interurban 513,9 514,7 510,4 -4,3
Freight rail transport 176,0 176,2 174,7 -1,5
Total rail 689,8 691,0 685,1 -5,8
Other passenger land transport 2183,4 2189,1 2167,6 -21,4
Freight transport by road and removal services 3124,1 3132,8 3101,3 -31,5
Total road (incl. urban public) 5307,5 5321,9 5269,0 -53,0
Transport via pipeline 23,4 23,4 23,2 -0,2
Total pipeline 23,4 23,4 23,2 -0,2
Source: Panteia based on Eurostat
In 2010, road transport (including urban public transport) accounted for 56,4%
of the employment in the sector transportation and storage (excl. postal and
courier activities) as a whole in the EU 27. 5,269,000 persons were occupied in
road transport (against 5,321,900 in 2009 and 5,307,500 in 2008). A majo rity
(3,101,300) of the employment in road transport in 2001 is in fr eight transport
by road and removal services and a minority (2,167,600) in passenger land
transport other than interurban rail transportation.
Looking at land transport and transport via pipelines as a whole, figure 3.1
shows that, in general, employment development is less favourable than in the
sector transportation and storage (excl. postal and courier activities) as a whole.
However, in this respect the year 2009 is a-typical.
The road freight transport sector positions itself as the dominant freight mode
covering three quarters of the total market. Over the last decade road freight
transport in the EU-27 has seen considerable activity growth. The accession of
the twelve new Member States has extensively contributed to this. The gradual
opening of the internal market, the stronger economic growth of the new
Member States and the increase in the specialisation of the production
processes, inducing larger flows of goods, have led to an increased demand for
freight transport in general. It has also led to greater differences in labour costs
across the Member States, with the risk of downward pressure on wages, and to
stronger competition.
The road freight transport sector is a major employer in the EU. Employment in
this sector has been increasing at a faster rate than total employment, but is
markedly differentiated across EU Member States, being particularly significant
in the New Member States and in those countries where the initial employment
was lower.
27
Employment in road freight transport is further characterised by amongst others:
Considerable geographic concentration of the activity (more than the half of
total goods transport in tkm is accounted for by Germany, Spain, France and
Italy)
High degree of market fragmentation (from 65% to over 95% of companies
have less than ten employees), where a few big players tend to dominate the
market, working in close cooperation with freight consolidators such as
shippers and freight forwarders, and subcontract various activities to
medium-size and small companies.
A large share of self-employment (19.6% on average in the EU-27)1;
A limited variety of occupations: drivers account for a very high share of
employment (reaching almost 70% of total employment in some EU
countries). 2
In the EU-27 about 1,2 million workers are employed in urban public transport.
The majority (55%) of them are drivers. The number of employees of public
transport operators in the EU-27 decreased by just under 4% between 2000 and
2010, which corresponds to a loss of about 45,000 jobs. However, a closer look
at this development reveals that the number of employees started increasing
again in 2007, rising by about 3% between 2007 and 2010. The overall decrease
in employment in the period 2000-2010 is largely due to labour productivity
gains during the decade. It is plausible that part of the decrease in the number
of employees of operators is due to an increase in volumes of subcontracting 3.
Depending on policies to promote collective transport in agglomerations, cities

and rural areas employment opportunities of urban public transport are
potentially high, according to the EESC 4.
Within land transport (rail, road) and transport via pipelines , the share of young
workers (15-24 years of age) is less than the EU overall average (see figure
3.2). The share of workers aged 24-49 equals approximately the EU overall share
of workers aged 25-49 and the share of workers aged 50 years or older exceeds
the EU overall share. Ageing seems to be an issue.
1
The proportion of self-employed drivers in the road transport sector varies significantly
between countries, ranging from as high as almost 100% in Malta to as low as 1% in
Luxembourg. See: Eurofound (2007). Impact of the working time directive on collective
bargaining in the road transport sector.
2
European Parliament (2009), Shortage of qualified personnel in road freight transport.
3
4
EESC (2011), TEN/445. Social aspects of EU Transport Policy; European Parliament
(2009), Shortage of qualified personnel in road freight transport.
28
Figure 3.2 Age of employees in land transport 1 (2010)
Source: Panteia, based on Eurostat LFS.
In land transport (rail, road) and transport via pipelines the share of male
workers largely exceeds the share of female workers. More t han 80% of all
employees in water transport are male (see figure 3.3).
Figure 3.3 Gender of employees in land transport 2 (2010)
Source: Panteia, based on Eurostat LFS.
Labour mobility
In urban public transport, labour turnover of drivers (i.e. the sum of drivers
entering and leaving the organisation during one year divided by the total
number of drivers at the beginning of the year) is about 12%. This relatively low
figure denotes the stability of the drivers job 3.
1
subsector land transport (rail, road) and transport via pipelines
2
Ibid
3
29
UITP points at language problems as a hindrance for international job mobility in
urban public transport.
Job requirements/job types
Increasingly specialist and segmented tasks

In road freight transport, there is a progressive restructuring of the drivers role
due to the emergence of new forms and operations and logistics management.
As a result, drivers tasks have been widened and diversified. Drivers often have
to do work traditionally carried out by warehouse or stock personnel, and social
skills are now often required in the drivers relationship with a client. The driver
is increasingly the clients sole contact with the transport organisation.
Growing international transport means that drivers must be familiar with

different languages and cultures, and be skilled in communicating with different
kinds of people. In addition there have been indications from professional
organisations (TLN) that language requirements are particularly strong for
drivers at the loading and unloading stages of the delivery. In the case of a long
international trip, one driver can be hired for the international leg, whereas local
drivers will be hired to load and unload the trucks, thus avoiding the language
problem.
As early as in 2004, Eurofound concluded that technological developments such

as the introduction of the digital tachograph, satellite tracking devices (GPS) and
on-board computers, as well as the use of mobile telephones also asks for higher
skills for workers in the sector 1.
These changes in job content have entailed new schemes in the organisation of
work, which are far more codified and standardised than ever. Therefore, drivers
must be better trained to perform the increasingly specialist and segmented
tasks in road freight transport 2.
According to ETF, the modernised lorry requires higher level of proficiency. Also
the dignity of the driver has to be preserved. A professional driver is a highly
qualified individual who acts to defend the safety of both transport operations
and European citizens alike more dignified consideration. However, in some
Member States such as Hungary being a professional truck driver still is not
considered as a skilled job.
Prognoses labour demand 2010-2020

In the framework of this project an employment forecast for the period 2010 -
2020 by broad transport subsector has been prepared. The model used
comprised 10 EU countries (called EU10 here): Poland, Germany, France, United
Kingdom, Italy, Spain, The Netherlands, Sweden, the Czech Republic, and
Slovenia. These countries have been chosen in view of data availab ility and being
representative for the transport sector in the EU27 as a whole. The model has
been designed from basic economic principles, i.e. by deriving factor demand
1
2
European Parliament (2009), Shortage of qualified personnel in road freight transport .
30
from expected production which is exogenous and relative factor prices
assuming profit maximising behaviour by enterprises.
Table 3.2 gives a summary of the results of the forecast for production, labour
productivity and employment in EU10 for the transport sector as a whole and the
subsector land transport (rail, road) and transport via pipelines.
table 3.2 Summary results employment scenario 2010-2020 for EU10, transport
sector as a whole and subsector land transport and transport via pipelines
transportation and storage excl. postal and courier activities; NACE Rev. 2 49 -52
2010/'15 2015/'20 2010/'20
average annual change in %
real gross value added (f.c.) 1.2 1.3 1.2
labour productivity 1.4 1.3 1.3
total employment -0.1 -0.0 -0.1
land transport and transport via pipelines; NACE Rev. 2 49

2010/'15 2015/'20 2010/'20
average annual change in %
real gross value added (f.c.) 1.0 1.0 1.0
labour productivity 1.2 1.2 1.2
total employment -0.1 -0.2 -0.1
Source: Panteia
The expected decrease in employment in the subsector land transport (rail, road)
and transport via pipelines is comparable to the expected decrease in
employment in the transport sector as whole (in 2010-2020 annually -0.1%).
The 10 countries under review make up 73% of total employment in the EUR27
transport sector. Considering this, employment results for EU10 have been
inflated to EUR27 by applying EU10 occupational-specific growth rates to 2010
employment levels for EUR27 (see table 4.1 in section 4.1).
Overall, employment of transport-related occupations is expected to remain

constant over the next decade (in the period 2010-2020 annually 0.0%). The
picture for the three most important road transport related occupations bus
and tram drivers, car, taxi and van drivers and heavy truck and lorry drivers 1 - is
diffuse (-0.1%, +0.1% and -0,3%).
1
Besides these categories a.o. also freight handlers, motorcycle drivers and transport
conductors are of relevance for road transport.
31
3.2 Trends in supply
3.2.1 Gen eral tren ds in supply
Workforce EU transport: Total labour supply in transport-related
occupations amounts to 11.2 million persons in EU27 in 2010. On average,
two third has a job in the transport sector, others are working in other
sectors of industry or are unemployed.
Ageing and the gender issue: Ageing: The demographic pattern in
transport is worrying: within ten to fifteen years a substantial part of the
labour force will move into retirement. The gender issue: The transport
sector is largely male-dominated. Besides this male working culture, also the
less favourable job quality (employment and work quality) is a hindrance for
women to work in the sector.
Labour market reserves: Labour market reserves comprise amongst others
the following categories: unemployed, returners, potential employees
currently working in other sectors (horizontal inflow) and labour migrants. As
concerns labour migrants, apart from Eastern EU nationals working in
Western Europe, an important development is the increasing deployment of
3 rd country nationals in the EU transport sector.
Prognoses labour supply 2020: To forecast the labour supply for
transport-related occupations in the period 2010-2020, two scenarios have
been used. Scenario 1 keeps the current rates by age and occupation
category constant. Scenario 2 assumes that for the 2010 cohorts
participation rates do not change except for the oldest group. In scenario 1,
total supply for transport-related labour decreases from 11.6 million persons
in 2010, to 11.5 million persons in 2020, this is an average decrease of 0.1%
annually. In scenario 2 the labour supply for transport-related occupations
increases from 11.5 million persons in 2010, to 13.2 million persons in 2020,
i.e. by 1.3% annually.
3.2.2 Specific su pply trends in road tran sport
Workforce EU road transport

The workforce in road freight transport in Europe is characterised by amongst
others:
A limited presence of women and great gender imbalance (women account
for fewer than 14% on average in the total land transport sector).
A low educational level, particularly among drivers.
A large share of near-to-retirement workers 1.
1
32
Ageing and the gender issue
Ageing of the labour force

In road freight transport, the ageing driver population and shrinking working age
population are reducing labour supply 1.
According to commission staff ageing of the road transport workforce and

absence of strong incentives for younger people to enter the road transport
labour market seems to be a problem.
Urban public transport is also confronted with the problem of an ageing

workforce. 2 Because of the many people leaving the workforce due to their age,
recruitment is intensified. In this respect, UITP for instance points at RATP
(Rgie Autonome des Transports Parisiens) which is putting a lot of effort in this
direction.
Gender issue
The demographic development affects many European economies so that the
recruitment and binding of a decreasing number of young potential personnel
becomes more and more important. It is common opinion that future needs of
personnel can be met better by increasing the number of female employees 3.
The lack of corporate initiatives for work-life balance of employees is one of the
main barriers to women employment as well as cultural aspects such as a male
working culture 4
and existing gender stereotypes. Also missing political stra-
tegies to augment the share of female staff members has to be taken into
account as a reason. In a survey amongst women employed in urban public
transport, the topics corporate culture and working culture turned out to be
of high importance when addressing women employment. Diversity of and
tolerance towards different people and their individual background are often
assumed to have a positive impact on the companys attra ctiveness for women 5.
Labour market reserves

Migration is an issue in the road transport sector. The general trend is for
workers from the EUs new Member States (NMS) to migrate to the original 15
EU Member States (EU15) to find work, although it appears that many of them
1
2
3
ETF (2012), Project report: Women employment in urban transport sector.
4
A so called male working culture is often described as a corporate culture oriented on
male attributes and focused on men as a target group so that female employees feel that
they have to show more masculine than feminine characteristics, also in order to succeed
in their careers. It is generally said that women perceive the necessity to perform better
than men in order to be accepted in their job; this is also the case in the (public)
transport sector.
5
In addition, more practical barriers may exist. In the survey, the state of sanitary
facilities has been named as a huge problem in many cities and companies, the same
goes for the number and state of break rooms, dress rooms, lockers and canteens. These
facilities are often not existing or viewed as not satisfactory though highly demanded.
Regarding the working clothes, companies have made good experiences with providing
them to both genders. Availability of uniforms for both genders is important; uniforms are
important for an employees identification with a company. See: ETF (2012), Project
report: Women employment in urban transport sector.
33
return to their Member State of origin after a few years. Although legislation
exists which limits social policy regime competition, this development is causing
some concern in the EU15 countries in relation to potential effects on pay and
working conditions in the sector. However, as many of the EU15 countries are
experiencing labour shortages in the road transport sector, migrant workers are
filling these gaps. Conversely, some of the NMS are now experiencing their own
labour shortages due to their workers migrating to other countri es to find work.
As a result, a small number of migrants from third countries are moving to the
NMS to find work in the sector 1.
German road transport complains about Philippine drivers

