CONTENTS

CONTENTS

1
Basic Concepts
CHAPTER OVERVIEW

1. NATURE OF ELECTRICITY
According to Modern electron theory of matter, all matter whether solid, liquid or gas is composed of
very small particles called molecules. A molecule is in turn made up of atoms. An atom consists of a
central part called nucleus and around the nucleus (called extra-nucleus), there are a number of
electrons revolving in different paths or orbits. The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to
the size of the atom. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons. A proton is a positively charged
particle having mass 1837 times that of an electron . A neutron has the same mass as proton but no
charge. Clearly, the nucleus of an atom bears a positive charge. An electron is a negatively charged
particle having negative charge equal to the positive charge on a proton. Under normal conditions,
the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons in an atom. Therefore, an atom is neutral as
a whole, the negative charge on electrons cancelling the positive charge on protons.
The above discussion shows that matter is electrical in nature i.e. it contains particles of electricity
viz protons and electrons. Whether a given body exhibits electricity (i.e. charge) or not depends upon
the relative number of these particles of electricity.
(i) If the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons in a body, the resultant charge
is zero and the body will be electrically neutral. Thus the paper of this book is electrically
neutral (i.e. paper exhibits no charge) because it has the same number of protons and electrons.
(ii) If from a neutral body, some *electrons are removed, there occurs a deficit of electrons in the
body. Consequently, the body attains a positive charge. Hence a positively charged body
has deficit of electrons from the normal due share.
(iii) If a neutral body is supplied with electrons, there occurs an excess of electrons. Consequently,
the body attains a negative charge. Hence a negatively charged body has an excess of
electrons from the normal due share.
2. UNIT OF CHARGE
The charge on an electron is so small that it is not convenient to select it as the unit of charge. In
practice, coulomb is used as the unit of charge. One coulomb of charge is equal to the charge on 625
10 electrons i.e.
16

1 Coulomb = Charge on 625 10 electrons

16

Thus when we say that a body has a positive charge of 1 coulomb (1 C), it means that it has a
deficit of 625 10 electrons from the normal due share.
16

3. FREE ELECTRONS
We know that electrons move round the nucleus of an atom in different orbits. The electrons in the
last orbit are called valence electrons. In certain substances, especially metals (e.g. copper, aluminium

* Electrons have very small mass and, therefore, are much more mobile than protons. On the other hand,
protons are power-fully held in the nucleus and cannot be removed or detached.

CONTENTS
CONTENTS
2 Objective Electrical Technology

etc) , the valence electrons are so *weakly attached to their nuclei that they can be easily removed or
detached. Such electrons are called free electrons. It may be noted here that all valence electrons in
a metal are not free electrons. It has been found that one atom of metal can provide at the most one free
electron. Since a small piece of metal has billions of atoms, one can expect a very large number of free
electrons in metals. For example, 1 cm3 of copper has about 8.5 1022 free electrons at room temperature.
4. ELECTRIC CURRENT
The flow of free electrons (or charge) in a definite directions is called electric current. The flow of
electric current is shown in Fig. 1.1. The copper strip has a large number of free electrons. For
simplicity, only the valence orbits are shown because only the valence electrons can take part in the
flow of current. When electric pressure or voltage is applied, the free electrons being negatively
charged start moving towards the positive terminal round the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.1. This
directed flow of electrons is called electric current.
Electron Flow

Free electro n s

Valence electro Nuclei n

Copper Strip

+
Conventional current
Fig. 1.1
Conventionally, the direction of electric current is taken along the direction of motion of positive
charges. When current is caused by electrons (e.g in metals), the direction of current is opposite to
the direction of electron flow.
Note. It is important to note that none of the practical consequences nor any of the results of
computations performed in the study of electricity and electronics are in any way affected by the
direction of current flow that one assumes. In this book, the direction of conventional current will be
assumed.
5. MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT
The flow of charge in a definite direction is called electric current.
It is measured by the time rate of flow of charge through the
conductor. If q is the charge flowing through any cross-section
of the conductor in time t, then, I

q
Electric current, I = E
t Fig. 1.2
If the rate of flow of charge varies with time, then current at
* On a relative scale, the spacing between the nucleus and valence electrons is vast. If a copper atom could be
magnified until the electrons were as large as coins, the valence electrons would be several kilometres away
from the nucleus. This relatively large distance dictates that valence electron is only weakly attached to the
nucleus.
Basic Concepts 3

any time (instantaneous current) is given by;

dq
i =
dt
where dq is the small charge passing through any cross-section of the conductor in small time dt. The
SI unit of electric current is ampere. If q = 1 C and t = 1 s, then I = 1/1 = 1 ampere.
One ampere of current is said to flow through a wire if at any section one coulomb of charge
flows in one second.
If n electrons are passing through any cross-section of the wire in time t, then,
q ne 19
I = = where e = 1.6 10 C
t t
6. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Just as a body raised above the ground has gravitational potential energy, similarly, a charged body
has electric potential energy. When a body is charged, work is done in charging the body. This work
done is stored in the body in the form of electric potential energy. The charged body has the capacity
to do work by moving other charges either by attraction or repulsion. Quantitatively, electric potential
is defined as under :
The electric potential at a point is the electric potential energy per unit charge.
Electric potential energy W
Electric potential, V = =
Charge Q
The SI unit of energy or work is 1 J and that of charge is 1 C so that SI unit of electric potential is 1 J/
C which is also called 1 volt.
Thus when we say that electric potential at a point is 10 V, it means that if we place a charge of 1
C at that point , the charge will have electric potential energy of 10 J. Similarly, if we place a charge of
2 C at that point, the charge will have electric potential energy of 20 J. Note that potential energy per
unit charge (i.e electric potential) is 10 V.
7. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
The difference in the potentials of two charged bodies is called potential difference (p.d.). Consider
two bodies A and B having potentials of +5 V and +3 V respectively as shown in Fig. 1.3 (i). Each
coulomb of charge on body A has an energy of 5 Joules while each coulomb of charge on body B has
an energy of 3 Joules. Clearly, the body A is at higher potential than body B.
A B A B

