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GautamaBuddha
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GautamaBuddha(c.563BCE/480BCEc.483BCE/400
BCE),alsoknownasSiddhrthaGautama[sidrt GautamaBuddha
gut m],kyamuniBuddha[kjmunibud],[4]or
simplytheBuddha,afterthetitleofBuddha,wasanascetic
(ramaa)andsage,[4]onwhoseteachingsBuddhismwas
founded.[5]Heisbelievedtohavelivedandtaughtmostlyinthe
easternpartofancientIndiasometimebetweenthesixthand
fourthcenturiesBCE.[6][note3]

GautamataughtaMiddleWaybetweensensualindulgenceand
thesevereasceticismfoundintheramaamovement[7]
commoninhisregion.Helatertaughtthroughoutotherregions
ofeasternIndiasuchasMagadhaandKosala.[6][8]

GautamaistheprimaryfigureinBuddhism.Heisrecognizedby
Buddhistsasanenlightenedteacherwhoattainedfull
Buddhahood,andsharedhisinsightstohelpsentientbeingsend AstatueoftheBuddhafromSarnath,4thcentury
rebirthandsuffering.Accountsofhislife,discourses,and CE
monasticrulesarebelievedbyBuddhiststohavebeen
Religion Buddhism
summarizedafterhisdeathandmemorizedbyhisfollowers.
Variouscollectionsofteachingsattributedtohimwerepassed Knownfor FounderofBuddhism
downbyoraltraditionandfirstcommittedtowritingabout400 Othernames SiddharthaGautama,Shakyamuni
yearslater.
Personal
Born c.563BCEorc.480BCE[1][2]
Contents Lumbini,ShakyaRepublic
(accordingtoBuddhist
1 HistoricalSiddhrthaGautama tradition)[note1]
2 Traditionalbiographies
Died c.483BCEorc.400BCE(aged80)
2.1 Biographicalsources
2.2 Natureoftraditionaldepictions Kushinagar,MallaRepublic
3 Biography (accordingtoBuddhist
3.1 Conceptionandbirth tradition)[note2]
3.2 Earlylifeandmarriage
3.3 Renunciationandasceticlife Parents uddhodana(father)
3.4 Awakening MayaDevi(mother)
3.5 Formationofthesangha Seniorposting
3.6 Travelsandteaching
3.7 Mahaparinirvana Predecessor KassapaBuddha
3.8 Relics Successor Maitreya
4 Physicalcharacteristics
5 Ninevirtues
6 Teachings
6.1 UseofBrahmanicalmotifs
6.2 Tracingtheoldestteachings
6.3 Dhyanaandinsight
6.4 EarliestBuddhism
6.5 Laterdevelopments
7 Otherreligions
8 Depictioninartsandmedia
9 Notes
10 References
10.1 Citations
10.2 Bibliography
11 Furtherreading
12 Externallinks

HistoricalSiddhrthaGautama

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Scholarsarehesitanttomakeunqualifiedclaimsaboutthehistorical
factsoftheBuddha'slife.Mostacceptthathelived,taughtand
foundedamonasticorderduringtheMahajanapadaeraduringthe
reignofBimbisara(c.558c.491BCE,orc.400BCE),[9][10][11]the
ruleroftheMagadhaempire,anddiedduringtheearlyyearsofthe
reignofAjatasatru,whowasthesuccessorofBimbisara,thusmaking
himayoungercontemporaryofMahavira,theJaintirthankara.[12][13]
ApartfromtheVedicBrahmins,theBuddha'slifetimecoincidedwith
theflourishingofinfluentialramaaschoolsofthoughtlikejvika,
Crvka,Jainism,andAjana.[14]BrahmajalaSuttarecordssixtytwo
suchschoolsofthought.Itwasalsotheageofinfluentialthinkerslike AncientkingdomsandcitiesofIndia
Mahavira(referredtoas'NiganthaNataputta'inPaliCanon),[15] duringthetimeoftheBuddha.
PraaKassapa,MakkhaliGosla,AjitaKesakambal,Pakudha
Kaccyana,andSajayaBelahaputta,asrecordedinSamaaphalaSutta,whoseviewpointstheBuddhamost
certainlymusthavebeenacquaintedwith.[16][17][note4]Indeed,SariputtaandMoggallna,twooftheforemost
disciplesoftheBuddha,wereformerlytheforemostdisciplesofSajayaBelahaputta,theskeptic[19]andthePali
canonfrequentlydepictsBuddhaengagingindebatewiththeadherentsofrivalschoolsofthought.Thus,Buddha
wasjustoneofthemanyramaaphilosophersofthattime.[20]Thereisalsoevidencetosuggestthatthetwo
masters,AlaraKalamaandUddakaRamaputta,wereindeedhistoricalfiguresandtheymostprobablytaught
Buddhatwodifferentformsofmeditativetechniques.[21]Whilethegeneralsequenceof"birth,maturity,
renunciation,search,awakeningandliberation,teaching,death"iswidelyaccepted,[22]thereislessconsensuson
theveracityofmanydetailscontainedintraditionalbiographies.[23][24]

ThetimesofGautama'sbirthanddeathareuncertain.Mosthistoriansintheearly20thcenturydatedhislifetimeas
circa563BCEto483BCE.[1][25]Morerecentlyhisdeathisdatedlater,between411and400BCE,whileata
symposiumonthisquestionheldin1988,[26][27][28]themajorityofthosewhopresenteddefiniteopinionsgave
dateswithin20yearseithersideof400BCEfortheBuddha'sdeath.[1][29][note3]Thesealternativechronologies,
however,havenotyetbeenacceptedbyallhistorians.[34][35][note5]

TheevidenceoftheearlytextssuggeststhatSiddhrthaGautamawasbornintotheShakyaclan,acommunitythat
wasontheperiphery,bothgeographicallyandculturally,oftheeasternIndiansubcontinentinthe5thcentury
BCE.[40]Itwaseitherasmallrepublic,oranoligarchy,andhisfatherwasanelectedchieftain,oroligarch.[40]
AccordingtotheBuddhisttradition,GautamawasborninLumbini,nowinmoderndayNepal,andraisedinthe
ShakyacapitalofKapilvastu,whichmayhavebeeneitherinwhatispresentdayTilaurakot,NepalorPiprahwa,
India.[note1]HeobtainedhisenlightenmentinBodhGaya,gavehisfirstsermoninSarnath,anddiedin
Kushinagar.

NowrittenrecordsaboutGautamawerefoundfromhislifetimeorsomecenturiesthereafter.OneEdictofAsoka,
whoreignedfromcirca269BCEto232BCE,commemoratestheEmperor'spilgrimagetotheBuddha'sbirthplace
inLumbini.AnotheroneofhisedictsmentionsthetitlesofseveralDhammatexts,establishingtheexistenceofa
writtenBuddhisttraditionatleastbythetimeoftheMauryaera.ThesetextsmaybetheprecursorofthePli
Canon.[57][58][note7]TheoldestsurvivingBuddhistmanuscriptsaretheGandhranBuddhisttexts,reportedtohave
beenfoundinoraroundHaanearJalalabadineasternAfghanistanandnowpreservedintheBritishLibrary.
TheyarewrittenintheGndhrlanguageusingtheKharosthiscriptontwentysevenbirchbarkmanuscriptsand
datefromthefirstcenturyBCEtothethirdcenturyCE.[59]

Traditionalbiographies
Biographicalsources

ThesourcesforthelifeofSiddhrthaGautamaareavarietyofdifferent,andsometimesconflicting,traditional
biographies.TheseincludetheBuddhacarita,LalitavistaraStra,Mahvastu,andtheNidnakath.[60]Ofthese,
theBuddhacarita[61][62][63]istheearliestfullbiography,anepicpoemwrittenbythepoetAvaghoainthefirst
centuryCE.[64]TheLalitavistaraStraisthenextoldestbiography,aMahyna/Sarvstivdabiographydatingto
the3rdcenturyCE.[65]TheMahvastufromtheMahsghikaLokottaravdatraditionisanothermajor
biography,composedincrementallyuntilperhapsthe4thcenturyCE.[65]TheDharmaguptakabiographyofthe
Buddhaisthemostexhaustive,andisentitledtheAbhinikramaaStra,[66]andvariousChinesetranslationsof
thisdatebetweenthe3rdand6thcenturyCE.TheNidnakathisfromtheTheravadatraditioninSriLankaand
wascomposedinthe5thcenturybyBuddhaghoa.[67]

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FromcanonicalsourcescometheJatakatales,theMahapadanaSutta(DN
14),andtheAchariyabhutaSutta(MN123),whichincludeselective
accountsthatmaybeolder,butarenotfullbiographies.TheJtakasretell
previouslivesofGautamaasabodhisattva,andthefirstcollectionofthese
canbedatedamongtheearliestBuddhisttexts.[68]TheMahpadnaSutta
andAchariyabhutaSuttabothrecountmiraculouseventssurrounding
Gautama'sbirth,suchasthebodhisattva'sdescentfromtheTuitaHeaven
intohismother'swomb.

