Group 3: Ferrous Metals
and fewer oxide inclusions.
Steel
The manufacture of steel is an oxidation process that decreases the amount of
carbon, silicon, manganese, phosphorus, and sulfur in a molten mixture of pig
iron and/or steel scrap.
Steel must undergo a change from liquid (molten metal) to solid before it can
become a usable product
Solidification
1. to make solid; make into a hard or compact mass; change from a
liquid or gaseous to a solid form
2. to unite firmly or consolidate - to make something physically stronger
or more solid
Solidification Concerns
Contamination
o Ladles - known as containment vessels or foundry, historically,
simply served as transfer and pouring containers, but they
have recently emerged as the site for additional processing
o Laddle metallurgy - refers to a variety of processes designed
to provide final purification and to fine-tune both the
chemistry and temperature of the melt.
o The processed liquid is then poured from these ladles into
molds or some form of continuous caster. usually through a
bottom-pouring process
o By extracting the metal from the bottom of the ladle, slag and
floating matter are not transferred, and a cleaner product
results
Continuous casting compared to casting of discrete ingots
Continuous casting - also called strand casting, is the process whereby
molten metal is solidified into a semifinished billet, bloom, or slab for
subsequent rolling in the finishing mills. Prior to the introduction of
continuous casting in the 1950s, steel was poured into stationary molds
to form ingots.
Ingot - is a piece of material, usually metal, that is cast into a shape
suitable for further processing. In steelmaking, it is the first step among
semi-finished casting products. Ingots usually require a second
procedure of shaping, such as cold/hot working, cutting, or milling to
produce a useful final product
Compared to the casting of discrete ingots, continuous casting offers
significant reduction in cost, energy, and scrap. In addition, the
products have improved surfaces, more uniform chemical composition,
Tundish
In the process of continuous casting, to transfer liquid steel from a steel
teeming ladle to the mold, an intermediate vessel called a tundish, is
used
Tundish - used to feed liquid steel into the copper molds of a
continuous casting machine, so as to avoid splashing and give a
smoother flow.
It smoothens out flow, regulates steel feed to the mold, and cleans the
metal.
Mold and into direct water sprays
The molten metal is then poured into a bottomless water-cooled mold,
usually made of copper
Cooling is controlled so that the outside has solidified before the metal
exits the mold
Direct water sprays further cool the emerging metal to complete the
solidification
The solid metal can then be cut to desired length, or, since the cast
solid is still hot, it can be bent and fed horizontally through a short
reheat furnace or directly to a rolling operation.
The size and shape of the mold has a variety of cross sections with
names such as slab, bloom, billet, and strand.
Deoxidation and Degassification
During the subsequent cooling and solidification, the solubility levels
decrease significantly, and oxygen and other gases are rejected
Porous solid forms when carbon monoxide is produced, and may
escape through the liquid or become trapped.
Cracks and internal voids (emptiness) may occur in a finished product
Deoxidization - is a method used in metallurgy to remove the oxygen
content during steel manufacturing. In contrast antioxidants are used
for stabilization, such as in the storage of food
o It is important in the steelmaking process as oxygen is often
detrimental (unfavorable) to the quality of steel produced
o Deoxidization is mainly achieved by adding a separate
chemical species to neutralize the effects of oxygen or by
directly removing the oxygen.
o Deoxidizer additions such as aluminum, ferromanganese, or
ferrosilicon can be added to molten steel to provide a material
whose affinity for oxygen is higher than that of carbon
 o The rejected oxygen then reacts with these deoxidizer
additions to produce solid metal oxides that are either
removed from the molten metal or become dispersed
throughout the strucure
Degassification - is the removal of dissolved gases from liquids,
especially water or aqueous solutions. There are numerous methods
for such removal of gases from liquids. Gases are removed for various
reasons.
How to avoid porous solids:
Vacuum degassing - where an inglot mold is placed in an
evacuated chamber, and a stream of molten metal passes
through a vacuum during pouring
Vacuum degassing is practiced in the steel industry for
purposes such as:
- Removing hydrogen
- Improving cleanliness by removing oxygen
- Producing steel with low carbon content (<0.03%)
- Producing steels with close chemical composition
ranges (including deoxidizers)
- Controlling pouring temperatures, especially for
continuous casting operations
- Purpose is to extract dissolved gas
Consumable-electrode remelting process - where an already-
solidified metal electrode replaces the ladle of molten metal
As the electrode is progressively remelted, molten
droplets pass through a vacuum, and the extremely
high surface area again provides an effective means
of gas removal
Vacuum arc remelting (VAR) - when the melting is
done by an electric arc
Vacuum induction melting (VIM) - when induction of
heating is used
Both are highly effective in removing dissolved gases,
but they fail to remove any nonmetallic impurities
that may be present in the metal
Electroslag remelting process (ESR) - can be used to produce
extremely clean, gas-free metal
A solid electrode is again melted and recast using an
electric current, but the entire remelting is conducted
under a blanket of molten flux
Plain-Carbon Steel
Plain-carbon steel the product of manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon
when the elements are in their normal percentages
- Strength is primarily a function of carbon content, increasing with
increasing carbon
- But as carbon increases, ductility, toughness, hardenability, and
weldability of plain-carbon steels decrease as well.