The German road-transport organisation BGL recently filed a compla int at DG MOVE on price
dumping a by Latvian transport company with Philippine drivers. According to BGL, lately the
price dumping has increased more and more. DG MOVE is asked to take measures to safeguard
the level playing field on the road. BGL points a t the requisite that the necessary drivers
documents may only be delivered to drivers resident in one of the Member States and in the
possession of a driving licence issued by a Member State. The organisation also doubts whether
the Philippine drivers meet the European qualifications for the drivers occupation. 2 Commission
staff points out that driver attestations may only be issued if the driver is lawfully employed in
accordance with the conditions of employment and of vocational training laid out in th e Member
State, including driving qualifications.
The most frequent complaints recently heard at DG MOVE concern the influx of
workers from third country drivers, although it is understood that the extent of
such cases is limited, and accusations that the current legislative framework
allows cases of social dumping. The Commission explicitly does not agree with
this term in itself, but agrees that issues may exist related to working conditions
in the road haulage sector. This is the most important topic a t the moment.
IRU also points at the trend of job mobility from outside the EU, although there
is no quantitative evidence. Some IRU members are employing people from
Pakistan for instance. Within the EU, there is a problem with new business
models in which companies in old Member States establish daughter companies
in new Member States and employ their drivers. The problems related to social
conditions stem from arrangements that are usually perfectly legal (although
some may be not so legal). According to IRU, there is a need to address this to
restore the attractiveness of the road transport sector.
According to ETF, drivers from the Eastern EU Member States (such as Hungary)
often temporarily come to Western Europe (usually for up to six months).
Eastern EU truck drivers - working outside of their own country - are more
vulnerable basically due to the fact that they are employed via complicated
schemes including via fictitious (letter box) companies. These complex
employment practices allow companies to easily go in breach with the law and
with the drivers social and labour rights. Eastern EU truck drivers do not look at
c.q. dont care about the long term implications of accepting work under these
1
Eurofound (2007). Impact of the working time directive on collective bargaining in the
road transport sector.
2
Nieuwsbladtransport.nl, (2013). Article Duits wegvervoer klaagt over Filippijnse
chauffeurs.
34
conditions. Since 2008, ETF has interviewed 1,000 Eastern EU drivers working in
Western Europe at parking areas of trucks. Some results:
The pressure for the truck drivers is very high. The employers have the
advantage that they can dispatch drivers to other Member States where they
practically work on-call. In effect, the drivers may end up waiting for days in
parking areas for work and they are only paid for the driving time. Weak
enforcement of the EU and national legal frames, as well as gaps in the
existing laws allow companies to circumvent the law while using these
practices
Moreover, the truck drivers can be paid in different ways. They receive a low
average basic wage from the company in their home country combined with
benefits calculated on basis of the distance driven (EUR 7 to EUR 10 for 100
km) or goods delivered. 1 Another way of additional payment is with per-
diems.
The truck drivers spend at the parking areas much time waiting for a call to
work. This time is not paid. Loading and unloading the trucks is also not
covered by the wages despite the fact that by law loading / unloading is part
of the working time and must be remunerated.
Besides Eastern EU truck drivers, also 3 rd country nationals (for instance from
the Philippines) are recruited to fill the gap. Companies try to find loopholes in
the law to arrange residence permits for this (cheaper) supply of labour. 2

We estimate to have 650.000 to 700.00 drivers in the category of trucks over 7,5 tons in ou r
country. In 2012, we saw around 4.250 non -EU drivers in our country against 2.400 in 2008.
So, there is an upward trend, however the share of non -EU drivers relatively still is very small.
Our company has 16 drivers and 5 logistics specialists out of the EU. They are from Russia,
Belarussia and Ukraine. They work at the same zones as our Polish employees. We estimate to
have 3% non-EU workers in our company
At the moment, we have no non-EU workers active within our company but this will probably
change in the future. For example, at this moment we have Polish and Romanian employees.
However, attractiveness of our Dutch transport sector is depending on a countrys prosperity.
Maybe our country is becoming less attractive for those EU -workers and more attractive for
non-EU workers.
1
Such allowances may be illegal under Regulation (EC) No 561/2006 if they ar e of a nature
to endanger road safety.
2
For example, a German company that hired over 100 drivers from the Philippines granted
to them Latvian residence permits since in Latvia it is easier to get a residence permit
than in Germany. According to Commission staff the number would be around 100 as the
figures heard are closer to a few hundred for all companies using this scheme. Another
example were Turkish drivers waiting in the port of Trieste (Italy) to get trailers from the
ferries (not sure whether the trailers were registered in Turkey or in Italy) and drive
them throughout the EU.
35
Prognoses labour supply 2020
In both scenarios the picture for road transport related occupations is diffuse. In
scenario 1, in the period 2010-2020 the average growth rate is annually -0.1%.
The percentages for the three most important road transport related occupations
- bus and tram drivers, car, taxi and van drivers and heavy truck and lorry
drivers are +0.1%, 0.0% and -0.1%. In scenario 2, the average growth rate is
-0.8% and the percentages for bus and tram drivers, car, taxi and van drivers
and heavy truck and lorry drivers respectively -1.9%, -1.4% and -1.0% (see
table 4.1 in section 4.1).
36
4 Discrepancies EU road transport labour
market
The section describes discrepancies on the EU road transport labour market.

Successively, we go into quantitative discrepancies, qualitative discrepancies and
information asymmetries.
4.1 Quantitative discrepancies
4.1.1 Gen eral qu antitative di screpan cies
One can speak of quantitative discrepancies where there are not enough
sufficiently qualified school leavers or job seekers in (a subsector of) the
transport sector as a whole (labour shortage) or where there are not enough
vacancies to make use of the supply (labour surplus).
As discussed in the main text of this report, the following trends seem to hold for
the EU transport labour market as a whole:
Current labour shortages/surpluses: Many transport branches already
report serious structural labour shortages, in particular for mobile jobs. As a
result of the economic crisis, these shortages are temporarily mitigated.
Prognoses labour shortages/surpluses 2020: In view of the ageing
population in Europe and competition among transport branches and
companies to attract (young) workers, labour shortages will cause serious
problems for the transport sector in the future. Whereas the employment of
transport-related occupations is expected to remain constant over the next
decade, labour supply falls in both scenarios. The largest discrepancies are
expected for aircraft staff, ships deck officers and pilots, and travel
attendants and stewards. This is in particular cumbersome for the transport
sectors development because most of these specific occupations
employment is found in the transport sector itself (by way of comparison:
many drivers do not actually work in the transport sector).
4.1.2 Specific quantitative di screpan cies road tran sport
Current labour shortages/surpluses
Road freight transport has been experiencing a progressive shortage of

professional drivers, which has emerged as one of the most critical issues
seriously affecting the competitiveness of the sector over the last ten years.
The shortage has progressively become structural across Europe, although its
impacts have not occurred simultaneously and with the same severity and
magnitude in all EU Member States.
A number of studies have sought to quantify the driver shortage problem, thus
further attesting to the fact that in recent years the European heavy truck
transport industry has been suffering from a serious structural shortage of skilled
professional drivers. According to Eurobarometer, over 70,000 professional
37
drivers were needed in 2008 in Europe, more or less in line with the results of
other studies.
At present the driver shortage problem is mitigated, due to the current economic
downturn and reduction in transport flows with a resulting overcapacity in the
sector, leading to a scenario where the problem of driver shortage no longer
ranks among the top priorities. However, stakeholders confirm that the shortage
of qualified drivers remains a problem even during the economic downturn 1. In
addition, the imbalance in supply and demand of drivers may be expected to
increase again as soon as the economy starts recovering 2.
Especially in the EU12, the road transport is allegedly suffering from a constant
shortage of professional drivers, particularly truck drivers. Partly due to the
stronger growth in the EU12 countries, it is estimated that there will be a
shortage of drivers. This situation is being exacerbated by the fact that some
Eastern European drivers are moving to the Western Europe or other countries to
work. Moreover Eastern European companies compete with Western European
transport companies in international transport.
The implementation of the Working Time Directive has, in some cases, fuelled a
debate on the problem of the limited number of professional drivers. In general
the employers believe that the new working time limits will result in a severe
shortage of drivers and exacerbate existing workforce shortages in the sector.
According to the EESC, recruiting drivers is the biggest challenge the road
transport sector is facing. Partly, these difficulties are the result of the conditions
within which drivers and industry have to operate. On the other hand, operators
must cope in an environment dominated by fierce intra -sector competition and
influenced by external factors such as the economic crisis and high fuel prices 3.
The scope of the labour shortages in professional road transport (truck and
coach) at EU-level is not known in great detail, according to IRU, There are
estimates from individual markets, such as Germany, which lacks about 15,000
truck drivers and will lose around 250,000 drivers in the next 10 to 15 year s due
to retirement and lack of new entrants 4. The figures are lower in other countries,
but still in the thousands. It is quite likely that the figures are temporarily lower
due to the crisis.
Also according to ETF, the poor working conditions and working schedules and
hours lead to a shortage in the number of the truck drivers. On the other hand,
companies would look for drivers who are ready to accept the gradually lowering
working conditions and pay in the sector. This situation led to drivers from
Philippines being brought to work the EU.
1
See the Report of the High Level Group on the Development of the EU Road Haulage
Market (2012), which is amongst others based on stakeholder consultations. The ETF and
IRU confirmed that shortage of qualified drivers is a problem, and that the general
shortage will be more acute as economic recovery takes place.
2
3
EESC (2011). TEN/445. Social aspects of EU Transport Policy.
4
Institut fr Nachhaltigkeit in Verkehr und Logistik (2012). ZF-Zukunftsstudie Fernfahrer.
Der Mensch im Transport- und Logistikmarkt,
38
Urban public transport is also facing recruitment problems. 1 Figures on labour
shortages are not available however, said UITP.
According to ETF, urban public transport especially knows shortages for technical
jobs. Young people do not normally prefer technical education. Moreover, people
with technical education background prefer to work in other sectors (e.g.
telecommunications). Also, shortages are expected for operational staff. There
are no shortages (expected) for employees on managerial and HR positions.