Natureoftraditionaldepictions

IntheearliestBuddhisttexts,thenikyasandgamas,theBuddhaisnot
depictedaspossessingomniscience(sabbau)[69]norishedepictedas
beinganeternaltranscendent(lokottara)being.AccordingtoBhikkhu
Analayo,ideasoftheBuddha'somniscience(alongwithanincreasing
tendencytodeifyhimandhisbiography)arefoundonlylater,inthe
MahayanasutrasandlaterPalicommentariesortextssuchasthe BuddhabyOtgonbayarErshuu
Mahvastu.[69]IntheSandakaSutta,theBuddha'sdiscipleAnandaoutlines
anargumentagainsttheclaimsofteacherswhosaytheyareallknowing
[70]whileintheTevijjavacchagottaSuttatheBuddhahimselfstatesthathe
hasnevermadeaclaimtobeingomniscient,insteadheclaimedtohavethe
"higherknowledges"(abhij).[71]Theearliestbiographicalmaterialfrom
thePaliNikayasfocusesontheBuddha'slifeasaramaa,hissearchfor
enlightenmentundervariousteacherssuchasAlaraKalamaandhisforty
fiveyearcareerasateacher.[72]
Mymiraculouslygivingbirthto
TraditionalbiographiesofGautamagenerallyincludenumerousmiracles,
Siddhrtha.Sanskrit,palmleaf
omens,andsupernaturalevents.ThecharacteroftheBuddhainthese
manuscript.Nland,Bihar,India.
traditionalbiographiesisoftenthatofafullytranscendent(Skt.lokottara)
Plaperiod
andperfectedbeingwhoisunencumberedbythemundaneworld.Inthe
Mahvastu,overthecourseofmanylives,Gautamaissaidtohave
developedsupramundaneabilitiesincluding:apainlessbirthconceivedwithoutintercoursenoneedforsleep,
food,medicine,orbathing,althoughengaginginsuch"inconformitywiththeworld"omniscience,andtheability
to"suppresskarma".[73]Nevertheless,someofthemoreordinarydetailsofhislifehavebeengatheredfromthese
traditionalsources.InmoderntimestherehasbeenanattempttoformasecularunderstandingofSiddhrtha
Gautama'slifebyomittingthetraditionalsupernaturalelementsofhisearlybiographies.

AndrewSkiltonwritesthattheBuddhawasneverhistoricallyregardedbyBuddhisttraditionsasbeingmerely
human:

Itisimportanttostressthat,despitemodernTheravadateachingstothecontrary(oftenasopto
skepticalWesternpupils),hewasneverseenasbeingmerelyhuman.Forinstance,heisoften
describedashavingthethirtytwomajorandeightyminormarksorsignsofamahpurua,
"superman"theBuddhahimselfdeniedthathewaseitheramanoragodandinthe
MahparinibbnaSuttahestatesthathecouldliveforanaeonwereheaskedtodoso.[74]

TheancientIndiansweregenerallyunconcernedwithchronologies,beingmorefocusedonphilosophy.Buddhist
textsreflectthistendency,providingaclearerpictureofwhatGautamamayhavetaughtthanofthedatesofthe
eventsinhislife.ThesetextscontaindescriptionsofthecultureanddailylifeofancientIndiawhichcanbe
corroboratedfromtheJainscriptures,andmaketheBuddha'stimetheearliestperiodinIndianhistoryforwhich
significantaccountsexist.[75]BritishauthorKarenArmstrongwritesthatalthoughthereisverylittleinformation
thatcanbeconsideredhistoricallysound,wecanbereasonablyconfidentthatSiddhrthaGautamadidexistasa
historicalfigure.[76]MichaelCarrithersgoesabitfurtherbystatingthatthemostgeneraloutlineof"birth,
maturity,renunciation,search,awakeningandliberation,teaching,death"mustbetrue.[22]

Biography
Conceptionandbirth

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TheBuddhisttraditionregardsLumbini,inpresentdayNepaltobethe
birthplaceoftheBuddha.[78][note1]HegrewupinKapilavastu.[note1]The
exactsiteofancientKapilavastuisunknown.[79]Itmayhavebeeneither
Piprahwa,UttarPradesh,inpresentdayIndia,[52]orTilaurakot,inpresent
dayNepal.[80]BothplacesbelongedtotheSakyaterritory,andarelocated
only15milesapart.[80]

GautamawasbornasaKshatriya,[81][note9]thesonofuddhodana,"an
Maya'sdreamoftheBirthof
electedchiefoftheShakyaclan",[6]whosecapitalwasKapilavastu,and
GautamaSiddharta
whowerelaterannexedbythegrowingKingdomofKosaladuringthe
Buddha'slifetime.Gautamawasthefamilyname.Hismother,Maya
(Mydev),Suddhodana'swife,wasaKoliyanprincess.Legendhasitthat,
onthenightSiddharthawasconceived,QueenMayadreamtthatawhite
elephantwithsixwhitetusksenteredherrightside,[83][84]andtenmonths
later[85]Siddharthawasborn.AswastheShakyatradition,whenhismother
QueenMayabecamepregnant,sheleftKapilavastuforherfather's
kingdomtogivebirth.However,hersonissaidtohavebeenbornonthe
way,atLumbini,inagardenbeneathasaltree.

ThedayoftheBuddha'sbirthiswidelycelebratedinTheravadacountries
asVesak.[86]Buddha'sBirthdayiscalledBuddhaPurnimainNepal,
Bangladesh,andIndiaasheisbelievedtohavebeenbornonafullmoon
day.VarioussourcesholdthattheBuddha'smotherdiedathisbirth,afew
daysorsevendayslater.TheinfantwasgiventhenameSiddhartha(Pli: BirthplaceofGautamaBuddhain
Siddhattha),meaning"hewhoachieveshisaim".Duringthebirth Lumbini,Nepal, [note1][77]aholy
celebrations,thehermitseerAsitajourneyedfromhismountainabodeand shrinealsoformanynon
announcedthatthechildwouldeitherbecomeagreatking(chakravartin)or Buddhists. [note8]
agreatsadhu.[87]Bytraditionalaccount,thisoccurredafterSiddhartha
placedhisfeetinAsita'shairandAsitaexaminedthebirthmarks.Suddhodanaheldanamingceremonyonthefifth
day,andinvitedeightBrahminscholarstoreadthefuture.Allgaveadualpredictionthatthebabywouldeither
becomeagreatkingoragreatholyman.[87]Kondaa,theyoungest,andlatertobethefirstarhatotherthanthe
Buddha,wasreputedtobetheonlyonewhounequivocallypredictedthatSiddharthawouldbecomeaBuddha.[88]

Whilelatertraditionandlegendcharacterizeduddhodanaasahereditarymonarch,thedescendantofthe
Suryavansha(Solardynasty)ofIkvku(Pli:Okkka),manyscholarsthinkthatuddhodanawastheelected
chiefofatribalconfederacy.