Three subgroups of plain-carbon steels:
1. Low-carbon steels have less than 0.20% carbon and possess good
formability (can be strengthened by cold work) and weldability
2. Medium-carbon steels have between 0.20 and 0.50% carbon
3. High-carbon steels have more than 0.50% carbon. Toughness and
formability are quite low, but hardness and wear resistance are high
Alloy Steels
Alloy Steels are irons where other elements (besides carbon) can be added to
iron to improve:
Mechanical property increase strength, hardness, toughness (a given
strength and hardness)
The most common alloy elements are chromium, nickel, molybdenum,
vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, boron, and copper, as well as manganese,
silicon, phosphorus, and sulfur in amounts greater than are normally
present
Classification of alloy steel:
Low-alloy steel if the steel contains less than 8% of total alloy
addition; increases strength and hardenability
- Heat-treatable to high strength and toughness
- Low alloy steels gain strength through heat treatment
High-alloy steel steels with more than 8% alloying elements and
improves corrosion resistance and stability at high or low temperature
Alloying changing chemical composition of steel by adding elements with
purpose to improve its properties as compared to the plane Carbon steel
 The primary role of an alloy addition is usually to increase
hardenability, but other effects are also possible, such as modified
toughness or machinability
AISI-SAE Classification System
This system, which classifies alloys by chemistry, was started by the
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) to provide some standardization
for the steels used in the automotive industry.
It was later adopted and expanded by the American Iron and Steel
Institute (AISI) and has been incorporated into the Universal Numbering
System that was developed to include all engineering metals.
Both plain-carbon and low-alloy steels are identified by a four-digit
number, where the first number indicates the major alloying elements
and the second number designates a subgrouping within the major
alloy system.
The last two digits of the number indicate the approximate amount of
carbon, expressed as points, where one point is equal to 0.01%
Thus, a 1080 steel would be a plain-carbon steel with 0.80% carbon.
Similarly, a 4340 steel would be a Mo-Cr-Ni alloy with a 0.40% carbon.
Selecting Alloy Steels
The correct steel, however, is usually the least expensive one that can
be consistently processed to achieve the desired properties. This
usually involves taking advantage of the effects provided by all of the
alloy elements.
When selecting alloy steels, it is also important to consider both use
and fabrication. For one product, it might be permissible to increase
the carbon content to obtain greater strength.
Steel selection involves:
o Defining the required properties
o Determining the best microstructure to provide those
properties (strength can be achieved through alloying, cold
work, and heart treatment, as well as combinations thereof)
o Determining the method of part of product manufacture
(casting, machining, metal forming, etc.)
o Selecting the steel with the best carbon content and
hardenability characteristics to achieve those goals.
High-Strength Low-Alloy Structural Steel
Among the general categories of alloy steels are:
1. Constructional alloys where the desired properties are typically
developed by a separate thermal treatment and the specific alloy
elements tend to be selected for their effect on hardenability
2. High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) or microalloyed types rely largely on
chemical composition to develop the desired properties in the as-rolled
or normalized condition
- The HSLA materials generally focus on product (size and
shape) and desired properties. When steels are specified by
mechanical properties, the supplier or producer is free to
adjust the chemistry (within limits), and substantial cost
savings may result. To assure success, however, it is important
that all of the necessary properties be specified.
- The HSLA materials provide increased strength-to-weight
compared to conventional carbon steels for only a modest
increase in cost.
- Available in a variety of forms:
Sheet Structural shapes
Strip Bars
Plate
- General dominant property requirements:
High yield strength Acceptable corrosion resistance
Good weldability
 - Ductility and hardenability may be somewhat limited,
however. The increase in strength and the resistance to
martensite formation in a weld zone, is obtained by controlling
the amounts of carbon, manganese, and silicon, with the
addition of small amounts of niobium, vanadium, titanium, or
other alloys. About 0.2% copper can be added to improve
corrosion resistance.