There are shortages, especially of professional drivers, with the emphasis on professional
(these are the drivers that are well trained and take their work serious). Shortages occur due to
the fact that drivers leave for work in other countries. Also, there is a great lack of preparing
young people for this profession in vocational educational institutes. In our country, cooperation
amongst between schools and companies has always been good; however, nowadays these ties
do not exist any longer. There also used to be a steady supply of drivers coming from the army
after accomplishing their compulsory military service. The consc ription in our country, however,
has come to an end.
We are trying to reintroduce the ties between the road sector and the vocational educational
institutes, by trying to convince the ministry of transport (and the government as a whole). We
also are willing to supply skilled teachers and training materials. The ministry is, as of now,
taking action to reinstate the ties.
Another issue is the image of the sector. We are trying to increase awareness with the general
public and young people specifically of t he road sector and the profession of driver.
At the moment, we have no problems to fulfil jobs. We dont see any future problems of labour
shortages in our company; we expect that labour supply will be sufficient .
There is a difference in level between the eastern and the western part of the EU. We would like
to achieve the level of the western part of the EU. In order to achieve that, we have introduced
educational possibilities within the company; we give on the job training .
At the moment we have difficulties with finding good employees. It is not easy to find people
within our sector. In the future, we also expect a shortage of good employees. However, at the
moment we are looking for short-term solutions. Because of the crisis, it is not possible to
invest in long-term solutions.
To address the problem of shortages, our company provides an appropriate training for new,
Romanian drivers. We are an international oriented company and we have accordingly a lot of
drivers from different nationalities.
1
EESC (2011). TEN/445. Social aspects of EU Transport Policy.
39
Prognoses labour shortages/surpluses 2020
The table below compares the employment scenario for transport -related
occupations in the transport sector with the supply of transport -related
occupations in the whole economy. The results for the most relevant road
transport related occupations are as follows:
Bus and tram drivers: decreasing employment in the period 2010 -2020
annually -0.1%), increasing labour supply in scenario 1 (+0.1%) and
particularly in scenario 2 (+2.1)
Car, taxi and van drivers: increasing employment (+0.1%), stable supply in
scenario 1 (0.0%), but in scenario 2 increasing labour supply (1.3%)
Heavy truck and lorry drivers: decreasing employment (-0.3%), decreasing
labour supply in scenario 1 (-0.1%) but increasing supply in scenario 2
(1.1%).
Table 4.1 Transport-related labour: employment in transport and labour supply in

the whole economy, EU27, 2010 -2020
occupational category employment transport-related supply of transport-related occupations, whole economy, EU27
occupations in transport, EU27 scenario 1[1] scenario 2 [2]
levels (1,000s) annual change levels (1,000s) annual change levels (1,000s) annual change
2010 2020 2010/'20 (% p.a.) 2010 2020 2010/'20 (% p.a.) 2010 2020 2010/'20 (% p.a.)
supply, distribution and related managers 386 385 0.0 406 403 -0.1 406 455 1.1
air traffic controllers 27 31 1.3 28 28 -0.1 28 32 1.1
air traffic safety electronics technicians 13 15 1.7 40 39 -0.1 40 44 1.1
aircraft pilots and related associate professionals 39 46 1.7 50 50 -0.1 50 56 1.1
bus and tram drivers 968 961 -0.1 1,326 1,341 0.1 1,326 1,625 2.1
car, taxi and van drivers 1,180 1,193 0.1 2,155 2,158 0.0 2,155 2,448 1.3
crane, hoist and related plant operators 24 23 -0.1 441 438 -0.1 441 494 1.1
freight handlers 295 290 -0.2 1,657 1,610 -0.3 1,657 1,894 1.3
heavy truck and lorry drivers 1,942 1,882 -0.3 3,314 3,284 -0.1 3,314 3,679 1.1
lifting truck operators 175 174 -0.1 684 672 -0.2 684 793 1.5
locomotive engine drivers 272 292 0.7 687 683 -0.1 687 770 1.1
motorcycle drivers 58 57 -0.2 123 122 -0.1 123 138 1.1
railway brake, signal and switch operators 66 70 0.6 185 183 -0.1 185 207 1.1
ships' deck crews and related workers 43 45 0.4 50 50 -0.1 50 56 1.1
ships' deck officers and pilots 24 27 1.0 25 25 -0.1 25 29 1.1
ships' engineers 25 27 0.8 69 69 -0.1 69 78 1.1
transport conductors 174 186 0.7 183 182 -0.1 183 205 1.1
travel attendants and travel stewards 168 196 1.5 177 176 -0.1 177 198 1.1
total 5,879 5,899 0.0 11,601 11,514 -0.1 11,601 13,202 1.3
[1] constant age-specific participation rates
[2] maximum age-specific/constant cohort-specific rates
Source: Panteia
4.2 Qualitative discrepancies
4.2.1 Gen eral qu alitative di screpan cies
Qualitative discrepancies occur where there is both sufficient supply of labour

and a sufficient number of vacancies, but where the demands and wishes of
employees and employers regarding level of qualification, c ontent and
organisation of the work diverge.
Current skills shortages and deficiencies in training and career

opportunities: Training employees is required in order to meet up with
increasing requirements. Training opportunities for employees are limited
(especially for low-educated and old workers), but improving.
Job quality: Job quality contributes to the working image of a sector and/or
profession and by that to the possibilities to recruit and retain personnel. A
40
distinction can be made between employment and work quality. Employment
quality: Pay is relatively low in most transport professions and occupations.
Delocalisation of transport jobs and social dumping practices occur. To cut
costs, pension and early retirement schemes are being restructured. Working
times are often irregular and in particular mobile workers have to cope with
regular and (very) long absences from home. Possibilities for part-time work
are less than in other sectors. Work quality: Work autonomy in transport is
nowadays relatively low. Problems caused by heavy physical work have been
replaced by stress derived from time-pressures and efficiency improvements,
thereby shifting from physical to social or psychological problems. Transport
is with reason considered a dangerous activity (occurrence of accidents,
public violence, organised crime/piracy). Work intensity has increased (due
amongst others to increased traffic congestion and the use of lean
strategies or increasingly tight scheduled transport services).
Job attractiveness: The satisfaction of transport workers with working
conditions (2.88 on a 4-point scale) and their motivation to perform (3.42 on
a 5-point scale) are higher than their satisfaction with wage (2.97 on a 5 -
point scale).
The three variables influencing satisfaction with working conditions the most
are: 1) job giving the feeling of work well done; 2) working hours fitting in
with family or social commitments; 3) feeling of possibly losing job.
The three variables influencing satisfaction with wage the most are: 1)
satisfaction with working conditions (another main indicator); 2) wage; 3)
job giving the feeling of work well done.
The three variables influencing motivation to perform the most are: 1) having
good friends at work; 2) satisfaction with working conditions (another main
indicator); 3) feeling of doing useful work.
Quality of life: In general, a strong relationship exists between job quality
and life satisfaction of workers.
Information on the human capital perspective and specifically prognoses skill

shortages 2020 are expected from Task 5.
4.2.2 Specific qualitati ve di screpan cies road tran sport
Current skills shortages and deficiencies in training and career

opportunities
Skill shortages
Workers in road transport are generally not highly educated, although drivers of
dangerous substances have additional vocational training 1. However,
technological innovation, globalisation, increased complexity of regulations and
additional tasks have implied a substantial transformation of jobs in the
transport sector, entailing new and more complex skills and training needs, and
thus producing a shortage of qualified personnel. The sector no longer allow s for
the social advancement of a poorly skilled workforce. The sector has historically
developed by recruiting poorly educated people, but increasingly demanding
skills are requiring more and more task specialisation and segmentation. Thus,
1
41
the observed shortage of drivers is not only a matter of scarcity of labour supply,
but, above all, of scarcity of a qualified, skilled and reliable workforce. Hence,
the shortage problem assumes the form of labour mismatch, where the
competences and skills required by firms do not tally (in general being higher)
with those offered by the workers 1.
Commission staff points at the problem with transposing or recognising driving

licenses of the increasing group of third country drivers. Further requirements on
training need to be imposed and enforced.
Commission staff also points at the issue of skill shortages: as requirements of

drivers increase, skill shortages increase. A common approach is needed. A
project is planned on youth employment with elements of vocational training but
has not started yet
According to IRU, the skill shortages in road transport seem to stem also from
EU-legislation and technological advances. Together with enforcement picking
up, drivers are experiencing more complex professional demands.
Furthermore, there is a (personal) drive amongst people to get the highest

education as possible. However, the road transport sector is more in need of
people that received vocational training.
In urban public transport by rail ETF notes a tendency of de -skilling, i.e. the
process by which highly skilled labour is eliminated by the introduction of
technologies operated by lower skilled workers. For instance, experienced
locomotive drivers consider themselves very highly skilled while mainly as a
result of automation - the current training standards of their jobs are lower than
in the past. This deskilling process asks for redefining jobs.
Deficiencies in training and career opportunities

Adjustments to the changes in the profession of driver described abov e, require
life-long training. The sector, however, does not seem to have developed a
training culture 2. At the moment, in several EU countries, training and learning
opportunities in road transport are lacking.
However, the situation appears to be changing. It is boosted by the trend that

transport oriented companies are switching to logistics-oriented and require a
higher customer service level. With increasing fuel prizes, insurance prizes and
extreme competition in road transport, employers have a vital interest to keep
expenses to an absolute minimum. Therefore increased training is being carried
out for low-fuel driving, efficient handling of goods as well as for health issues.
Also in urban public transport well qualified employees are the key for
entrepreneurial success. In this context, qualification needs to be updated for
example towards a need to know the changing customers att itudes in order to
react correspondingly. From the employees view, it is important to be able to
maintain employability and to be fit in the job they are doing. In most cases,
1
2
42
the employers finance the training; sometimes the drivers themselves have to
co-finance it. Only in a few cases, there is financial support by state or regional
authorities. Concerning driving staff, initial and other trainings are offered in
cooperation with an external training and development institute. In most
companies there is no distinction in training and vocational education between
men and women 1.
ETF points at some bottlenecks in the training and career opportunities in the
urban public transport sector:
Firstly, the transposition of Directive 2012/36/EU, which sets the
requirements for bus drivers, is under question.
Secondly, there is a tendency to reduce the costs of urban public t ransport
by cutting the personnel costs. On way of cutting personnel costs is cutting
training costs. The costs of training in urban public transport are higher than
in railway transport.
Thirdly, there are differences between countries in who is required to pay for
the training. In Eastern EU for instance, bus drivers are required to pay the
training themselves.

We see an important role for life long learning to keep wo rkers skills up in the ever changing
environment of road transport.
In the current training and education programmes there is room for improvement: 1) A greater
need for theoretical and practical training of students (of course we have the special limiti ng
factor of the age limit: pupils only get to gain practical experience when they are old enough to
drive); 2) A need to increase efforts to comply with the EU regulation regarding periodical
training, or life long learning; 3) Higher education is importa nt for training logisticians and
higher management in road transport companies. Universities offer 1 or 2 year training
programmes for such people and we are included in the development of these programmes and
degrees and offer practical experience to students in our organisation.
We offer two types of training: external led by the specialists in different matters and internal
by our own managers. Innovation is part of our training. Our training programmes are sufficient
to acquire the desired skills necessary to function within the job: we provide a very intensive
training for everyone in the company. There is no need to improve or change our training
programmes, however it is important to repeat the training systematically .
Our training is sufficient to acquire the desired skills necessary to function within the job.
There are plenty of technical innovations possible, but because of the economic crisis, it is not
the right time to apply them in (the training in) our company and sector.
1
43
Job quality (excluding training and career opportunities)
General
The profession of driver is principally suffering from a steady decline in
attractiveness, due to both the physical environment and the social conditio ns in
which drivers work; this has a direct impact on new entries and on the retention
of current workers. 1
Road freight is quite unfavourable in terms of ambient and ergonomic conditions,

number of nonstandard working hours, long hours, heavy job demands, lack of
job control, limited space for skill development, monotony of work and the
occurrence of violence, aggression and crime 2.
According to the EESC, one can not ignore the fact that the difficulties in
recruiting drivers are partly the result of the conditions within which drivers and
industry have to operate. From the drivers' perspective, high work pressure,
unfriendly working hours and below-average remuneration make road transport a
sector with a poor social record 3.
If the living and working conditions of international drivers remain as they are, it
will be difficult for the industry to attract the numbers of professional drivers
needed in order to keep pace with the growing demand for trade via road
transport. Without an influx of young men and women into the industry, the
sustainability of the sector is in question 4.
According to ETF, payment and working conditions in urban public transport are
less favourable.
Experience/view of individual road transport companies c.q. national representativ es

I dont think the transport sector has worse working conditions than for example an assembly
line in the (metal) industry. On the contrary, trucks manufacturers take care of the cabin to be
as much comfortable as possible. When purchasing new trucks, our best drivers make test-
drives and provide their feedback. In our business, where we often pass the EU border, the lines
on the border are the most difficult moments for our drivers. You should not say that transport
within EU, with the infrastructure, parking places and stations for drivers has got bad
conditions. Of course, there are always things to improve.
Work-life balance expectations are becoming more important. Nowadays, our people want to
spend more time with their families. Therefore they mainly want to drive limited distances. The
driving times legislation will help our employees, but also creates different kind of problems.
Partly due to the long rest times, our jobs are becoming unattractive for good employees.
Employment quality: Remuneration and benefits
1
2
Eurofound (2004), EU road freight transport sector: work and employment conditions.
3
4
ILO (2006), Labour and social issues arising from problems of cross-border mobility of
international drivers in the road transport sector, p.87.
44
Payment and benefits are seen as a key factor for the a ttraction of high quality
employees to the road (freight) transport sector. Although fair employment
practices, equal opportunities and linking rewards to quality improvements are
still necessary as well 1.
Table 4.2 shows the average wage per employee in 2009, for four broader
transport sectors compared to the total business economy (excl. financial and
insurance activities) in the EU 27 (based on EUROSTATs Structural Business
Statistics SBS).
Table 4.2 Average wage per employee by broader transport sector in the EU 27,
2009 (in Euro's)
Country Total Land Water Air Warehousing

business transport transport transport and support
economy and activities for
except transport via transportation
financial pipelines
and
insurance
activities
European 23.666 21.351 n/a 49.503 27.992