EarlytextssuggestthatGautamawasnotfamiliarwiththedominantreligiousteachingsofhistimeuntilhelefton
hisreligiousquest,whichissaidtohavebeenmotivatedbyexistentialconcernforthehumancondition.[89]The
stateoftheShakyaclanwasnotamonarchyandseemstohavebeenstructuredeitherasanoligarchy,orasaform
ofrepublic.[90]Themoreegalitarianganasanghaformofgovernment,asapoliticalalternativetothestrongly
hierarchicalkingdoms,mayhaveinfluencedthedevelopmentoftheramanicJainandBuddhistsanghas,where
monarchiestendedtowardVedicBrahmanism.[91]

Earlylifeandmarriage

Siddharthawasbroughtupbyhismother'syoungersister,MahaPajapati.[92]By
tradition,heissaidtohavebeendestinedbybirthtothelifeofaprinceandhad
threepalaces(forseasonaloccupation)builtforhim.Althoughmorerecent
scholarshipdoubtsthisstatus,hisfather,saidtobeKinguddhodana,wishingfor
hissontobeagreatking,issaidtohaveshieldedhimfromreligiousteachingsand
fromknowledgeofhumansuffering.

Whenhereachedtheageof16,hisfatherreputedlyarrangedhismarriagetoa
cousinofthesameagenamedYaodhar(Pli:Yasodhar).Accordingtothe
traditionalaccount,shegavebirthtoason,namedRhula.Siddharthaissaidto
havespent29yearsasaprinceinKapilavastu.Althoughhisfatherensuredthat
Siddharthawasprovidedwitheverythinghecouldwantorneed,Buddhist
scripturessaythatthefutureBuddhafeltthatmaterialwealthwasnotlife'sultimate
goal.[92]
DepartureofPrince
Renunciationandasceticlife Siddhartha

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Attheageof29,Siddharthalefthispalacetomeethissubjects.Despitehis
father'seffortstohidefromhimthesick,agedandsuffering,Siddhartha
wassaidtohaveseenanoldman.WhenhischarioteerChannaexplainedto
himthatallpeoplegrewold,theprincewentonfurthertripsbeyondthe
palace.Ontheseheencounteredadiseasedman,adecayingcorpse,andan
ascetic.Thesedepressedhim,andheinitiallystrovetoovercomeageing,
sickness,anddeathbylivingthelifeofanascetic.[93]

AccompaniedbyChannaandridinghishorseKanthaka,Gautamaquithis
palaceforthelifeofamendicant.It'ssaidthat"thehorse'shooveswere
muffledbythegods"[94]topreventguardsfromknowingofhisdeparture.

GautamainitiallywenttoRajagahaandbeganhisasceticlifebybegging
foralmsinthestreet.AfterKingBimbisara'smenrecognisedSiddhartha
andthekinglearnedofhisquest,BimbisaraofferedSiddharthathethrone.
SiddhartharejectedtheofferbutpromisedtovisithiskingdomofMagadha
first,uponattainingenlightenment.
TheVictoryofBuddha
HeleftRajagahaandpractisedundertwohermitteachersofyogic
meditation.[95][96][97]AftermasteringtheteachingsofAlaraKalama(Skr.
raKlma),hewasaskedbyKalamatosucceedhim.However,
Gautamafeltunsatisfiedbythepractice,andmovedontobecomeastudent
ofyogawithUdakaRamaputta(Skr.UdrakaRmaputra).[98]Withhimhe
achievedhighlevelsofmeditativeconsciousnessandwasagainaskedto The"GreatDeparture"ofSiddhartha
succeedhisteacher.But,oncemore,hewasnotsatisfied,andagainmoved Gautama,surroundedbyahalo,heis
on.[99] accompaniedbynumerousguards,
maithunalovingcouples,anddevata
SiddharthaandagroupoffivecompanionsledbyKaundinyaarethensaid whohavecometopayhomage
tohavesetouttotaketheirausteritiesevenfurther.Theytriedtofind Gandhara,Kushanperiod
enlightenmentthroughdeprivationofworldlygoods,includingfood,
practisingselfmortification.Afternearlystarvinghimselftodeathby
restrictinghisfoodintaketoaroundaleafornutperday,hecollapsedina
riverwhilebathingandalmostdrowned.AvillagegirlnamedSujatagave
himsomemadhupayasa(aricepuddingnowalsoknownaskheer)after
whichSiddharthagotbacksomeenergy.Siddharthabegantoreconsiderhis
path.Then,herememberedamomentinchildhoodinwhichhehadbeen
watchinghisfatherstarttheseason'sploughing.Heattainedaconcentrated
andfocusedstatethatwasblissfulandrefreshing,thejhna. PrinceSiddharthashaveshishairand
becomesanascetic.Borobudur,8th
Awakening century

AccordingtotheearlyBuddhisttexts,[100]afterrealizingthatmeditative
dhyanawastherightpathtoawakening,butthatextremeasceticismdidn't
work,GautamadiscoveredwhatBuddhistsknowasbeing,theMiddle
Way[100]apathofmoderationawayfromtheextremesofselfindulgence
andselfmortification,ortheNobleEightfoldPath,asdescribedinthe
DhammacakkappavattanaSutta,whichisregardedasthefirstdiscourseof
theBuddha.[100]Inafamousincident,afterbecomingstarvedand
weakened,heissaidtohaveacceptedmilkandricepuddingfromavillage
TheBuddhasurroundedbythe
girlnamedSujata.[101]Suchwashisemaciatedappearancethatshewrongly demonsofMra.Sanskritpalmleaf
believedhimtobeaspiritthathadgrantedherawish.[101] manuscript.Nland,Bihar,India.
Plaperiod
Followingthisincident,Gautamawasfamouslyseatedunderapipaltree
nowknownastheBodhitreeinBodhGaya,India,whenhevowednever
toariseuntilhehadfoundthetruth.[102]Kaundinyaandfourothercompanions,believingthathehadabandoned
hissearchandbecomeundisciplined,ceasedtostaywithhim,andwenttosomewhereelse.Afterareputed49
daysofmeditation,attheageof35,heissaidtohaveattainedEnlightenment,[102][103]andbecameknownasthe
Buddhaor"AwakenedOne"("Buddha"isalsosometimestranslatedas"TheEnlightenedOne").

AccordingtosomesutrasofthePalicanon,atthetimeofhisawakeningherealizedcompleteinsightintotheFour
NobleTruths,therebyattainingliberationfromsamsara,theendlesscycleofrebirth,sufferinganddying
again.[104][105][106]Accordingtoscholars,thisstoryoftheawakeningandthestresson"liberatinginsight"isalater
developmentintheBuddhisttradition,wheretheBuddhamayhaveregardedthepracticeofdhyanaasleadingto
Nirvanaandmoksha.[107][108][104][note10]
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Nirvanaistheextinguishingofthe"fires"ofdesire,hatred,andignorance,thatkeepthecycleofsufferingand
rebirthgoing.[109]Nirvanaisalsoregardedasthe"endoftheworld",inthatnopersonalidentityorboundariesof
themindremain.Insuchastate,abeingissaidtopossesstheTenCharacteristics,belongingtoeveryBuddha.

AccordingtoastoryintheycanaSutta(SamyuttaNikayaVI.1)ascripturefoundinthePliandother
canonsimmediatelyafterhisawakening,theBuddhadebatedwhetherornotheshouldteachtheDharmato
others.Hewasconcernedthathumansweresooverpoweredbyignorance,greedandhatredthattheycouldnever
recognisethepath,whichissubtle,deepandhardtograsp.However,inthestory,BrahmSahampaticonvinced
him,arguingthatatleastsomewillunderstandit.TheBuddharelented,andagreedtoteach.