Microalloyed Steels in Manufactured Products
Microalloyed steels occupy a position between carbon steels and the alloy
grades, and they are being used increasingly as substitutes for heat-treated
steels in the manufacture of small- to medium-sized discrete parts.
- can often provide attractive cost savings. Energy savings can be
substantial, straightening or stress relieving after heat treatment is
no longer necessary, and quench cracking is not a problem.
- Cold-formed microalloyed steels require less cold work to achieve a
desired level of strength, so they tend to have greater residual
ductility.
- Hot-formed products, such as forgings, can often be used in the air-
cooled condition.
- By means of accurate temperature control and controlled-rate
cooling directly from the forming operation, mechanical properties
can be produced that approximate those of quenched-and-tempered
material.
Bake-Hardenable Steel Sheet
- has assumed a significant role in automotive sheet applications
- These low-carbon steels are processed in such a way that they are
resistant to aging during normal storage but begin to age during sheet
metal forming.
- A subsequent exposure to heat during the paint-baking operation
completes the aging process and adds an additional 35 to 70 MPa (5 to
10 ksi), raising the final yield strength to approximately 275 MPa (40
ksi).
- Since the increase in strength occurs after the forming operation, the
material offers good formability coupled with improved dent resistance
in the final product. In addition, it allows weight savings to be achieved
without compromising the attractive features of steel sheet, which
include spot weldability, good crash energy, absorption, low cost, and
full recyclability.
Advanced High-Strength Steels (AHSS)
- Since 2000, there have been significant developments in automotive
materials, with large amounts of low-carbon and HSLA steels likely to
be replaced by the advanced high strength steels (AHSS). The AHSS
steels are primarily ferrite-phase, soft steels with varying amounts of
martensite, bainite, and retained austenite, which offer high strength
with enhanced ductility
- While previous high-strength grades, such as HSLA, suffered from
reduced formability, the AHSS materials enable the stamping or
hydroforming of more complex parts. Parts can often be integrated into
single pieces, eliminating the cost and time associated with assembly,
and the higher strength provides improved fatigue and crash
performance, along with the possibility of weight reduction.
- Dual-phase steels form when we quench material from a
temperature that is above A1 but below the A3, where the structure
consists of ferrite and high-carbon austenite. During the quench, the
ferrite remains unaffected, while the high-carbon austenite transforms
to high-carbon martensite.
- Transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) metals contain ferrite with
a combination of matensite, bainite, and retained austenite.
Free-machining Steels
- The increased use of high-speed, automated machining has spurred the
use and development of several varieties of free-machining steels.
These steels machine readily and form small chips when cut. The
smaller chips reduce the length of contact between the chip and cutting
tool, thereby reducing the associated friction and heat, as well as
required power and wear on the cutting tool.
- On the negative side, free-machining steels often carry a cost premium
of 15 to 20% over conventional alloys, but this increase may be easily
recovered through higher machining speeds, larger depths of cut, and
extended tool life.
- The bismuth free-machining steels are an attractive alternative to the
previous varieties. Bismuth is:
more environmentally acceptable (compared to lead)
has a reduced tendency to form stringers
can be more uniformly dispersed since its density is a
better match to that of iron
Machinability is improved because the heat generated by cutting is
sufficient to form a thin film of liquid bismuth that lasts for only
fractions of a microsecond. In leaded materials, the insoluble lead
particles work in much the same way.
Precoated Steel Sheet
- Traditional sheet metal fabrication involves the shaping of components
from bare steel, followed by the finishing (or coating) of these products
on a piece-by-piece basis. In this sequence, it is not uncommon for the
finishing processes to be the most expensive and time-consuming
stages of manufacture, since it involves handling, manipulation, and
possible curing or dying, as well as adherence to the various EPA
(environmental) and OSHA (safety and health) requirements.
- An alternative to this procedure is to purchase mill-coated steel sheet,
where the steel supplier applies the coating when the material is still in
the form of a long, continuous strip. Cleaning, pretreatment, coating,
and curing can all be performed in a continuous manner, producing a
coating that is uniform in thickness and offers improved adhesion.
Steels for Electrical and Magnetic Applications
- Soft magnetic materials can be magnetized by relatively low-strength
magnetic fields but lose almost all of their magnetism when the applied
field is removed. They are widely used in products such as solenoids,
transformers, motors, and generators.