Union (27
countries)
Source: SBS (Eurostat)
Compared to the total business economy (excl. financial and insurance activities)
average wage per employee in the sector land transport and transport via
pipelines is lower (23.666 against 21.351).
Even though remuneration is not within the remit of the EU, the Commission can
establish minimum rules for working conditions, which in the view of commission
staff has its impact indirectly on remuneration and leads to more comparable
wages.
According to IRU, in the current situation - with increasing pressure on cost-

cutting - improvements in attractiveness in terms of remuneration cannot be
expected.
In the view of UITP, in urban public transport competition between companies

based on salaries of employees is rare, although there might be some cases.
Also, as a result of the crises, some decreases of salaries have been noted.
Obligatory rests and delays at borders influence income

Drivers must work without fear of assault while taking their obligatory rest
alongside the road and companies must be able to remain compliant with driving
and rest time rules through the provision of sufficient secure parking and rest
1
European Commission (2000), WORKFRET.
45
facilities guaranteeing the protection of drivers, passengers and goods 1.
According to commission staff, the principal discussion in the social dialogue in
this respect is whether employers must provide for such safe rest facilities. The
workers side has achieved some marked success, but ongoing discussion
remains on who (employers or employees) must pay for the use of these
facilities. Several EU-funded projects (LABEL 2, SETPOS 3) have been carried out to
support the setting up of such facilities whereas a new legislative proposal aims
at facilitating access to information regarding safe and secure parking spaces for
heavy duty vehicles 4.
Besides obligatory rests, extended delays at the border impact on drivers

incomes. Many are paid a flat rate for delivery, regardless of the time it takes.
Therefore, an extended delay cuts into their ability to make their delivery in a
timely manner, thus preventing them taking on more work and earning more 5.
Any attempt to remove obstacles to facilitate cross-border trade must be

accompanied by large-scale trade and transport facilitation measures and must
take into consideration the issue of national security:
Multilateral and bilateral agreements should strive to make crossing borders
more efficient, while maintaining a rational balance between facilitation and
security requirements.
New technologies and good practices used in some areas provide examples of
how improvements can be made 6.
Equal pay?
Concerning the concept of equal pay, it was said that, within the urban public
transport sector at least within the same tariff payment groups the principle
same wage for same work is valid. However, there is little information on the
growth opportunities for women in transport companies 7.
Employment quality: Job flexibility (working hours, working time arrangement,

time flexibility)
Working times
The distinct shortage of drivers in Western Europe is mainly caused by the long
hours away from home, the unpredictable schedules, and the reduced
possibilities to work extra hours. The complexity of tasks and responsibilities, as
well are not compensated sufficiently by the pay. There is thus a migration of
1
IRU (2010), IRU response to the EC Transport White Paper.
2
Creating a Label for (Secured) Truck Parking Areas along the Trans -European Road
Network and Defining a Certification Process. Including Online Information Facility
(LABEL), Co-funded by DG MOVE.
3
Secure European Truck Parking Operational Services (SETPOS), co-funded by DG TREN.
4
C(2013) 2549 final. COMMISSION DELEGATED REGULATION (EU) No /.. of 15.5.2013
supplementing ITS Directive 2010/40/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council
with regard to the provision of information services for safe and secure parking places for
trucks and commercial vehicles.
5
international drivers in the road transport sector, p.53.
6
international drivers in the road transport sector.
7
ETF (2012), Project report: women employment in urban transport sector.
46
Eastern workers to the West, willing to do the same jobs for less money than
their Western counterparts 1.
In addition to harmonising procedures, working time legislation and enforcement
need to be synchronised. Directive 2006/22/EC sets down minimum enforcement
requirements for Member States, the implementation of which are documented
by the Commission in biannual reports. Although many countries have adequate
laws concerning working time and periods of rest, their enforcement is relatively
weak although it is improving. This is a very serious issue as regulations on
drivers hours, including periods of rest, are often ignored. It is acknowledged
that better enforcement can help to reduce accidents. The competitive edge for
transport companies should not be gained by poor working standards, but by the
skill and efficiency of their service.
In the view of ETF, the many shifts at night and/or during weekends make the
sector unattractive for (young) people.
Time flexibility
For an increase in female employment, more working time flexibility appears to
be crucial. Working life balances are becoming more important issues for
workers, also on the EU agenda. From an employers point of view, flexibility of
working hours has a number of benefits such as bindin g employees to the
company to increase job tenure. There are also desirable implications:
improvement of employees morale and attitude, leading to reduced absenteeism
and staff turnover, which leads to increased effectiveness of recruitment and
productivity. Individual duty schedules have been discussed as one aspect of
working time flexibility for increasing employees work-life balance, thus job
motivation and satisfaction 2.
Employment quality: Job security
Transport relies on a workforce that employers can deploy flexibly and with the
necessary skills - acquired through a new training culture to manage increasingly
complex legal, operational and safety-related requirements. This is only possible
with a well-balanced regulatory framework, sufficient to protect employees but
not so inflexible as to make the industry less attractive to drivers or companies
less able to offer jobs.
The whole regulatory and non-regulatory framework must deal effectively with
illegal employment and offer fair competition for all within a single European
Transport Area 3.
Another phenomenon is false self-employment. This means that a former

employee of a company is starting his/her own company only to be contracted
for services by a single employer, and thus relieving the employer from social
legislation, leaving all risks with the driver.
1
CNT (2008), Les transportes: des metirs attractifs?
2
3
IRU (2010), IRU response to the EC Transport White Paper.
47
Concerns have been raised about the road transport sectors informal economy in
some countries, along with worries regarding illegal working. For example, in
Austria, concerns have increased in this respect following enlargement of the EU.
Similar concerns have arisen in Bulgaria, where a considerable number of self -
employed drivers are reportedly operating, some of whom work in the informal
economy, thus creating unfair competition in the sector1. According to
commission staff, illegal employment also negatively influences the (working)
image of the sector.
Work quality: Work autonomy
Low work autonomy

Work autonomy is obviously lower than the national average in most EU
countries. The degree of control that workers exercise over their work is limited
in road transport. However, being on the road generally gives drivers a certain
feeling of freedom.
Specific technological developments such as the introduction of the digital

tachograph, satellite tracking devices (GPS) and on-board computers, as well as
the use of mobile telephones result in higher levels of control, and thus even
more restricted work autonomy and less feeling of freedom 2.
Work quality: Physical working conditions, health variables and risks of accidents
Health and safety

As a study of EU-OSHA 3 shows, accidents and injuries to road transport drivers
remain high. This study classifies (the causes of) accidents to road transport
drivers as follows:
Occupational transport accidents on the road (Unsafe driving; Overload and
other cargo problems; Road conditions/ weather conditions; Vehicle
condition; Loss of control)
Occupational transport accidents on site (Coupling and uncoupling, unsafe
parking; Loading and unloading; Vehicle maintenance)
Partly, occupational transport accidents are related to psychological factors
(Stress and workload; Fatigue; Alcohol and drug abuse; Illness; Violence).
In the public transport sector, next to flexibility of working time (women)

workers see health and safety at the workplace as an important issue. The
condition of vehicles is very important for driving staff. The quality of
infrastructure and vehicles however varies not only from country to country but
often enough from company to company 4.
Taxi drivers and chauffeurs are exposed to a number of different types of work -
related risks:
1
Eurofound (2007). Impact of the working time directive on collective bargaining in the
road transport sector.
2
3
EU-OSHA (2010), A review of accidents and injuries to road transport drivers.
4
48
Physical risks: vibrations, manual handling of loads, risks linked with a long
sitting position, risks linked with being on the road.
Chemical and biological risks: exhaust fumes and other pollutants.
Psychosocial risks: stress and violence.
Individual behaviour: smoking, consumption of stimulants (coffee and
alcohol), lack of physical exercise (sedentary jobs) and low seatbelt usage.
Confrontation with public violence/aggression
There is an image of the public transport sector (including taxi) as an unsafe
workplace because of violence against employees. Violence cases have a
negative influence on the companies image and on the image of the entire
sector. This issue increases when cases are reported and widely spread in media.
Companies take the topic indeed very seriously: activities to increase both
workplace safety and security have high priority. As a consequence,
counteractive measures have been taken such as self-defence classes for women
or de-escalation training for employees.
Furthermore, technical solutions to prevent violence against drivers are
introduced such as emergency buttons or closed cabins in vehicles and private or
business mobile phones for employees 1.
Organised crime
As mentioned earlier, drivers in road transport are increasingly confronted with
organised crime.
Work quality: Psychosocial risk factors
Few contacts
Social interaction and social support also play an important role in work quality.
A high percentage of drivers in freight and passenger transport by road work in
isolation. They have few contacts with their colleagues and supervisors.
Work quality: Intensity of work
Increasing work intensity

Work intensity has increased due to increased traffic congestion and the use of
lean strategies such as just-in-time.
Job attractiveness
The attractiveness of jobs in the road transport sector depends strongly on the
quality of the jobs in this sector. As described above, job quality is a
multidimensional concept that covers many different aspects, varying from
wages, formal training and (flexibility in) working hours to health implications of
work, work autonomy and the meaningfulness of work.
The European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) contains indicators of aspects

of job quality/job attractiveness. The table below compares the four broader
transport modes to the total of all sectors.
1
49
Table 4.3 Employees experience/perception of aspects of job quality/attractiveness by
broader transport mode, compared to the total of all sectors (2010, EU27)
Land Water Air Warehousing

and support
activities
- Changes of work schedule (no) - o - o
Involvement in work organisation/processes - + - -
(always)
Employee representation (yes) + + + +
Raising issues with employee representative (yes) + + + +
On-the-job training (yes) - + + +
More secure jobs because of training (yes) o n.s. n.s. +
Better employment prospects because of training - + + +
(yes)
Solving unforeseen problems on ones own (yes) + + + -
Exposure to vibrations form machinery etc (never) - - - -
Exposure to loud noise (never) - - - -
Exposure to breathing in vapours (never) + - + +
Involvement of tiring or painful positions (never) - + + o
Involvement of repetitive hand/arm movements - + - -
(never)
Health or safety at risk because of work (no) - - - -
Health affected by work (no) - - - -
Short repetitive tasks (no) - + - +
Ability to choose/change speed/rate work (yes) - - - -
Feeling of doing useful work (always) - o + -
Emotionally involved in work (always) - - - -
+ = above average; o = average; - = below average
n.s. = not significant
Source: EWCS 2010
The (EWCS) also contains the following indicators of overall job quality/job
attractiveness:
Satisfaction with working conditions (how satisfied respondents are with
working conditions in their main paid job; measured on a 4 -point scale).
Satisfaction with wage (the extent to which respondents find they are wel l
paid for the work they do; measured on a 5-point scale).
Motivation to perform (the extent to which respondents feel motivated by
their organisation to give their best job performance; measured on a 5 -point
scale).
50
Table 4.4 Indicators of overall job quality/job satisfaction by broader transport sector
(2010, EU27)
Satisfaction with Satisfaction with Motivation to

working wage (5 point perform (5 point
conditions (4 scale) scale)
point scale)
Transport sector Mean St.dev. Mean St.dev. Mean St.dev.
Land transport and transport 2.89 0.72 2.91 1.12 3.38 1.09
via pipelines
Water transport 3.14 0.75 3.74 1.09 3.72 1.1
Air transport 3.18 0.66 3.4 1.18 3.87 0.91
Warehousing and support 3.01 0.66 3.22 1.26 3.43 1.16
activities for transportation
Total transport sector 2.94 0.72 3 1.15 3.44 1.09
Source: EWCS 2010 (Eurofound)
The satisfaction with working conditions of employees in the transport sector as

a whole and their motivation to perform are higher than their satisfaction with
wage. This also goes for employees in land transport and transport via pipelines.
On all three indicators, employees in land transport and transport via pipelines
score lower than the total group of transport employees.
No specific findings on the topic meaningfulness of work as part of the topic

work quality
4.3 Information asymmetries
4.3.1 Gen eral in formati on asymmetries
In the case of labour market information asymmetries, the demand and supply
should actually be balanced, but employers and job seekers are unable to find to
one another due to job search and recruitment strategies that do not respond to
each other. This may also be induced by flawed images of the (sub)sector or of
(groups of) job seekers (or groups thereof) which prevent a better match of
supply and demand.
Working image: In general, the working image of the transport sector is
relatively low, mostly related to job quality (employment- and work quality).
The sector is also seen as male-dominated and old-fashioned and
conservative. It is argued by some that the negative image is a matter of
perception and/or lack of knowledge.
Recruitment: Many modes still use traditional types of recruitment. In
general, in recruitment the transport sector does not focus on specific target
groups, such as women.
51
4.3.2 Specific in formati on asymmetries road tran sport
Working image
The profession of driver is suffering from poor public (working) image. The
driving profession remains associated with poor working conditions, low wages
and a problematic work-life balance, particularly for international drivers 1. The
road transport sector also has the image of being rather old-fashioned and
conservative. Therefore, companies are often not present in the applicants
minds as potential employer. Moreover, many of the sectors existing professions
are unknown to young people 2. This less positive image has a direct negative
impact on attracting new entries (and on the retention of current workers)3.
Commission staff points at the current discussion of the social partners on the
image of the sector in relation to illegal employment. Illegal employment has
negative effects on how the sector is perceived and affects overall working
conditions.
ETF also points at the negative image of the profession of driver. The road
transport sector is not considered attractive for the young people. Generally,
truck driver is not considered as a dignified job.
According to UITP, companies are reporting difficulties in recruitment due to the

limited willingness to work in urban public transport. The image of the sector has
to be improved.
Also according to ETF, the working image of the urban public transport sector is
poor.