Formationofthesangha

Afterhisawakening,theBuddhametTaphussaandBhallikatwo
merchantbrothersfromthecityofBalkhinwhatiscurrently
Afghanistanwhobecamehisfirstlaydisciples.Itissaidthateachwas
givenhairsfromhishead,whicharenowclaimedtobeenshrinedasrelics
intheShweDagonTempleinRangoon,Burma.TheBuddhaintendedto
visitAsita,andhisformerteachers,AlaraKalamaandUdakaRamaputta,
toexplainhisfindings,buttheyhadalreadydied.

HethentravelledtotheDeerParknearVaranasi(Benares)innorthern
India,wherehesetinmotionwhatBuddhistscalltheWheelofDharmaby DhamekStupainSrnth,India,site
deliveringhisfirstsermontothefivecompanionswithwhomhehad ofthefirstteachingoftheBuddhain
soughtenlightenment.Togetherwithhim,theyformedthefirstsagha:the whichhetaughttheFourNoble
companyofBuddhistmonks. Truthstohisfirstfivedisciples

Allfivebecomearahants,andwithinthefirsttwomonths,withtheconversionofYasaandfiftyfourofhisfriends,
thenumberofsucharahantsissaidtohavegrownto60.TheconversionofthreebrothersnamedKassapa
followed,withtheirreputed200,300and500disciples,respectively.Thisswelledthesanghatomorethan1,000.

Travelsandteaching

Fortheremaining45yearsofhislife,theBuddhaissaidtohavetraveledinthe
GangeticPlain,inwhatisnowUttarPradesh,Bihar,andsouthernNepal,teaching
adiverserangeofpeople:fromnoblestoservants,murdererssuchasAngulimala,
andcannibalssuchasAlavaka.[110]AlthoughtheBuddha'slanguageremains
unknown,it'slikelythathetaughtinoneormoreofavarietyofcloselyrelated
MiddleIndoAryandialects,ofwhichPalimaybeastandardization.

Thesanghatraveledthroughthesubcontinent,expoundingthedharma.This
continuedthroughouttheyear,exceptduringthefourmonthsoftheVassarainy
seasonwhenasceticsofallreligionsrarelytraveled.Onereasonwasthatitwas
moredifficulttodosowithoutcausingharmtoanimallife.Atthistimeofyear,the
sanghawouldretreattomonasteries,publicparksorforests,wherepeoplewould
cometothem.

ThefirstvassanawasspentatVaranasi Buddhawithhisprotector
whenthesanghawasformed.Afterthis,the Vajrapani,Gandhra,2nd
Buddhakeptapromisetotravelto centuryCE,Ostasiatische
Rajagaha,capitalofMagadha,tovisitKing KunstMuseum
Bimbisara.Duringthisvisit,Sariputtaand
MaudgalyayanawereconvertedbyAssaji,
oneofthefirstfivedisciples,afterwhichtheyweretobecometheBuddha's
twoforemostfollowers.TheBuddhaspentthenextthreeseasonsat
VeluvanaBambooGrovemonasteryinRajagaha,thecapitalofMagadha.
AviewofVulturePeak,wherethe Uponhearingofhisson'sawakening,Suddhodanasent,overaperiod,ten
AtanatiyaSuttawasheld delegationstoaskhimtoreturntoKapilavastu.Onthefirstnineoccasions,
thedelegatesfailedtodeliverthemessageandinsteadjoinedthesanghato
becomearahants.Thetenthdelegation,ledbyKaludayi,achildhoodfriendofGautama's(whoalsobecamean
arahant),however,deliveredthemessage.

Nowtwoyearsafterhisawakening,theBuddhaagreedtoreturn,andmadeatwomonthjourneybyfootto
Kapilavastu,teachingthedharmaashewent.Athisreturn,theroyalpalacepreparedamiddaymeal,butthe
sanghawasmakinganalmsroundinKapilavastu.Hearingthis,Suddhodanaapproachedhisson,theBuddha,
saying:

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"OursisthewarriorlineageofMahamassata,andnotasinglewarriorhasgoneseekingalms."

TheBuddhaissaidtohavereplied:

"Thatisnotthecustomofyourroyallineage.ButitisthecustomofmyBuddhalineage.Several
thousandsofBuddhashavegonebyseekingalms."

BuddhisttextssaythatSuddhodanainvitedthesanghaintothepalaceforthemeal,followedbyadharmatalk.
Afterthisheissaidtohavebecomeasotapanna.Duringthevisit,manymembersoftheroyalfamilyjoinedthe
sangha.TheBuddha'scousinsAnandaandAnuruddhabecametwoofhisfivechiefdisciples.Attheageofseven,
hissonRahulaalsojoined,andbecameoneofhistenchiefdisciples.HishalfbrotherNandaalsojoinedand
becameanarahant.

OftheBuddha'sdisciples,Sariputta,Maudgalyayana,Mahakasyapa,AnandaandAnuruddhaarebelievedtohave
beenthefiveclosesttohim.HistenforemostdiscipleswerereputedlycompletedbythequintetofUpali,Subhoti,
Rahula,MahakaccanaandPunna.

Inthefifthvassana,theBuddhawasstayingatMahavananearVesaliwhenheheardnewsoftheimpendingdeath
ofhisfather.HeissaidtohavegonetoSuddhodanaandtaughtthedharma,afterwhichhisfatherbecamean
arahant.

Theking'sdeathandcremationwastoinspirethecreationofanorderof
nuns.BuddhisttextsrecordthattheBuddhawasreluctanttoordainwomen.
HisfostermotherMahaPajapati,forexample,approachedhim,askingto
jointhesangha,butherefused.MahaPajapati,however,wassointenton
thepathofawakeningthatsheledagroupofroyalSakyanandKoliyan
ladies,whichfollowedthesanghaonalongjourneytoRajagaha.Intime,
afterAnandachampionedtheircause,theBuddhaissaidtohave
reconsideredand,fiveyearsaftertheformationofthesangha,agreedtothe
ordinationofwomenasnuns.Hereasonedthatmalesandfemaleshadan Thelastdaysofbuddhateachings
equalcapacityforawakening.Buthegavewomenadditionalrules(Vinaya)
tofollow.

Mahaparinirvana

AccordingtotheMahaparinibbana
SuttaofthePalicanon,attheageof
80,theBuddhaannouncedthathe
wouldsoonreachParinirvana,or
thefinaldeathlessstate,and
abandonhisearthlybody.Afterthis,
theBuddhaatehislastmeal,which
hehadreceivedasanofferingfrom
ablacksmithnamedCunda.Falling TheBuddha'sentryintoParinirvana.
violentlyill,Buddhainstructedhis Sanskritpalmleafmanuscript.
Buddha'scremationstupa,Kushinagar
attendantnandatoconvince Nland,Bihar,India.Plaperiod
(Kushinara).
Cundathatthemealeatenathis
placehadnothingtodowithhis
passingandthathismealwouldbeasourceofthegreatestmeritasit
providedthelastmealforaBuddha.[111]MettanandoandvonHinber
arguethattheBuddhadiedofmesentericinfarction,asymptomofoldage,
ratherthanfoodpoisoning.[112][113]

TheprecisecontentsoftheBuddha'sfinalmealarenotclear,duetovariant
scripturaltraditionsandambiguityoverthetranslationofcertainsignificant
termstheTheravadatraditiongenerallybelievesthattheBuddhawas Thesharingoftherelicsofthe
offeredsomekindofpork,whiletheMahayanatraditionbelievesthatthe Buddha,ZenymitsuTemple
Buddhaconsumedsomesortoftruffleorothermushroom.Thesemay Museum,Tokyo
reflectthedifferenttraditionalviewsonBuddhistvegetarianismandthe
preceptsformonksandnuns.