- The most common soft magnetic materials:
High-purity iron Amorphous ferromagnetic alloys
Low-carbon steels Iron-nickel alloys
Iron-silicon electrical sheets Soft ferrites (ceramic material)
- Electrical sheets are used to make the iron cores of motors,
transformers, and generators. These cores concentrate the magnetic
field and make the electromagnet stronger. The steel must be easy to
magnetise and to demagnetize
Properties of electrical steels:
When a steel core is magnetized and then demagnetized, it
absorbs energy (and heats up). Electrical steels are designed to
reduce this power loss. Electrical steels are also designed to
have a high permeability. This means that the electrical
current needed to produce the magnetism should as low as
possible.
Structures of electrical sheets:
a. Grain oriented
b. Non oriented
To exhibit permanent magnetism, materials must remain magnetized
when removed from the applied field. While most permanent magnets
are ceramic materials or complex metal alloys, cobalt alloy steels
(containing up to 3% cobalt) maybe specified for electrical equipment
where high magnetic densities are required.
Maraging Steels
Maraging steels (a portmanteau of martensic and aging) are steels (iron
alloys) that are known for possessing superior strength and toughness without
losing malleability, although they cannot hold a good cutting edge.
Aging refers to the extended heat-treatment process
These steels are a special class of low-carbon ultra-high-strength steels that
derive their strength not from carbon, but from precipitation of intermetallic
compounds.
Properties of maraging steels:
Due to the low carbon content, maraging steels have good
machinability. Prior to aging, they may also be cold rolled to as much
as 90% without cracking. Maraging steels offer good weldability, but
must be aged afterward to restore the original properties to the heat
affected zone.
Uses of maraging steels:
Maraging steels have very stable properties, and, even after
overaging due to excessive temperature, only soften slightly. These
alloys retain their properties at mildly elevated operating
temperatures and have maximum service temperatures of over 400
degree Celsius. (752 degrees Fahrenheit)
Steels for High Temperature Service
As a general rule of thumb, plain-carbon steels should not be used at
temperatures in excess about 25 degrees Celsius, conventionally alloy steel
extends this upper limit to around 350 degree Celsius. Continued developments
in areas such as missiles and jet aircrafts, however, have increased the demand
for metals that offer good strength characteristics, corrosion resistance, and
creep resistance at operating temperatures in excess of 550 degrees Celsius.
Stainless Steels
- In metallurgy, stainless steel, also known as inox steel or inox from
French inoxydable, is a steel alloy with a minimum of 10.5% chromium
content by mass. Stainless steel is notable for its corrosion resistance,
and it is widely used for food handling and cutlery among many other
applications.
Properties of stainless steel:
- Stainless steel is generally highly resistant to attack from acids, but
this quality depends on the kind and concentration of the acid, the
surrounding temperature, and the type of steel
- Like steel, stainless steel is a relatively poor conductor of
electricity, with significantly lower electrical conductivity than
copper
 - Some 3D printing have developed proprietary stainless steel
sintering blends for use in rapid prototyping
Applications of stainless steel:
- Stainless steels resistance to corrosion and staining, low
maintenance, and familiar luster make it an ideal material for many
applications. They alloy is milled into coils, sheets, plates, bars,
wire, and tubing to be used in cookware, cutlery, household
hardware, surgical instruments, major appliances, industrial
equipment (for example, sugar refineries) and as an automotive
and aerospace structural alloy and construction in large buildings.
- True stainless steels materials that form superior protective oxide
Types of stainless steels:
1. Ferritic stainless steels a corrosion-resistant iron alloy
produced that is ferrite at all temperatures below solidification
2. Martensitic stainless steels for these alloys, carbon is added
and the chromium content is reduced to a level where the
material can be austenite (FCC) at high temperature and ferrite
(BCC) at low.
3. Austenitic stainless steels these alloys may cost two or three
times as much as the ferritic variety, but here the added
expense is attributed to the cost of the nickel and chromium
alloys
4. Precipitation-hardening variety a special class of strainless
steels; these alloys are basically martensitic or austenitic types,
modified by the addition of alloying elements such as aluminum
that permit the precipitation of hard intermetallic compounds
at the temperatures used to temper martensite
- Duplex stainless steels contain between 18 and 25% chromium, 4 to
7% nickel, and up to 4% molybdenum; they can be water quenched
from a hot-working temperature to produce a microstructure that is
approximately half ferrite and half austenite.
- Sensitization when elevated temperatures allow chromium carbides
to form along grain boundaries
- Sigma phase the formation of a brittle compound that forms at
elevated temperature and coats grain boundaries; provides a brittle
crack path through the metal