We are trying to increase awareness with the general public and young people specifically of
the road sector and the profession of driver. The image is quite negative at the moment as the
idea exists that drivers cause a lot of accidents and are not as disciplined and well mannered.
But we stress the importance of professional drivers and we actively support the creation of a
central registration of drivers in Europe. The (working) image of the sector has to be improved,
together with governments, the Commission, training institutes, companies and workers..
We recognise the negative image of our sector presented by public media. The sector used to
have an adventurous image with a lot of freedom, but nowadays we are dealing with an image
of sleeping drivers, hard work and less freedom. In addition, trade unions are fighting hard for
specific rights. Not always to the benefit of the transport sector.
1
2
3
52
Comparability/compatibility
As the labour market is becoming more and more international, it becomes a
problem if qualifications used in various countries are difficult to compare.
Recruitment
Shift to recruitment of higher educated workers
The new manner in which drivers in road transport are to be recruited is at odds
with how the sector used to recruit workers, namely by employing poorly skilled
workers. Drivers are required to be better educated and skilled in the newest
logistics operations 1. This also asks for other ways of recruitment.
Lack of targeting recruitment to specific groups

A survey regarding road transport company employers indicate that most
employers do not make distinctions between the instruments for recruiting
women or men. In addition, most of the instruments are used for all job levels
and professions. Only a small amount of companies specially addresses
executives or other special target groups. Female employees, who are alre ady
employed, can be multipliers to recruit new female colleagues. For many
companies, it is still an important source of recruitment, if a family member
already works for the company. Also, younger women are a considerable poten -
tial for recruiting female working force 2.
1
European Parliament (2009), Shortage of qualified personnel in road freight transport .
2
53
5 Reduction of discrepancies EU road
transport labour market
5.1 General solutions to discrepancies
Theoretically, the following strategies for reducing discrepancies on the transport

labour market can be distinguished:
1 More general solutions influencing the context of the (transport) labour

market
2 Promoting inflow:
A. Targeting labour reserves in order to attract new employees to the
sector including the recruitment of the unemployed and other groups
currently not working in the transport sector, existing immigrant groups
and labour migrants.
B. Stimulating and facilitating education for potential employees
among others the creation of new specific learning paths, of campaigns
stimulating people to choose for an educational and occupational path in
the sector and of an institutional improvement of the connection between
labour market and education in general.
3 Preventing outflow/ diminishing labour demand:
A. Improving the situation of current employees in order to optimise
their potential as well as prevent them from leaving the sector for instance
by the introduction of (re)training programs, professionalising the sector
and providing more career perspectives for existing employees and
improving the working conditions.
B. Improving the operational management/ labour productivity of
organisations for example through the use of new technologies, treatment
methods etc. and/or (innovative) changes in functions and organisation.
As discussed in the main text of this report, solutions in all of th ese categories
are relevant for the EU transport labour market as a whole.
5.2 Specific solutions to discrepancies road transport
General solutions influencing the context
Political and legal
EU policies, programs and regulations

To fully exploit the Internal Market and to contribute to the wider policy
objectives of sustainable transport in terms of road safety, fair competition and
good working conditions of mobile road transport workers, it is crucial to ensure
a largely harmonised set of transparent social, security and competition
standards (social code) in road transport evenly applicable throughout Member
States.
55
Recommendations of the EESC concerning EU legislation are amongst others:
EU road transport legislation is to be applied without exceptions throughout
the sector, ensuring a level playing field for fair competition, road safety and
occupational health and safety.
A better capacity in Member States is needed to enforce EU road transport
legislation 1.
The High Level Group on the Development of the EU Road Haulage Market (2012)
recommended that the Commission continues to promote a uniform
interpretation of rules in relation to the most serious infringements and
sanctions. This will assist greatly in breaking down differential practices which
are frequently perceived as discrimination. The High Level Group considers it
important, therefore, that the Commission extend its current target of achieving
common definitions of infringements and penalties in the areas of working and
driving time to other areas of regulation.
Although opening up of cabotage is seen as one of the means through which the
vision of a Single European Transport Area will eventually be achieved it is not
regarded by the High Level Group as suitable for this purpose in its pres ent form.
It is currently tied to international transport operations on the basis that it is a
means by which a reduction in empty running can be achieved, but this is done
in such a manner as to limit its efficiency both with respect to reducing empty
running in relation to international operations and as a vehicle to open up
markets. The High Level Group therefore proposes that these twin aims be
separated and that a distinction be made between linked (i.e. linked to
international movements) and non-linked cabotage.
According to commission staff, at EU-level there is a focus on the transnational

dimension, also in terms of employment and working conditions. The principle of
subsidiarity should be taken into account in the policy and law making process at
EU-level on urban transport topics however.
In the view of UITP, the EU could play a role in the development of an integrated
mobility master plan with a key role for urban public transport. Labour and social
issues should however be dealt with on local level. Quality of work could be
encouraged through the calls for tender and contracts with the transport service
providers. Also, according to UITP it would be an option to give public transport
access to Structural Funds.
Social dialogue
At the time of writing, the Social Dialogue in the road transport sector at
European level had not concluded any binding agreements. In the future it could
therefore further contribute to strengthening the social dimension of the EU
transport policy, with respect to improving working conditions and the working
environment to protect workers' health and safety.
1
56
Technological and environmental
According the EESC, EU policy makers should undertake measures that lead to
true sustainability in the sector by offering incentives for operators to invest in
new fleets and technology 1.
Other
According to commission staff, it is important to exchange good practices. In
practice, in urban public transport such exchanges already take place, for
instance on security and insecurity issues (secure cabins in trains or open space
for interactions). Committees facilitate the exchange.
In the view of UITP, the EU could play a role in providing adequate information
on the labour market (shortages) in urban public transport. At the moment, no
figures on shortages are available.
5.3 Promoting inflow
A. Targeting labour reserves

Considering the relatively low-skilled nature of road transport sector jobs the
potential labour reserves are large. As many drivers work in industries outside
transport and others left the transport sector before, a large number of skilled
drivers can be seen as labour reserve as well. In road transport some studies
show that there seems to be a high number of drivers with the appropriate
qualifications who are no longer active in the profession. This would indicate that
truck driving is an activity which is pursued on a temporary basis, long enough
to make some money or travel for instance, before moving on to other more
attractive professions. 2
The low perceived attractiveness of the profession of truck or bus driver is a

barrier to attract potential employees. Increasing female employment is a
possibility, especially on regional and national transport. Personal safety issues
pose a barrier for female employment in long-distance transport.
Womens participation should be increased by promoting gender -oriented

measures and by increasing road safety and rest facilities and reducing gender
discrimination. 3
1
2
See for instance: Skills for Logistics (2012). A Looming Driver Shortage? the evidence
behind the concerns.
3
57
Especially relevant in this respect, is the project Women Employment in Urban
Public Transport Sector (WISE, see box below)
Women Employment in Urban Public Transport Sector (WISE)

The European social partners of the Urban Public Sector - UITP (International Association of
Public Transport) and ETF (European Transport Workers' Federation) - and the Akademie of
1
Verband Deutscher Verkehrsunternehmen (VDV -Akademie) ran the WISE project from
December 2010 until March 2012. The project was part of the work programme of the European
Social Dialogue and was co-funded by the European Commission.
All activities realised in the project had the aim to contribute to a better representation and
integration of women in a traditionally male -dominated sector such as the urban public
transport.
The project WISE focused on:
Better access of women to all public transport professions, including the technical ones and
management functions;
Better workplace safety and security, to allow women opt for all work shifts;
Equal access to training;
Better workplace culture to accommodate the needs of both women and men;
Better work-life balance for both, men and women;
Thorough implementation of relevant EU equal opportunities legislation in the transport
sector.
It resulted in:
Recommendations signed by the Social Partners in the urban public tr ansport sector
regarding women em-ployment,
An Action Guideline Women in Transport Professions for decision -makers in companies,
trade unions and employer associations, containing the results of the project (and
information on good practice examples from several companies,
A conference on the topic of women employment strategy in public transport sector and to
set-up a European network Women in Transport Professions (aimed at exchange of
experience of the single social partners in the various member st ates, learning from the
2
best and harmonisation within the European Union).
B. Stimulating and facilitating education for potential employees
Improving the image of (study and) work in the sector

The image of the sector should be improved by promoting campaigns on the key
role played by the transport sector in the economy, as well as providing
information on employment prospects to schools, employment services and the
media 3.
The EESC recommends measures to make the profession of driver highly skille d,
which will automatically lead to improving the image of the profession 4.
1
http://www.wise-project.net
2
Project WISE (2012). Women Employment in Urban Public Transport Sector. Project
Report.
3
European Parliament (2009), Shortage of qualified personnel in road freight transport;
ETF (2012), Project report: Women employment in urban transport sector .
4
58
Regarding the driver shortage the High Level Group on the Development of the
EU Road Haulage Market (2012) is of the opinion that access to the position of
driver should be made easier. The current cost of qualifications is a substantial
entry barrier and there must be adequate support, of the side of both industry
and public bodies, in both financial terms and training opportunities for those
intent on entering the profession. 1
According to commission staff, in order to be effective campaigns have to sketch

a honest, realistic picture of (work in) the transport sector. If campaigns aimed
at attracting people to work in the road transport sector present a very positive
picture, they might attract a lot of people. However, if the reality is portrayed in
a too favourable light, a lot of entrants in the sector will become disillusioned
and drop out.
In the view of UITP, the main challenge of urban public transport is to position
itself as the key to truly sustainable cities and green growth, which also means
social inclusion. UITPs ambition is to double it market share in cities world -wide
by 2025. The ambition to double the market share requires a significant
recruitment imperative, which needs to be facilitated by an improved image of
the sector. The EU could facilitate this by creating an appetite for public
transport instead of encouraging electric cars.
Initial VET/ VET standards

The sector needs to tackle the variable levels of training and qualifications from
one Member State to another in an effort to ensure greater mobility and
employment 2. Directive 2003/59 was meant to do that at least for bus and truck
drivers. There is no hard evidence whether this objective has been achieved.
Skills and qualifications in the sector should be improved by:

Facilitating the attainment of professional and specific driving competences,
Strengthening the link between the educational system and the labour
market (e.g. creating ad hoc professional and lifelong training programmes;
increasing the awareness among young students of occupational and
professional career prospects; improving job matching exploiting the
renewed role of public/private employment services; introducing and/or
stimulating the use of apprenticeship contracts) 3.
1
High Level Group on the Development of the EU Road Haulage Market (2012). Report of
the High Level Group on the Development of the EU Road Haulage Market .
2
3
59
5.4 Preventing outflow/diminishing labour demand
a. Improving the situation of current employees
General
The attractiveness of the profession and working conditions should be improved
by increasing the number of, and enhancing the comfort and security of, truck
parking areas, harmonising regulations and penalties across EU countries, and
increasing the integration between employers and employees needs and
objectives 1.
A social code should be specifically addressed to mobile workers and employers

to make them liable or co-liable as appropriate for compliance with common
minimum working standards. It should cover such issues as: terms and
conditions of employment, health insurance and care, a better organisation of
work and resting periods of drivers to enable the reconciliation of their work and
family life, as well as gender equality. The social code should also address the
problem of disguised self-employment, which creates legal uncertainty and
vulnerability of certain groups of workers not covered by any social protection
rules. Member States, with participation of social partners, shall be encouraged
to exchange practices and experiences on how to identify and counter disguised .
The drafting of such a Social Code by the sectoral social partners was
recommended by the Commission in its 2011 White Paper on Transport, although
the social partners (IRU and ETF) have not chosen to open discussions.
General recommendations of EESC concerning the situation of employee s of

urban public transport are:
Good working conditions, a better work-life balance and career opportunities
are elements which will attract women and young people to the urban public
transport sector.
Besides financing, a major challenge for public transport is providing good
quality services. The relation between quality at work (good working
conditions) and quality of services is a subject of the sectoral European
Social Dialogue 2.
Training and career opportunities