WaleysuggeststhatTheravadinswouldtakesuukaramaddava(thecontentsoftheBuddha'slastmeal),whichcan
translateliterallyaspigsoft,tomean"softfleshofapig"or"pig'ssoftfood",thatis,afterNeumann,asoftfood
favouredbypigs,assumedtobeatruffle.Heargues(alsoafterNeumann)thatas"(p)lantnamestendtobelocal

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anddialectical",asthereareseveralplantsknowntohavesuukara(pig)aspartoftheirnames,[note11]andasPali
BuddhismdevelopedinanarearemotefromtheBuddha'sdeath,suukaramaddavacouldeasilyhavebeenatypeof
plantwhoselocalnamewasunknowntothoseinPaliregions.Specifically,localwriterswritingsoonafterthe
Buddha'sdeathknewmoreabouttheirflorathanTheravadincommentatorBuddhaghosawholivedhundredsof
yearsandhundredsofkilometresremoteintimeandspacefromtheeventsdescribed.Unawarethatitmayhave
beenalocalplantnameandwithnoTheravadinprohibitionagainsteatinganimalflesh,Theravadinswouldnot
havequestionedtheBuddhaeatingmeatandinterpretedthetermaccordingly.[114]

AccordingtoBuddhisttradition,theBuddhadiedatKuinra(presentdayKushinagar,India),whichbecamea
pilgrimagecenter.[115]AnandaprotestedtheBuddha'sdecisiontoenterParinirvanaintheabandonedjunglesof
KuinraoftheMallakingdom.TheBuddha,however,issaidtohaveremindedAnandahowKushinarawasa
landonceruledbyarighteouswheelturningkingandtheappropriateplaceforhimtodie.[116]

TheBuddhathenaskedalltheattendantBhikkhustoclarifyanydoubtsorquestionstheyhadandclearedthemall
inawaywhichotherscouldnotdo.Theyhadnone.AccordingtoBuddhistscriptures,hethenfinallyentered
Parinirvana.TheBuddha'sfinalwordsarereportedtohavebeen:"Allcompositethings(Sakhra)areperishable.
Striveforyourownliberationwithdiligence"(Pali:'vayadhammsakhrappamdenasampdeth').Hisbody
wascrematedandtherelicswereplacedinmonumentsorstupas,someofwhicharebelievedtohavesurvived
untilthepresent.Forexample,TheTempleoftheToothor"DaladaMaligawa"inSriLankaistheplacewhere
whatsomebelievetobetherelicoftherighttoothofBuddhaiskeptatpresent.

AccordingtothePlihistoricalchroniclesofSriLanka,theDpavasaand
Mahvasa,thecoronationofEmperorAoka(Pli:Asoka)is218years
afterthedeathoftheBuddha.AccordingtotwotextualrecordsinChinese
(and),thecoronationofEmperorAokais116years
afterthedeathoftheBuddha.Therefore,thetimeofBuddha'spassingis
either486BCEaccordingtoTheravdarecordor383BCEaccordingto
Mahayanarecord.However,theactualdatetraditionallyacceptedasthe
dateoftheBuddha'sdeathinTheravdacountriesis544or545BCE,
becausethereignofEmperorAokawastraditionallyreckonedtobeabout
LifescenesofBuddha,sandstone:
60yearsearlierthancurrentestimates.InBurmeseBuddhisttradition,the
Birth,Enlightenment,Descentfrom
Heaven,FirstSermon,PassingAway, dateoftheBuddha'sdeathis13May544BCE.[117]whereasinThai
c.2ndCenturyCE,Government traditionitis11March545BCE.[118]
Museum,Mathura.
Athisdeath,theBuddhaisfamouslybelievedtohavetoldhisdisciplesto
follownoleader.Mahakasyapawaschosenbythesanghatobethe
chairmanoftheFirstBuddhistCouncil,withthetwochiefdisciplesMaudgalyayanaandSariputtahavingdied
beforetheBuddha.

WhileintheBuddha'sdayshewasaddressedbytheveryrespectedtitles
Buddha,Shkyamuni,Shkyasimha,BhanteandBho,hewasknownafter
hisparinirvananirvanaasArihant,Bhagav/Bhagavat/Bhagwn,
Mahvira,[119]Jina/Jinendra,Sstr,Sugata,andmostpopularlyinscriptures
asTathgata.

Relics

Afterhisdeath,Buddha'scremationrelicsweredividedamongst8royal HairRelicsofBuddhaondisplayat
familiesandhisdisciplescenturieslatertheywouldbeenshrinedbyKing GangaramayaTemple(Colombo).
Ashokainto84,000stupas.[120][121]Manysupernaturallegendssurround
thehistoryofallegedrelicsastheyaccompaniedthespreadofBuddhism
andgavelegitimacytorulers.

Physicalcharacteristics
AnextensiveandcolorfulphysicaldescriptionoftheBuddhahasbeenlaiddowninscriptures.Akshatriyaby
birth,hehadmilitarytraininginhisupbringing,andbyShakyantraditionwasrequiredtopassteststodemonstrate
hisworthinessasawarriorinordertomarry.Hehadastrongenoughbodytobenoticedbyoneofthekingsand
wasaskedtojoinhisarmyasageneral.HeisalsobelievedbyBuddhiststohave"the32SignsoftheGreatMan".

TheBrahminSonadandadescribedhimas"handsome,goodlooking,andpleasingtotheeye,withamostbeautiful
complexion.Hehasagodlikeformandcountenance,heisbynomeansunattractive."(D,I:115)

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"Itiswonderful,trulymarvellous,howsereneisthegoodGotama'sappearance,
howclearandradianthiscomplexion,justasthegoldenjujubeinautumnisclear
andradiant,justasapalmtreefruitjustloosenedfromthestalkisclearand
radiant,justasanadornmentofredgoldwroughtinacruciblebyaskilled
goldsmith,deftlybeatenandlaidonayellowclothshines,blazesandglitters,even
so,thegoodGotama'ssensesarecalmed,hiscomplexionisclearandradiant."(A,
I:181)

AdisciplenamedVakkali,wholaterbecameanarahant,wassoobsessedbythe
Buddha'sphysicalpresencethattheBuddhaissaidtohavefeltimpelledtotellhim
todesist,andtohaveremindedhimthatheshouldknowtheBuddhathroughthe
Dhammaandnotthroughphysicalappearances.

AlthoughtherearenoextantrepresentationsoftheBuddhainhumanformuntil
aroundthe1stcenturyCE(seeBuddhistart),descriptionsofthephysical
Gandhrandepictionofthe
characteristicsoffullyenlightenedbuddhasareattributedtotheBuddhainthe
BuddhafromHadda,
DighaNikaya'sLakkhaaSutta(D,I:142).[122]Inaddition,theBuddha'sphysical AfghanistanVictoriaand
appearanceisdescribedbyYasodharatotheirsonRahulaupontheBuddha'sfirst AlbertMuseum,London.
postEnlightenmentreturntohisformerprincelypalaceinthenoncanonicalPali
devotionalhymn,NarashaGth("TheLionofMen").[123]

Amongthe32maincharacteristicsitismentionedthatBuddhahasblueeyes.[124]

Ninevirtues
RecollectionofninevirtuesattributedtotheBuddhaisacommonBuddhistmeditationanddevotionalpractice
calledBuddhnusmti.Theninevirtuesarealsoamongthe40Buddhistmeditationsubjects.Theninevirtuesof
theBuddhaappearthroughouttheTipitaka,[125]andinclude:

BuddhoAwakened
SammasambuddhoPerfectlyselfawakened
VijjacaranasampanoEndowedwithhigherknowledgeandidealconduct.
SugatoWellgoneorWellspoken.
LokaviduWiseintheknowledgeofthemanyworlds.
AnuttaroPurisadammasarathiUnexcelledtrainerofuntrainedpeople.
SatthadevaManussanamTeacherofgodsandhumans.
BhagavathiTheBlessedone
ArahamWorthyofhomage.AnArahantis"onewithtaintsdestroyed,whohaslivedtheholylife,done
whathadtobedone,laiddowntheburden,reachedthetruegoal,destroyedthefettersofbeing,andis
completelyliberatedthroughfinalknowledge."

Teachings
UseofBrahmanicalmotifs

InthePaliCanon,theBuddhausesmanyBrahmanicaldevices.Forexample,in
SamyuttaNikaya111,MajjhimaNikaya92andVinayai246ofthePaliCanon,the
BuddhapraisestheAgnihotraastheforemostsacrificeandtheGayatrimantraasthe
foremostmeter:
LordBuddhaat
PandavleniCaves,
aggihuttamukhyasvittchandasomukham. Nashik.