Only through professional training can the road transport sector continue to
adapt and evolve. An important, successful initiative in this respect is the joint
social partner project STARTS by IRU and ETF, which was co -funded by DG
MOVE. The STARTS-project is a good example of an initiative to improve the
image of the profession and level of professionalism and to influence the salary
level. Furthermore, the IRU Academy has to be mentioned in this respect (see
box below).
1
2
60
STARTS
IRU has teamed up with the ETF on the "Skills, Training And the Road Transport Sector
STARTS" project on training in the commercial road transport sector, covering both mobile and
non mobile employees of road transport companies. The purpose of this project is to correctly
identify the most important challenges and the most efficacious solutions for improving the
provision of training to drivers and workers performing certain non mobile, logistics related
tasks. In December 2010 STARTS Project has received European Commission funding which will
cover up to 80% of the total expenses.
In order to reflect the very distinct competencies, skills and legal frameworks for the different
categories of workers, the project will be split into two distinct pillars:
First Pillar- Mobile Workers: The most significant challenges to be addressed under this
pillar are the new requirements arising from the EU Driver Training Directive no
2003/59/EC. The project will produce a detailed overview of national arrangements related
to the Directives implementation, analyse related problem s and record how employers and
drivers are responding to meet its obligations in different EU Member States. It will also
make an early assessment of the Directives broader impact on the development of skills
within the sector and on how it affects access to employment as a road transport driver.
Where possible, recommendations will be established at the end of the project.
Second Pillar- Non Mobile Workers: This second pillar will focus on non -mobile blue collar
workers employed by road transport companie s performing warehouse functions, such as
goods in checking, forklift truck operation, order picking / packing, goods out checking and
stock system coordination. It will seek a better understanding of the competencies and
skills required by these workers and how they are reflected through the training practices
and systems in place at EU Member States level. It is hoped that this exercise will lead to
the identification where appropriate of skills and training solutions that can be used more
widely to boost the competences and safety of these workers 1.
IRU Academy
The IRU Academy is a professional road transport training organisation with a global reach. By
developing top-quality training programmes and ensuring quality control of training delivery,
the IRU Academy is active in enhancing the development of professional competence in the road
transport sector. The IRU Academy offers its portfolio of training programmes to road transport
professionals through its global network of Accredited Training Institut es (ATIs). The IRU
Academy uses a multi-lingual content management system to ensure its programme materials
are available to its members and instructors instantly. The IRU Academy is also involved in a
number of other training initiatives, from Road Safety to HIV/AIDS to ECO-Driving which tackle
important issues in the sector and propose solutions 2.
In particular, the job of driver is an occupation which often can not be continued
until retirement age because of occupational health problems. The EESC
recommends that the public transport sector should make greater efforts to offer
career opportunities for bus drivers, such as team leader positions and traffic
planning positions 3.
1
http://www.starts.iru.org/en_about
2
http://www.iru.org/en_about_academy
3
61
The High Level Group on the Development of the EU Road Haulage Market comes
in its report to the same conclusion: career progression should be encouraged
through measures such as those facilitating access to vocational training and
internal mobility towards office and management positions. 1
Employment quality (excl. training and career opportunities)

According to ETF, the less favourable working image of the urban public sector
can be changed by offering higher salaries to the staff.
Work quality
As regards the road transport sector, EESC recommends:

Improvement of road infrastructure, in particular the provision of safe and
affordable parking areas and rest facilities; part of the revenues obtained
from the "Eurovignette" could be used to improve the quality of parking
areas and rest facilities this would benefit both business (safety of cargo)
and professional drivers.
The EESC underlines the need for better enforcement of the provisions of the
posted workers' directive in particular in the case of posted workers carrying
out road transport cabotage. Since not all drivers carrying out cabotage are
subject to the Posting Directive 2, enforcement is complex. The TRANSPO
project 3 addressed difficulties in applying the Directive to the road haulage
sector.
The establishment of a European Road Safety Agency with the task of
safeguarding the safety needs and requirements 4.
According to TNO, only by attention to improved health and safety management

and the promotion of a safety culture throughout the sector will the accident and
ill health rate among drivers be reduced. 5
Good practice examples have been described in Managing risks to drivers in

the road transport sector (online only) report of case studies in road
haulage/freight lorries and passenger transport,
http://osha.europa.eu/en/publications/reports/managing-risks-
drivers_TEWE11002ENN/view:
As for road transport delivery:

Knowledge-sharing among drivers to prevent non-traffic related work
accidents, Denmark: Use of new technology (part 2.3.3, pages 20-24);
Transport online: an intranet and internet-based system to manage and
supervise truck drivers work and rest hours, Finland.
Many examples show the role of intermediaries to support employers to enhance

working conditions and hence maintaining employability in the road transport
1
High Level Group on the Development of the EU Road Haulage Market (2012). Report of
the High Level Group on the Development of the EU Road Haulage Market .
2
Self-employed workers and sub-contracting situations are not covered. There are cases
where the contract can be missing (word of mouth contracts).
3
See: http://www.tagliacarne.it/P42A361C348S42/TRANSPO---Road-TRANSport-sector-
and-POsting-of-workers---English-version.htm
4
5
EU-OSHA (2010), A review of accidents and injuries to road transport drivers.
62
sector technical safety measures in cabs to occupation health measures such
as DocStop rest stop access to medical services)(part 2.3.8, pages 36 -39).
As for passenger transport by bus:

Urban and interurban bus-drivers: Psychosocial risk factors and suitable work
clothes for women, Spain (part 3.4.11, pages 189-190);
London buses: action plan for women drivers, UK (part 3.4.14, pages 191 -
192)
Again, the involvement of intermediaries supported many of the examples .
Enforcement of regulation in the field of working conditions can be improved by

higher professional standards of control officers in charge of enforcing the rules.
In the respect, we can point at the TRACE project, which will be followed up in
2014 by a project (CLOSER) aiming to improve training of enforcement officers
in a broader range of subjects (see box below).
TRACE
TRACE stands for Transport Regulators Align Control Enforcement. The project concerns EU
rules in the field of Road Transport: on driving time, break and rest periods applying to drivers
engaged in commercial road transport at international and national level. These rules are
defined by Regulation (EC)n561/2006 and are directly applicable througout the Europ ean
Union. The Regulation is commonly known as the "Drivers' Hours' Rules Regulation".
TRACE supports the development of a European harmonised training format for enforcers
controlling the respect of the Drivers' Hours' Rules Regulation. This goal will be achieved
through the creation of harmonised training modules for control officers. This will assist in
reaching the project overall objective of common professional standard for control officers in the
field of Regulation (EC)n561/2006.
TRACE is a 300,514 Euros project partly funded by the European Commission (DG MOVE). The
project started in August 2010 for a period of 24 months. 1 A call for proposals for a TRACE 2
project with a broader scope was launched in 2013. 2
In urban public transport, violence and aggression constitute a serious problem.

According tot the EESC, a policy based on zero tolerance against violence
protects passengers and workers and helps to make public transport more
attractive 3. Already, counteractive measures have been taken by companies such
as self-defence classes (for women) or de-escalation training for employees.
Furthermore, technical solutions to prevent violence against drivers are
introduced such as emergency buttons or closed cabins in vehicles and private or
business mobile phones for employees 4.
In the view of ETF, making the working conditions better would make the urban
public sector more attractive to work in. Competition between the employers for
making the working conditions better, would also contribute to this.
1
http://www.traceproject.eu.
2
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/facts-fundings/grants/2013-08-30-trace_en.htm
3
4
63
b. Improving the operational management/ labour
productivity
The logistics and organisation of road transport firms should be improved

by increasing labour efficiency, improving logistic and organisation management,
and increasing the use of alternative transport modes. 1
According to UITP, automation is expected to reduce the number of people

needed slightly, but the positions they will fill will be different.
1
64
6 Conclusions and recommendations
This Chapter presents the main conclusions drawn from this study with regards
to the road transport labour market. In is based on the information in this Annex
11 and on information presented in the main report. The last section presents a
set of recommendations.
6.1 Sub-sectors and job types
The road transport sector comprises three sub-sectors in this study:

Trucking;
Coach;
Urban public transport.
The relevant job types considered in this study in road transport are:
Heavy truck and lorry drivers;
Bus and tram drivers;
Car, taxi and van drivers;
Attendants (passengers only);
Management;
Back-office;
Maintenance staff.
In 2010, road transport (including urban public transport) accounted for 56,4%
of the employment in the sector transportation and storage (excl. postal and
courier activities) as a whole in the EU27. The number of persons occupied in
road transport was 5,269,000 (in comparison to 5,321,900 in 2009 and
5,307,500 in 2008). A majority (3,101,300) of the employment in road transport
in 2001 was in freight transport by road and removal services and a minority
(2,167,600) in passenger land transport, other than interurban rail
transportation. 1
As discussed in the Introduction, transport occupations exist in non -transport

sectors of industry. It is obvious this is strongly the case for drivers. As an
illustration, once again the generic overview of overlap.
1
All figures: EUROSTAT.
65
Table 6.1 Overlap between transport occupations and transport sectors, for EU (number of
observations in EWCS 2010)
Sector
Occupation Transport sector Other sector Total
Transport occupation 948 742 1,690
Other occupation 592 33,090 33,682
Total 1,540 33,832 35,372
Source: EWCS 2010 (Eurofound)
In the EU27 roughly 1.2 million workers were employed in urban public transport
in 2010. The majority (55%) of them were drivers. The number of employees of
public transport operators in the EU27 decreased by just under 4% between
2000 and 2010, which corresponds to a loss of roughly 45,000 jobs. However, a
closer look at this development reveals that the number of employees started
increasing again in 2007, rising by about 3% between 2007 and 2010. The
overall decrease in employment in the period 2000-2010 was largely due to
labour productivity gains during the decade. It is plausible that part of the
decrease in the number of employees of operators was due to an increase in
volumes of subcontracting 1.
The share of young workers (15-24 years of age) in land transport 2 is less than
the EU overall average in 2010 (see figure 3.1). The share of land transport
workers aged 25-49 (65%) is approximately equal to the EU overall share of
workers aged 25-49 (64%). Consequently, the share of workers aged 50 or older
(31%) is above EU overall average. The ageing problem is therefore, more
imminent in land transport than in the EU labour market in general.
Land transport is an extreme case of male predominance. No less than 81% of
the land transport workforce is male (see fig. 6.2)
6.2 Data and literature
In comparison to other modes, data and literature availability is of high

quality. This is due in part, to the size of the mode: statistical reliability is
more likely. Furthermore, many data are only available at land transport and
transport through pipelines levels. In this grouping, road freight transport is
much larger than the other (sub)modes therefore, having a large influence on
weighted average results. However, data on issues related to social problems
(for instance compliance with working time regulations) is just as limited as
it is in other modes.
Data concerning smaller sub-modes, for instance taxis, is largely limited to
health and safety issues and not much information is available with regards
to (other) working conditions and social protection.
1
2
data concerns land transport and transport through pipelines, dominated in terms of
averages by road freight transport.
66
6.3 Social dialogue
Social dialogue in this sector covers passenger and freight transport by road. The
Sectoral Social Dialogue Committee Road Transport comprises the Employers
organisation International Road Transport Union (IRU) and the employees'
organisation European Transport Workers' Federation (ETF). The Internatio nal
Association of Public Transport (UITP) is represented through a cooperation
agreement with the IRU.
The Committee is currently focusing on: 1) Better rest facilities; 2) Logistics

qualifications; 3) Driver training directive; 4) Better enforcement of EU driving
and rest time rules; 5) Driver shortages, image and recruitment in road
transport; 6) European Skills, Competences and Occupations Project (ESCO); 7)
Illegal employment; 8) Urban public transport.
6.4 Road transport undertakings and policies
The road freight transport sector positions itself as the dominant freight mode
covering three quarters of the total market. Over the last decade road freight
transport in the EU27 has seen considerable activity growth. The accession of the
twelve new Member States has extensively contributed to this. The gradual
opening of the internal market, the stronger economic growth of the new
Member States and the increase in the specialisation of the production
processes, inducing larger flows of goods, have led to an increased demand for
freight transport in general and an increase of road transport employment, in
particular. Competition and differences in labour costs across the Member States
lead to a strong focus on costs, including downward pressure on wages in MS
with relatively high wages. This has kept profit margins decreasing, despite
remarkable increases in the sectors turnover and productivity.
Employment in road freight transport is characterised by amongst others:

Considerable geographic concentration of the activity (more than the half
of total goods transport in tkm is accounted for by Germany, Spain,
France and Italy)
High degree of market fragmentation (from 65% to over 95% of
companies have less than ten employees), where a few big players tend
to dominate the market, working in close cooperation with freight
consolidators, such as shippers and freight forwarders and who
subcontract various activities to medium-size and small companies.
A large share of self-employment (19,6% on average in the EU27) 1;
A limited variety of occupations: drivers account for a very high share of
employment (reaching almost 70% of total road freight employment in
some EU countries). 2
Passenger transport comprises diverse forms of transport, for instance
coach, taxi and minibus, bus and urban rail. Further distinctions can be
1
The proportion of self-employed drivers in the road transport sector varies significantly
between countries, ranging from as high as almost 100% in Malta to as low as 1% in
Luxembourg. See: Eurofound (2007). Impact of the working time directive on collective
bargaining in the road transport sector.
2
67
made within these sub-sectors. For instance, various types of taxi drivers
and chauffeurs exist: licensed cab drivers, unregulated minicabs,
minibuses used for collective transport of specific passenger categories
(e.g. elderly or disabled passengers), limousine drivers and company
chauffeurs.
The business is mainly regionally oriented, at least in terms of activities.
Since the liberalisation process started, the road freight transport market has not
evolved in convergence between increased competition and a parallel process of
social harmonisation across the EU Member States. Differences remain
significantly wide. This may lead to unfair transport companies adopting disloyal
competition and social dumping practices. Following the liberalisation efforts and
enlargement of the EU, an increase in competitive pressure has been at work in
road and urban public transport which is aggravated by a number of deficits in
the enforcements of elements of the acquis communautaire and national labour
laws leading to cases of dubious social practices, unfair competition and/or
detrimental working conditions. The extent to which remains unclear proof is
anecdotal, however, substantial. Some examples:
According to ETF, companies would look for drivers who are ready to accept
the gradually lowering working conditions and pay in the sector, which led to
drivers from the Philippines being brought to work in the EU.
Social and fiscal constructions are set up that appear to have the specific aim
of circumventing regulations:
o False self-employment (avoiding social premiums and circumventing
minimum wage agreements and other relevant labour provisions. In
addition, the self/employed take over part of the risk of doing busines s)
o Payments per delivery (payments dropping below minimum requirements
(where relevant))
o PO Box firms (business operations in country A, hiring people through PO
Box firm, a subsidiary, under legislation in country B, where no operation
is in order to profit from less expensive arrangements in country B).
o Subcontracting (Subcontracting is used to avoid taking on older
employees when contracts have been won (urban))
o Violations of working time regulations exist, partly spurred on by the
pressure created by "just-in-time" deliveries required from
subcontractors, as well as training rules violations, a trade in (fake and
real) accreditations, cabotage, etc.
An issue that appears specific for regional and local tendering procedures and
therefore, in the transport sector on urban transport, is social return on
investment as a requirement in new contracts of concessions. Frequently local
governments require a percentage (e.g. 10%) of staff to be recruited from the
pool of unemployed. This results frequently in job losses of long-term
experienced employees that often dont have qualifications that will allow them
to easily find another job and in particular, in the case of older employees. This
requirement is called social return on investment. In the transport secto r this is
common for mini-busses and collective transport of specific client types,
although most cases are currently based on circumstantial and/or anecdotal
evidence. In some cases this means that these experienced former employees
will need to receive unemployment benefits.
68
In general, compliance appears to be an issue. Non-compliance of some firms
presses others to do the same in order to be competitive. This may gradually
lead to a culture of non-compliance, a process that is different to halt or turn
around. Several examples have been mentioned above. Other publications show
examples of working time and training rules violations, a trade in (fake and real)
certificates, etc. Both employer and employee associations stress the need for
better control and enforcement of the existing rules and legislative pause.
Enforcement in road freight transport has proved to be particularly challenging

as it is a service sector and highly mobile in space and time. Cabotage is
unpredictable as it depends on matching of empty returns and local demand. The
limit of three cabotage operations is particularly difficult to enforce.
6.5 Demand and supply of labour and skills
6.5.1 Pan orama 1: Cu rrent situ ation
Road freight transport has been experiencing a progressive shortage of

professional drivers, which has emerged as one of the most critical issues
seriously affecting the competitiveness of the sector over the last ten years. The
shortage has progressively become structural across Europe, although its
impacts have not occurred simultaneously and with the same severity and
magnitude in all EU Member States. According to Eurobarometer, over 70,000
professional drivers were needed in 2008 in Europe, more or less in line with the
results of other studies.
At present the driver shortage problem is mitigated, due to the current economic
downturn and reduction in transport flows with a resulting overcapacity in the
sector, leading to a situation where the problem of driver shortage no longer
ranks amongst the top priorities. However, stakeholders confirm that the
shortage of qualified drivers remains a problem even during the economic
downturn 1. The results of the targeted stakeholder consultation indicate that, in
the road sector, labour shortages are common. Close to half of the ente rprises
indicate they are currently experiencing skill or labour shortages. On the other
hand, 27% is experiencing and expecting redundancies.
According to experts, the main reasons why shortages exist are:

Technological advances, globalisation, increased complexity of regulations and
additional tasks have brought the required competences to a higher level.
EU working time regulations have reduced the number of hours worked per
driver substantially, specifically overtime. As a result more drivers are
required to do the same amount of work. According to commission staff, this
cannot be the case as daily and weekly driving time limits have been left
unchanged for decades.
1
See the Report of the High Level Group on the Development of the EU Road Haulage
Market (2012), which is amongst others based on stakeholder consultations. The ETF and
IRU confirmed that shortage of qualified drivers is a problem, and that the general
shortage will be more acute as economic recovery takes place.
69
Low attractiveness of working in the sector.
Considering the still relatively low-skilled nature of road transport sector
jobs, the potential labour reserves are large. The low perceived
attractiveness of the profession of truck or bus driver is a barrier to attract
potential employees. Increasing female employment is a possibility,
particularly in regional and national transport. Personal safety issues pose a
barrier for female employment in long-distance transport.
Urban public transport is also facing recruitment problems. Figures are not
available.
Shortages are particularly mentioned by experts for technical jobs which is an
economy-wide problem as insufficient young people enter technical education.
6.5.2 Pan orama 2: Window 2015 -2020
The imbalance in supply and demand of drivers may be expected to increase

again as soon as the economy starts recovering 1. The scope of the labour
shortages in professional road transport (freight and passengers) at EU-level is
not known in great detail. There are estimates from individual markets, such as
Germany, which lacks roughly 15,000 truck drivers and will lose around 250,000
drivers in the next 10 to 15 years, due to retirement and lack of new entrants 2.
A model was built to be able to compare the future demand for transport-related
occupations in the transport sector with the supply of transport -related
occupations in the economy as a whole. For labour supply, two projection
scenarios were built: a general trends scenario (Scenario 1) and an increasing
age-specific participation scenario (Scenario 2).
The results for the most relevant road transport related occupations are as
follows:
Heavy truck and lorry drivers: decreasing employment (-0,3% annually), and
decreasing labour supply in scenario 1 (-0,1% annually). Scenario 2 sees an
increasing supply of 1,1% annually.
Bus and tram drivers: decreasing employment in the period 2010-2020 -0,1%
annually), increasing labour supply in scenario 1 (+0,1% annually) and
scenario 2 (2,1% annually)
Car, taxi and van drivers: increasing employment (+0,1% annually), stable
supply in scenario 1 (0,0%), but in scenario 2 increasing labour supply (1,3%
annually)
The results of the forecasting do not give reason to expect increasing shortages
in road transport. This is a contra-intuitive result, given expert opinions and
recent publications in the media. One of the reasons for the discrepancy may be
the relevance of the demand for labour from own-account transporters 3. Another
may be the redundancies due to qualitative mismatch (higher level or
1
2
Institut fr Nachhaltigkeit in Verkehr und Logistik (2012). ZF-Zukunftsstudie Fernfahrer.
Der Mensch im Transport- und Logistikmarkt,
3
These are not included in employment figures and thus influence trends.
70
competences required) which would result in increased demand and reduced
supply.
6.6 Attractiveness of working in the sector
The satisfaction with working conditions of employees in the road transport

sector and their motivation to perform are higher than their satisfaction with
wage. On all three indicators, employees in land transport and transport via
pipelines score lower than the total group of transport employees.
In land transport and pipelines 472 fatal accidents occurred in 2011. This was
77% of all fatal accidents in transport in the EU27 1. The fatal incidence rate in
land transport was 8,39. This means that on average, more than 8 out of
100,000 workers in land transport died in a job-related accident. This largely
exceeds the fatal incidence rate of all EU27 transport in 2011 (5,75).
Nearly 160,000 non-fatal accidents occurred in land transport and pipelines in

2011. In 92% of those accidents, male workers were involved. The number of
non-fatal accidents in land transport was fluctuating in 2008-2011: the number
decreased in 2009, increased in 2010 and decreased aga in in 2011. The non-
fatal incidence rate of EU27 land transport was just over 2,800 in 2011 and
slightly above the non-fatal incidence rate of all EU27 transport.
Driver incomes have been negatively influenced by the working time regulations
as the hours worked per week were reduced. This is somewhat of a paradox, as
changes (forbidding performance-based remuneration, forbidding spending
weekly rest in the truck, etc) have the purpose to improve working conditions. In
comparison to the total business economy (excl. financial and insurance
activities), the average wage per employee is lower. There is an ongoing
discussion on who (employers or employees) must pay for the (obligatory) use of
safe rest facilities, for trainings, for border/traffic delays, etc. In brief, the
downward pressure on wages has been discussed above.
Some other issues:

Especially in cross-border transport, the number of nonstandard working
hours (many shifts at night and/or during weekends), long hours away from
home, unpredictable schedules and reduced possibilities to work extra hours,
make the sector unattractive for (young) people.
The degree of control that workers exercise over their work is limited in road
transport. However, being on the road generally gives drivers a certain feeling
of freedom. Technological developments result in higher levels of control ,
more restricted work autonomy and less feeling of freedom.
Many drivers in freight and passenger transport by road work in isolation;
they have few contacts with their colleagues and supervisors.
Work intensity has increased due to increased traffic congestion and the use
of lean strategies, such as just-in-time.
1
Non-fatal and fatal incidence rates of individual transport modes in 2008-2010 are not
available. Source: EUROSTAT.
71
Work-related risks:
o Physical risks: vibrations, manual handling of loads, risks linked with a
long sitting position, risks linked with being on the road.
o Chemical and biological risks: exhaust fumes and other pollutants.
o Psychosocial risks: stress, aggression, uncertainty resulting from periodic
tendering in bus and taxi.
o Individual behaviour: smoking, consumption of stimulants (coffee and
alcohol), lack of physical exercise (sedentary jobs) and low seatbelt
usage.
Violence and criminality.
6.7 Education, training and certification
Overall road transport qualifications are fairly easy to be granted with: it takes
little time to be trained and no particularly high ISCED 1 levels are required, even
if a certain variety seem to be present across Member States and in particular,
concerning heavy truck and lorry driving qualifications.
If qualifications granted are considered, the general trend reported by the data
analysed delineates an increase in quantity during the last few years, which is
nevertheless, not supported by long-term demand. The gap may nonetheless, be
related to adaptation to demand flexibility, as little requirements and training
open the possibility to a wide share of population to be potentially qualified for
the profession, whenever the demand increases.
Technological innovation, globalisation, increased complexity of regulations and

additional tasks have implied a substantial transformation of jobs in the
transport sector, entailing new and more complex skills and training needs (e.g.
Eco-driving skills). This aspect has also affected road transport for which there is
currently a shortage of personnel with innovative skills.
It has been reported that there are many differences between countries in who is
required to pay the training (employer or employee). However, the current cost
of qualifications are deemed a substantial entry barrier. In countries where
employers are charged for this, there is a tendency to reduce costs by cutting
personnel costs, including training costs.
6.8 Conclusions: bottlenecks and risks
The main issues in the road sector labour market(s) identified in the study are:
Many drivers are employed by employers outside of the road sector, or even
transport. This hampers insight in the sector and the effectiveness of
solutions.
A progressive shortage of professional drivers is foreseen by experts and
employers. Currently, many employers already report shortages and the
sector employs many older employees. However, the study forecasts do not
indicate increasing shortages.
1
International Standard Classification of Education.
72
Employers also report current redundancies, mainly due to new and more
complex skills and training needs.
In urban public transport, predominantly shortages for technical jobs are
expected.
In general, job attractiveness is low (payment, away from home, road safety,
crime/abuse/violence, non-standard working hours, autonomy, work in
isolation, time pressure, work intensity).
A strong focus on cost leads to rather dubious social practices (self-employed,
payment per delivery, subcontracting). Little hard evidence is available,
however, much anecdotal evidence is. Lack of compliance with regulations
appears to be a serious issue.
6.9 Policy suggestions
6.9.1 Many drivers are n ot working in th e road sector, or even