SacrificeshavetheAgnihotraasforemostofmeter,theforemostisthe
Svitr.[126]

Tracingtheoldestteachings

Informationoftheoldestteachingsmaybeobtainedbyanalysisoftheoldesttexts.Onemethodtoobtain
informationontheoldestcoreofBuddhismistocomparetheoldestextantversionsoftheTheravadinPaliCanon
andothertexts.[note12]Thereliabilityofthesesources,andthepossibilityofdrawingoutacoreofoldestteachings,
isamatterofdispute.[129][130][131][132]AccordingtoVetter,inconsistenciesremain,andothermethodsmustbe
appliedtoresolvethoseinconsistencies.[127][note13]

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AccordingtoSchmithausen,threepositionsheldbyscholarsofBuddhismcanbedistinguished:[135]

1."Stressonthefundamentalhomogeneityandsubstantialauthenticityofatleastaconsiderablepartofthe
Nikayicmaterials"[note14][note15],fromtheoldestextanttextsacommonkernelcanbedrawnout.[136]
AccordingtoWarder,c.q.hispublisher:"ThiskernelofdoctrineispresumablycommonBuddhismofthe
periodbeforethegreatschismsofthefourthandthirdcenturiesBC.ItmaybesubstantiallytheBuddhismof
theBuddhahimself,althoughthiscannotbeproved:atanyrateitisaBuddhismpresupposedbytheschools
asexistingaboutahundredyearsaftertheparinirvanaoftheBuddha,andthereisnoevidencetosuggest
thatitwasformulatedbyanyoneelsethantheBuddhaandhisimmediatefollowers"[136]andRichard
Gombrich.[137]RichardGombrich:"Ihavethegreatestdifficultyinacceptingthatthemainedificeisnotthe
workofasinglegenius.By"themainedifice"Imeanthecollectionsofthemainbodyofsermons,thefour
Nikyas,andofthemainbodyofmonasticrules."[132]
2."ScepticismwithregardtothepossibilityofretrievingthedoctrineofearliestBuddhism"[note16][note17]
3."Cautiousoptimisminthisrespect."[note18]

Dhyanaandinsight

AcoreprobleminthestudyofearlyBuddhismistherelationbetween
dhyanaandinsight.[130][129][132]Schmithausennotesthatthementionofthe
fournobletruthsasconstituting"liberatinginsight",whichisattainedafter
masteringtheRupaJhanas,isalateradditiontotextssuchasMajjhima
Nikaya36.[133][129][130]

EarliestBuddhism

AccordingtoTilmannVetter,thecoreofearliestBuddhismisthepractice
ofdhyna,[141]asaworkablealternativetopainfulascetic
practices.[142][note19]BronkhorstagreesthatDhynawasaBuddhist
invention,[129]whereasNormannotesthat"theBuddha'swaytorelease[...]
wasbymeansofmeditativepractices."[144]Discriminatinginsightinto
transiencyasaseparatepathtoliberationwasalaterdevelopment.[145][146]

AccordingtotheMahsaccakasutta,[note20]fromthefourthjhanathe
Buddhagainedbodhi.Yet,itisnotclearwhathewasawakenedto.[144][129]
AccordingtoSchmithausenandBronkhorst,"liberatinginsight"isalater
additiontothistext,andreflectsalaterdevelopmentandunderstandingin TheBuddhaonacoinofKanishkaI,
circa130CE.
earlyBuddhism.[133][129]Thementioningofthefourtruthsasconstituting
"liberatinginsight"introducesalogicalproblem,sincethefourtruths
depictalinearpathofpractice,theknowledgeofwhichisinitselfnotdepictedasbeingliberating:[147]

[T]heydonotteachthatoneisreleasedbyknowingthefournobletruths,butbypracticingthefourth
nobletruth,theeightfoldpath,whichculminatesinrightsamadhi.[147]

Although"Nibbna"(Sanskrit:Nirvna)isthecommontermforthedesiredgoalofthispractice,manyother
termscanbefoundthroughouttheNikayas,whicharenotspecified.[148][note21]

AccordingtoVetter,thedescriptionoftheBuddhistpathmayinitiallyhavebeenassimpleastheterm"themiddle
way".[149]Intime,thisshortdescriptionwaselaborated,resultinginthedescriptionoftheeightfoldpath.[149]

AccordingtobothBronkhorstandAnderson,thefourtruthsbecameasubstitutionforprajna,or"liberating
insight",inthesuttas[108][104]inthosetextswhere"liberatinginsight"wasprecededbythefourjhanas.[150]
AccordingtoBronkhorst,thefourtruthsmaynothavebeenformulatedinearliestBuddhism,anddidnotservein
earliestBuddhismasadescriptionof"liberatinginsight".[151]Gotama'steachingsmayhavebeenpersonal,
"adjustedtotheneedofeachperson."[150]

Thethreemarksofexistence[note22]mayreflectUpanishadicorotherinfluences.K.R.Normansupposesthatthese
termswerealreadyinuseattheBuddha'stime,andwerefamiliartohislisteners.[152]

TheBrahmaviharawasinoriginprobablyabrahmanicterm[153]butitsusagemayhavebeencommontothe
Sramanatraditions.[129]

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Laterdevelopments

Intime,"liberatinginsight"becameanessentialfeatureoftheBuddhisttradition.Thefollowingteachings,which
arecommonlyseenasessentialtoBuddhism,arelaterformulationswhichformpartoftheexplanatoryframework
ofthis"liberatinginsight":[130][129]

TheFourNobleTruths:thatsufferingisaningrainedpartofexistencethattheoriginofsufferingiscraving
forsensuality,acquisitionofidentity,andfearofannihilationthatsufferingcanbeendedandthatfollowing
theNobleEightfoldPathisthemeanstoaccomplishthis
TheNobleEightfoldPath:rightview,rightintention,rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood,righteffort,
rightmindfulness,andrightconcentration
Dependentorigination:themindcreatessufferingasanaturalproductofacomplexprocess.

Otherreligions
SomeHindusregardGautamaasthe9thavatarofVishnu.[note8][154]
However,Buddha'steachingsdenytheauthorityoftheVedasandthe
conceptsofBrahmanAtman.[155][156][157]ConsequentlyBuddhismis
generallyclassifiedasanstikaschool(heterodox,literally"Itisnot
so"[note23])incontrasttothesixorthodoxschoolsofHinduism.[160][161][162]

TheBuddhaisregardedasaprophetbytheminorityAhmadiyya[163]sect
ofMuslimsasectconsideredadeviantandrejectedasapostateby
mainstreamIslam.[164][165]SomeearlyChineseTaoistBuddhiststhought Buddhadepictedasthe9thavatarof
theBuddhatobeareincarnationofLaozi.[166] godVishnuinatraditionalHindu
representation
DisciplesoftheCaoireligionworshiptheBuddhaasamajorreligious
teacher.[167]HisimagecanbefoundinboththeirHolySeeandonthehomealtar.Heisrevealedduring
communicationwithDivineBeingsassonoftheirSupremeBeing(GodtheFather)togetherwithothermajor
religiousteachersandfounderslikeJesus,Laozi,andConfucius.[168]

TheChristianSaintJosaphatisbasedontheBuddha.ThenamecomesfromtheSanskritBodhisattvaviaArabic
BdhasafandGeorgianIodasaph.[169]TheonlystoryinwhichSt.Josaphatappears,BarlaamandJosaphat,is
basedonthelifeoftheBuddha.[170]JosaphatwasincludedinearliereditionsoftheRomanMartyrology(feastday
27November)thoughnotintheRomanMissalandintheEasternOrthodoxChurchliturgicalcalendar(26
August).

IntheancientGnosticsectofManichaeism,theBuddhaislistedamongtheprophetswhopreachedthewordof
GodbeforeMani.[171]

Depictioninartsandmedia
Films

LittleBuddha,a1994filmbyBernardoBertolucci
PremSanyas,a1925silentfilm,directedbyFranzOstenandHimansuRai

Television

Buddha,a2013mythologicaldramaonZeeTV

Literature

TheLightofAsia,an1879epicpoembyEdwinArnold
Buddha,amangaseriesthatranfrom1972to1983byOsamuTezuka
SiddharthanovelbyHermannHesse,writteninGermanin1922
LordofLight,anovelbyRogerZelaznydepictsamaninafarfutureEarthColonywhotakesonthename
andteachingsoftheBudda

Music

KarunaNadee,a2010oratoriobyDineshSubasinghe
TheLightofAsia,an1886oratoriobyDudleyBuck

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ApanoramaofscenesfromtheBuddha'slife,fromaBurmeseparabaikorpicturebook

Notes
1.AccordingtotheBuddhisttradition,followingtheNidanakatha,[41]theintroductorytotheJatakatales,thestoriesofthe
formerlivesoftheBuddha,GautamawasborninLumbini,presentdayNepal.[42][43]Inthemid3rdcenturyBCEthe
EmperorAshokadeterminedthatLumbiniwasGautama'sbirthplaceandthusinstalledapillartherewiththeinscription:
"...thisiswheretheBuddha,sageofthekyas(kyamuni),wasborn."[44]

Basedonstoneinscriptions,thereisalsospeculationthatLumbei,Kapileswarvillage,Odisha,attheeastcoastofIndia,
wasthesiteofancientLumbini.[45][46][47]Hartmanndiscussesthehypothesisandstates,"Theinscriptionhasgenerally
beenconsideredspurious(...)"[48]HequotesSircar:"Therecanhardlybeanydoubtthatthepeopleresponsibleforthe
Kapilesvarainscriptioncopieditfromthesaidfacsimilenotmuchearlierthan1928."

Kapilavastuwastheplacewherehegrewup:[49][note6]
Warder:"TheBuddha[...]wasbornintheSakyaRepublic,whichwasthecitystateofKapilavastu,averysmall
statejustinsidethemodernstateboundaryofNepalagainsttheNorthernIndianfrontier.[6]
Walsh:"HebelongedtotheSakyaclandwellingontheedgeoftheHimalayas,hisactualbirthplacebeingafew
milesnorthofthepresentdayNorthernIndianborder,inNepal.Hisfatherwas,infact,anelectedchiefoftheclan
ratherthanthekinghewaslatermadeouttobe,thoughhistitlewasrajaatermwhichonlypartlycorresponds
toourword'king'.SomeofthestatesofNorthIndiaatthattimewerekingdomsandothersrepublics,andthe
SakyanrepublicwassubjecttothepowerfulkingofneighbouringKosala,whichlaytothesouth".[51]
TheexactlocationofancientKapilavastuisunknown.[49]ItmayhavebeeneitherPiprahwainUttarPradesh,
northernIndia,[52][53][54]orTilaurakot,[55]presentdayNepal.[56][49]Thetwocitiesarelocatedonlyfifteenmiles
fromeachother.[56]
SeealsoConceptionandbirthandBirthplaceSources
2.AccordingtoMahaparinibbanaSutta,[3]GautamadiedinKushinagar,whichislocatedinpresentdayUttarPradesh,
India.
3. 411400:Dundas2002,p.24:"...asisnowalmostuniversallyacceptedbyinformedIndologicalscholarship,are
examinationofearlyBuddhisthistoricalmaterial,[...],necessitatesaredatingoftheBuddha'sdeathtobetween
411and400BCE..."
405:RichardGombrich[30][31][32][33]
Around400:SeetheconsensusintheessaysbyleadingscholarsinNarain,AwadhKishore,ed.(2003),TheDate
oftheHistoricalkyamuniBuddha,NewDelhi:BRPublishing,ISBN8176463531.
AccordingtoPalischolarK.R.Norman,alifespanfortheBuddhaofc.480to400BCE(andhisteachingperiod
roughlyfromc.445to400BCE)"fitsthearchaeologicalevidencebetter".[2]SeealsoNotesontheDatesofthe
Buddhakyamuni(http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/docs/icb.topic138396.files/BuddhaDates.pdf).
4.AccordingtoAlexanderBerzin,"Buddhismdevelopedasashramanaschoolthatacceptedrebirthundertheforceof
karma,whilerejectingtheexistenceofthetypeofsoulthatotherschoolsasserted.Inaddition,theBuddhaacceptedas
partsofthepathtoliberationtheuseoflogicandreasoning,aswellasethicalbehavior,butnottothedegreeofJain
asceticism.Inthisway,Buddhismavoidedtheextremesofthepreviousfourshramanaschools."[18]
5.In2013,archaeologistRobertConinghamfoundtheremainsofaBodhigara,atreeshrine,datedto550BCEattheMaya
DeviTemple,Lumbini,speculatingthatitmaypossiblebeaBuddhistshrine.Ifso,thismaypushbacktheBuddha's
birthdate.[36]ArchaeologistscautionthattheshrinemayrepresentpreBuddhisttreeworship,andthatfurtherresearchis
needed.[36]
RichardGombrichhasdismissedConingham'sspeculationsas"afantasy",notingthatConinghamlacksthenecessary
expertiseonthehistoryofearlyBuddhism.[37]
GeoffreySamuelsnotesthatseverallocationsofbothearlyBuddhismandJainismarecloselyrelatedtoYakshaworship,
thatseveralYakshaswere"converted"toBuddhism,awellknownexamplebeingVajrapani,[38]andthatseveralYaksha
shrines,wheretreeswereworshipped,wereconvertedintoBuddhistholyplaces.[39]
6.SomesourcesmentionKapilavastuasthebirthplaceoftheBuddha.Gethinstates:"TheearliestBuddhistsourcesstate
thatthefutureBuddhawasbornSiddhrthaGautama(PaliSiddhatthaGotama),thesonofalocalchieftainarjan
inKapilavastu(PaliKapilavatthu)whatisnowtheIndianNepaleseborder."[50]Gethindoesnotgivereferencesforthis
statement.

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7.MinorRockEdictNb3:"TheseDhammatextsExtractsfromtheDiscipline,theNobleWayofLife,theFearstoCome,
thePoemontheSilentSage,theDiscourseonthePureLife,Upatisa'sQuestions,andtheAdvicetoRahulawhichwas
spokenbytheBuddhaconcerningfalsespeechtheseDhammatexts,reverendsirs,Idesirethatallthemonksandnuns
mayconstantlylistentoandremember.Likewisethelaymenandlaywomen."[57]