in tran sport
This hampers insight in the sector and the effectiveness of solutions. Given the
expected shortages, a common approach with other sectors (predominantly) in
need of drivers is recommendable to make the job more attractive and better
prepare drivers for the future. Insight in, for instance, labour mobility within and
outside the road transport sector would facilitate this.
6.9.2 Progressi ve sh ortage of professional dri vers
Considering the relatively low-skilled nature of road transport sector jobs the
potential labour reserves are large. It is clear that making the sector more
attractive to work in is the most important challenge in this context (see below).
Although, changing the image of the work will take time, the measures would
likely help in the short run by retaining currently employed drivers longer.
6.9.3 Redun dan cies du e to n ew an d more compl ex skills an d

training n eeds
A variety of initiatives has already been undertaken or is being developed in this

field. Updating the competences of current drivers would reduce the number of
redundancies and shortages alike. The introduction of a mandatory CPC for
drivers in the EU also aims to improve the attractiveness of the occupation.
Other examples of Initiatives in this respect are the joint social partner project
STARTS 1 (an initiative to improve the image of the profession and level of
professionalism and to influence the salary level) and the IRU Academy.
A project on youth employment with elements of vocational training in this
sector is planned but has not started yet.
The job of (bus) driver is an occupation which often cannot be continued until
retirement age because of occupational health problems. As discussed, 31% of
the employees is currently 50 or older. The road transport sector could make
1
http://starts.iru.org/index/en_home
73
greater efforts to offer career opportunities for (bus) drivers, such as team
leader positions and traffic planning positions. Career progression should be
encouraged through measures such as those facilitating access to vocational
training and internal mobility towards office and management positions.
6.9.4 Expected sh ortages for tech nical j obs in u rban public

tran sport
The battle of the Twenties? This will be an extremely important i ssue on the EU
labour market in the coming years. Already, a general shortage of technicians
exists and this shortage is widely expected to increase. Substantial efforts are
being made to interest children and students in technical professions. However,
the study provides little material to add to the existing general knowledge and
activities on this issue.
6.9.5 Dubi ou s social practices and lack of complian ce with

regulati on s
Obviously, we are discussing a very sensitive topic here, whereas a factual basis
for such a discussion is missing for the most part. Still, it is safe to say there is a
problem with social practices in the sector. At the very least, the stream of
stories is harming the image of working in the sector even further. Different
parties point to each other as being responsible for solving the issues. As a
result, not a lot of progress is being made. Parties should focus on finding
solutions and cooperate together on this.
Below and in random order, is a number of observations and suggestions.
The culture of compliance should be enhanced. First and foremost, enterprises

and to a lesser extent employees, must pick up this issue. A largely harmonised
set of transparent social, security and competition standards (social code) in
road transport evenly applicable throughout Member States, as has been
suggested, might help, but will take time to develop and will still be difficult to
uphold. Making employers, employees and clients liable or co-liable as
appropriate for compliance with common minimum working standards would
put some weight behind this suggested solution.
MS governments and the EC should facilitate this process as much as possible.

This could include changes to regulations or better explanation of them, if
regulations are deemed a barrier towards compliance. The Commission should
continue to promote a uniform interpretation of rules in relation to the most
serious infringements and sanctions. This will assist greatly in breaking down
differential practices which are frequently perceived as discrimination.
Budgetary cuts also affect the enforcement capacity of MS. Moreover, for many
of the issues mentioned, an increase of capacity would only help to a certain
degree. Innovative monitoring is required. Making more use of big data is one
such option. Given the rapid increase of IT in the sector, other innovative
approaches should be possible without an unduly increase of administrative
burden for enterprises and workers. The EC can play an important role in good
74
practice exchange and perhaps also in co-financing initiatives. According to the
transport ministers of six MS, the EC could also clarify the directive concerning
cabotage; notably the part with regards to monitoring 1. Enterprises should be
involved in the process: what is important to monitor and what is effective in
terms of results and administrative burden?
Rather than just expand the capacity in Member States, it would be better to
also improve enforcement. Higher professional standards of control officers in
charge of enforcing the rules are expected to result in improvements. In this
respect, we can point at two EU funded projects: TRACE (aiming at the
development of a European harmonised training format for enforcers controlling
the respect of the Drivers' Hours' Rules Regulation) and the follow-up CLOSER
(Combined Learning Objectives for safer European Roads).
In their study for the European Parliament, Sitran and Pastor support a number
of recommendations concerning enforcement:
Strengthening enforcement mechanisms in the Member States. This would
require increasing existing controls and enforcement mechanisms and making
them more effective, and might include drafting an ad hoc enforcement
directive to support the application of Regulations (EC) No 1071/2009 and
1072/2009. Furthermore, enforcement measures might target labour and
social laws in the road freight transport sector, such as Regulation (EC) No
593/2008 (Rome I Regulation), for example via joint controls by road
enforcement and labour authorities.
Introducing enforcement impact assessments. These could be introduced with
the purpose of significantly strengthening the enforcement side of EU
legislation, while encouraging Member States to assume their responsibilities
in this area. These should accompany each legislative proposal in order to
evaluate and estimate the impact that the measures applied would have on
the enforceability of the proposal after the EC legislation enters into force.
Introducing reporting mechanisms on the application of Directive 96/71/EC
on the posting of workers. Enforcement can be made more effective if it is
supported by constantly updated data and information about the status of
the implementation of the various norms. This might be the case for Directive
96/71/EC on the posting of workers by including a provision for a reporting
mechanism in Regulation (EC) 1072/2009 that requires each Member State to
inform the Commission about the application of Directive 96/71/EC and for
the prospective posting of workers enforcement directive - for which a
proposal4 is currently being debated in 1st reading at the EP.
Enhancing co-operation between Member States and between different
authorities of the same Member State. This might be achieved by facilitating
exchanges of information and best practices, promoting training of
enforcement officers and supporting concerted training programmes.
Furthermore, it might also include extending the competences of the
intracommunity liaison body established by Directive 2006/22/EC.
Extending the application of the cabotage rules to Directive 96/71/106. This
might require amending Regulation (EC) 1072/2009 with the purpose of
eliminating exceptions and making cabotage rules easier to be enforced.
1
Commission staff is of a view that little can be done in that area by the EC.
75
Creation of a European register of transport companies. This regis ter would
include a black list of those companies that have been found responsible for
illegal or disloyal practices. It might be embedded into the risk rating system
that Member States are required to introduce with respect to undertakings
infringing EU rules on driving times and rest periods. 1
The High Level Group proposes that the twin aims of cabotage rules, reducing
empty running in relation to international operations and opening up markets,
are to be separated and that a distinction is to be made between linked (i.e. to
international movements) and non-linked cabotage.
Further research should be done on the negative impacts of social return on

investment in the framework of concessions. More generally, less focus on price
is advisable. The clients often regional governments should be more aware of
the social consequences of their choices in the process. Social dimensions could
be improved by providing employees with an advisory role. Possible social
criteria: setting minimum wages, fully including subcontracted activities in the
process, making demands concerning current employees, particularly the 50+
group, etc.
Further introduction of chain-responsibility to avoid social dumping should be

explored.
6.9.6 Low j ob attractiven ess
Much of the actions above would have a positive effect on job attractiveness.
Notwithstanding those, measures can be distinguished in measures aimed at
improving conditions and measures improving the image of working within the
sector.
In order to improve labour conditions, measures that could be considered are:

Improvement of road infrastructure, in particular increasing the number of
roads and enhancing the comfort and security of affordable parking areas and
rest facilities. This would contribute to better working conditions. The same
goes for the establishment of a European Road Safety Agency with the task of
safeguarding the safety needs and requirements.
Social innovations with regards to work shifts, particularly in international
transport, would make the work attractive to a wider group of potential
employees, including women and older workers.
Womens participation can be further increased by promoting gender-oriented
measures and by the above infrastructure measures and by reducing gender
discrimination that reportedly occurs. Relevant in this respect, is the project
Women Employment in the Urban Public Transport Sector (WISE).
EU and national policymakers are asked to undertake measures that lead to
true sustainability in the sector, by offering incentives for operators to invest
in new fleets and technology. This would both contribute to greener transport
and improved working conditions.
1
76
More attention to improved health and safety management and the promotion
of a safety culture throughout the sector will reduce the accident and ill
health rate amongst drivers. The possibility to set standards to lower work-
related risks could be explored.
Further development of good practice guidelines to tackle risks. All parties
involved should prioritise safer conditions to reduce accidents.
Alternatively, offering higher salaries would make up for less favourable
(other) working conditions.
A policy based on zero tolerance against violence would protect passengers
and workers and help to make public transport more attractive.
Apart from the obvious impact of improvements to working conditions, possible

measures to improve the image of the sector could include:
Measures to make the profession of driver highly skilled, such as the recent
decision to make CPCs mandatory, will automatically lead to improvement. A
further increase of productivity would bring the required resources to do so.
However, this would increase the qualitative discrepancy (too few sufficiently
trained drivers and too many drivers without the required competences).
Promoting campaigns on the importance of the transport sector in the
economy, the employment prospects and improvements to working conditions
notably any high tech elements therein.
77

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Annex 11 Labour Market Road Transport (including

urban public transport)

Background information for the study Analysis of the

1 EU ROAD TRANSPORT LABOUR MARKET 5

3 EU ROAD TRANSPORT LABOUR MARKET

4 DISCREPANCIES EU ROAD TRANSPORT

This Annex covers the PESTLE-analysis, labour market trends, discrepancies in

1.2 Sub-modes and professions

The road transport sector comprises three subsectors:

The relevant job types considered in road transport are:

Different types of taxi drivers and chauffeurs are:

The analytical framework that is applied in the study, comprises four

2.1 Political factors

2.1.1 Gen eral context EU tran sport labou r market

2.1.2 Specific con text EU road tran sport labour market

Sitran and Pastori conclude: The implication of such reasoning, as well as a

According to ETF, there is a problem due to the liberalisation/competition in this

Experience/view of individual road transport companies c.q. national representatives

Source: Enterprise survey by Panteia/PWC

Issue that is rather specific on urban transport: social return on investment.

State of the art (partners, priorities)

Achievements, difficulties and deficiencies

Two problems appear to occur in Sectoral Social Dialogue in road transport:

According to ETF, Sectoral Social Dialogue in road transport (including urban

As far as the representation of self-employed drivers in social dialogue is

2.2 Economic factors

2.2.1 Gen eral context EU tran sport labou r market

2.2.2 Specific con text EU road tran sport labour market

Operators particularly the small and medium-sized enterprises in road

According to UITP, the International Association of Public Transport, the crisis

Experience/view of individual road transport companies c.q. national representatives

Source: Enterprise survey by Panteia/PWC

2.3.1 Gen eral context EU tran sport labou r market

2.3.2 Specific con text EU road tran sport labour market

Social aspects in road transport

2.4 Technological factors

2.4.1 Gen eral context EU tran sport labou r market

These technological developments lead to:

2.4.2 Specific con text EU road tran sport labour market

Specific technological developments such as the introduction of the digital

2.5.1 Gen eral context EU tran sport labou r market

2.5.2 Specific con text EU road tra n sport labour market

EU regulations concerning (harmonisation of) training and certification

Council Directive 96/26/EC of 29 April 1996 on admission to the occupation of

The unsatisfactory application of the abovementioned Directive in Member States

Directive 2003/59/EC of 15 July 2003 on the initial qualification and periodic

As a result professional drivers in the European Union cannot work anymore

EU regulations concerning working conditions

Driving time and rest periods

Also in the view of the Commission, enforcement at national level could be

According to IRU, the main challenge is to develop a pan -European policy on

ETF points at various problems in EU legislation:

Experience/view of individual road transport companies c.q. national representatives

2.6 Environmental factors

2.6.1 Gen eral context EU tran sport labou r market

The road transport sector has undergone significant changes aimed at

Public transport is a fast-growing sector which plays an active role in the

3.1 Trends in demand

3.1.1 Gen eral tren ds in deman d

3.1.2 Specific deman d tren ds road tran sport

Employment development (number of jobs)

Figure 3.1 Employment development (yearly change in occupied persons, in %) in

transportation and storage excl. postal and courier activities