Dhammika:"ThereisdisagreementamongstscholarsconcerningwhichPalisuttascorrespondtosomeofthetext.Vinaya
samukose:probablytheAtthavasaVagga,AnguttaraNikaya,1:98100.Aliyavasani:eithertheAriyavasaSutta,Anguttara
Nikaya,V:29,ortheAriyavamsaSutta,AnguttaraNikaya,II:2728.Anagatabhayani:probablytheAnagataSutta,
AnguttaraNikaya,III:100.Munigatha:MuniSutta,SuttaNipata207221.Upatisapasine:SariputtaSutta,SuttaNipata
955975.Laghulavade:RahulavadaSutta,MajjhimaNikaya,I:421."[57]
8.KumarSingh,Nagendra(1997)."BuddhaasdepictedinthePuras".EncyclopaediaofHinduism(https://books.google.c
om/?id=UG9HZ5icQ4C&pg=PA260).7.AnmolPublications.pp.26075.ISBN9788174881687.Retrieved16April
2012.
9.AccordingtoGeoffreySamuel,theBuddhawasbornasaKshatriya,[81]inamoderateVediccultureatthecentralGanges
Plainarea,wheretheshramanatraditionsdeveloped.ThisareahadamoderateVedicculture,wheretheKshatriyaswere
thehighestvarna,incontrasttotheBrahmanicideologyofKuruPanchala,wheretheBrahminshadbecomethehighest
varna.[81]BoththeVediccultureandtheshramanatraditioncontributedtotheemergenceofthesocalled"Hindu
synthesis"aroundthestartoftheCommonEra.[82][81]
10.ScholarshavenotedinconsistenciesinthepresentationsoftheBuddha'senlightenment,andtheBuddhistpathto
liberation,intheoldestsutras.TheseinconsistenciesshowthattheBuddhistteachingsevolved,eitherduringthelifetime
oftheBuddha,orthereafter.See:
*AndreBareau(1963),RecherchessurlabiographieduBuddhadanslesSutrapitakaetlesVinayapitakaanciens,Ecole
Francaised'ExtremeOrient
*Schmithausen,OnsomeAspectsofDescriptionsorTheoriesof'LiberatingInsight'and'Enlightenment'inEarly
Buddhism
*K.R.Norman,FourNobleTruths(http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Articles/The%20Four%20Noble%20Tru
ths_Norman_PTS_2003.pdf)
*TilmanVetter,TheIdeasandMeditativePracticesofEarlyBuddhism(http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Th
e%20Ideas%20and%20Meditative%20Practices%20of%20Early%20Buddhism_Vetter.pdf)
*RichardF.Gombrich(2006).HowBuddhismBegan:TheConditionedGenesisoftheEarlyTeachings(https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=hQOAAgAAQBAJ).Routledge.ISBN9781134196395.,chapterfour
*Bronkhorst,Johannes(1993),TheTwoTraditionsOfMeditationInAncientIndia,MotilalBanarsidassPublishers,
chapter7
*Anderson,Carol(1999),PainandItsEnding:TheFourNobleTruthsintheTheravadaBuddhistCanon,Routledge
11.Waleynotes:suukarakanda,"pigbulb"suukarapaadika,"pig'sfoot"andsukaresh.ta"soughtoutbypigs".Hecites
Neumann'ssuggestionthatifaplantcalled"soughtoutbypigs"existsthensuukaramaddavacanmean"pig'sdelight".
12.ThesurvivingportionsofthescripturesofSarvastivada,Mulasarvastivada,Mahisasaka,Dharmaguptakaandother
schools,[127][128]andtheChineseAgamasandothersurvivingportionsofotherearlycanons.
13.Exemplarystudiesarethestudyondescriptionsof"liberatinginsight"byLambertSchmithausen,[133]theoverviewof
earlyBuddhismbyTilmannVetter,[130]thephilologicalworkonthefourtruthsbyK.R.Norman,[134]thetextualstudies
byRichardGombrich,[132]andtheresearchonearlymeditationmethodsbyJohannesBronkhorst.[129]
14.AwellknownproponentofthefirstpositionisA.K.Warder
15.AccordingtoA.K.Warder,inhis1970publication"IndianBuddhism"
16.AproponentofthesecondpositionisRonaldDavidson.
17.RonaldDavidson:"Whilemostscholarsagreethattherewasaroughbodyofsacredliterature(disputed)(sic)thata
relativelyearlycommunity(disputed)(sic)maintainedandtransmitted,wehavelittleconfidencethatmuch,ifany,of
survivingBuddhistscriptureisactuallythewordofthehistoricBuddha."[138]
18.Wellknownproponentsofthethirdpositionare:
*J.W.deJong:"ItwouldbehypocriticaltoassertthatnothingcanbesaidaboutthedoctrineofearliestBuddhism[...]
thebasicideasofBuddhismfoundinthecanonicalwritingscouldverywellhavebeenproclaimedbyhim[theBuddha],
transmittedanddevelopedbyhisdisciplesand,finally,codifiedinfixedformulas."[139]
*JohannesBronkhorst:"Thispositionistobepreferredto(ii)forpurelymethodologicalreasons:onlythosewhoseek
mayfind,evenifnosuccessisguaranteed."[135]
*DonaldLopez:"TheoriginalteachingsofthehistoricalBuddhaareextremelydifficult,ifnotimpossible,torecoveror
reconstruct."[140]
19.Vetter:"However,ifwelookatthelast,andinmyopinionthemostimportant,componentofthislist[thenobleeightfold
path],wearestilldealingwithwhataccordingtomeistherealcontentofthemiddleway,dhyanameditation,atleastthe
stagestwotofour,whicharesaidtobefreeofcontemplationandreflection.Everythingprecedingtheeighthpart,i.e.
rightsamadhi,apparentlyhasthefunctionofpreparingfortherightsamadhi."[143]
20.MajjhimaNikaya36
21.Vetter:"IamespeciallythinkinghereofMN26(Ip.163,32165,15166,35)kimkusalagavesianuttaramsantivarapadam
pariyesamano(searchingforthatwhichisbeneficial,seekingtheunsurpassable,bestplaceofpeace)andagainMN26
(passim),anuttaramyagakkhemamnibbiinampariyesati(heseekstheunsurpassablesafeplace,thenirvana).Anuppatta
sadattho(onewhohasreachedtherightgoal)isalsoavaguepositiveexpressionintheArhatformulainMN35(Ip,
235),seechapter2,footnote3,Furthermore,satthi(welfare)isimportantine.g.SN2.12or2.17orSn269andsukha
andrati(happiness),incontrasttootherplaces,asusedinSn439and956.Theoldesttermwasperhapsamata
(immortal,immortality)[...]butonecouldsayherethatitisanegativeterm."[148]
22.Understandingofthesemarkshelpsinthedevelopmentofdetachment:
Anicca(Sanskrit:anitya):Thatallthingsthatcometohaveanend
Dukkha(Sanskrit:dukha):Thatnothingwhichcomestobeisultimatelysatisfying
Anatt(Sanskrit:antman):Thatnothingintherealmofexperiencecanreallybesaidtobe"I"or"mine".

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23."inSanskritphilosophicalliterature,'stika'means'onewhobelievesintheauthorityoftheVedas','soul','Brahman'.
('nstika'meanstheoppositeofthese).[158][159]

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Furtherreading
TheBuddha

Bechert,Heinz,ed.(1996).WhenDidtheBuddhaLive?TheControversyontheDatingoftheHistorical
Buddha.Delhi:SriSatguru.
amoli,Bhikku(1992).TheLifeoftheBuddhaAccordingtothePaliCanon(3rded.).Kandy,SriLanka:
BuddhistPublicationSociety.
Wagle,NarendraK(1995).SocietyattheTimeoftheBuddha(https://books.google.com/books?id=glFCjTkh
NlYC)(2nded.).PopularPrakashan.ISBN9788171545537.
Weise,Kai(2013).TheSacredGardenofLumbini:PerceptionsofBuddhasbirthplace(https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=naohAgAAQBAJ).UNESCO.ISBN9789230012083.

EarlyBuddhism

Rahula,Walpola(1974).WhattheBuddhaTaught(2nded.).NewYork:GrovePress.
Vetter,Tilmann(1988),TheIdeasandMeditativePracticesofEarlyBuddhism,Brill

Buddhismgeneral

Kalupahana,DavidJ.(1994),AhistoryofBuddhistphilosophy,Delhi:MotilalBanarsidass
Robinson,RichardH.Johnson,WillardLWawrytko,SandraADeGraff,Geoffrey(1996).TheBuddhist
Religion:AHistoricalIntroduction.Belmont,CA:Wadsworth.
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6/21/2017 GautamaBuddhaWikipedia

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WorksbyBuddha(https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Buddha)at
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WorksbyGautamaBuddha(http://librivox.org/author/1081)atLibriVox(publicdomainaudiobooks)

Buddha(http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548br)onInOurTimeattheBBC.
AsketchoftheBuddha'sLife(http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/buddha.html)
WhatWasTheBuddhaLike?(http://www.buddhanet.net/elearning/buddhism/disciples05.htm)byVenS.
Dhammika

Buddhisttitles
Succeededby
Precededby
BuddhistPatriarch Maitreya
KassapaBuddha
Buddha

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