+ 5V + 3V + 5V + 3V

(i) (ii)
Fig. 1.3
If the two bodies are joined through a conductor [See Fig. 1.3 (ii)], then *electrons will flow from
body B to body A. When the two bodies attain the same potential, the flow of current stops.
Therefore, we arrive at a very important conclusion that current will flow in a circuit if potential
difference exists. No potential difference, no current flow. It may be noted that potential difference is
sometimes called voltage.
Unit. Since the unit of electric potential is volt, one can expect that the unit of potential difference
will also be volt. It is defined as :
The potential difference between two points is 1 Volt if one joule of work is done in transferring
* The conventional current flow will be in the opposite direction i.e. from body A to body B.
4 Objective Electrical Technology

1 C of charge from the point of lower potential to the point of higher potential.
Consider points A and B in an electrical circuit as shown in Fig. 1.4. Suppose VA VB = 1 volt. It
means that 1 J of work will be done in transferring 1 C of charge from point B to point A. Alternatively,
1 J of work (or energy) will be released (as heat) if 1 C of charge A B
moves from point A to point B. Note that volt is the unit of
1V
energy.
Fig. 1.4
8. MAINTAINING POTENTIAL
DIFFERENCE
A device that maintains potential difference between two points is said to develop electromotive force
(e.m.f.). A simple example is that of a cell. Fig. 1.5 shows the familiar voltaic cell. It consists of a copper
plate (called anode) and a zinc rod (called cathode) R
immersed in dilute H2SO4.
The chemical action taking place in the cell
removes electrons from copper plate and transfers
them to the zinc rod. This transference of electrons
takes place through the agency of dil. H2SO4 (called
electrolyte). Consequently, the copper plate attains +
a positive charge of +Q coulombs and zinc rod a +
+
charge of Q coulombs. + COPPER
The chemical action of the cell has done certain ZINC +
amount of work (say W joules) to do so. Clearly, the +
+
potential difference between the two plates will be +
W/Q volts. If the two plates are joined through a
wire, some electrons from zinc rod will be attracted
through the wire to copper plate. The chemical action Dil.H 2SO 4
of the cell now transfers an equal amount of electrons Fig. 1.5
from copper plate to zinc rod internally through the
cell to maintain original potential difference (i.e. W/Q). This process continues so long as the circuit
is complete or so long as there is chemical energy. The flow of electrons through the external wire from
zinc rod to copper plate is the electric current.
Thus potential difference causes current to flow while an e.m.f. maintains the potential difference.
Although both e.m.f. and p.d. are measured in volts, they do not mean exactly the same thing.
9. CONCEPT OF E.M.F. AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
There is a distinct difference between e.m.f. and potential difference. The e.m.f. of a device, say a
battery, is a measure of the energy the battery gives to each coulomb of charge. Thus if a battery
supplies 4 joules of energy per coulomb, we say that it has an e.m.f. of 4 volts. The energy given to
each coulomb in a battery is due to the chemical action.
The potential difference between two points, say A and B, is a measure of the energy used by one
coulomb in moving from A to B. Thus if potential difference between points A and B is 2 volts, it means
that each coulomb will gave up an energy of 2 joules in moving from A to B.
10. OHMS LAW
The relationship between voltage across and current through a conductor was first discovered by
German scientist George Simon Ohm. This relationship is called Ohms law and may be stated as :
The current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
(V) across its ends provided the physical conditions (temperature, strain, etc.) do not change i.e.,
Basic Concepts 5
I V
or
V = constant = R
I
where R is a constant of proportionality and is called resistance of the conductor.
For example, if in the Fig. 1.6 (i), the p.d. between points A and B of the conductor is V and current
flowing is I, then V/I will be constant and equal to R, resistance of the conductor between points A and
B. If V is doubled up, current will also be doubled up so that ratio V/I is constant.

If a *graph is drawn between applied potential difference (V) and current (I) flowing through the
conductor, it will be a straight line passing through the origin as shown in Fig. 1.6 (ii). Note that slope
of the graph gives the resistance of the conductor (tan = V/I = R).
11. RESISTANCE
The resistance of a conductor is defined as the ratio of
p.d. applied across its ends to the resulting current through
the conductor i.e
V
R =
I
Resistance is an opposition to the flow of current. If
the resistance of the circuit is doubled, the current is
reduced to one half. If the resistance is tripled, the current
is reduced to one-third and so on. The SI unit of p.d. is 1
V and that of current is 1 A. Therefore SI unit of resistance
is V/A which has been given a special name ohm (symbol ).
1 ohm = 1 = 1 V/A
Rheostat
A conductor is said to have a resistance of 1 I
ohm if a p.d. of 1 V across its ends causes a current
of 1 A to flow through it.
Use of resistance. Resistance can be very
useful when the flow of current is to be controlled.
For example consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.8. A M
component called rheostat has been added to the
motor circuit. A rheostat is an adjustable resistor.
The current flow must overcome the resistance of
the circuit. As the rheostat is adjusted for more
resistance, the circuit current I decreases and the
motor slows down. As the rheostat is adjusted for Fig. 1.8

* Taking V along Y- axis and I along X - axis

6 Objective Electrical Technology

less resistance, the circuit current increases and the motor speeds up. Thus we see that resistance can
be used to control the speed of motor. Resistance can also be used to dim lights, control loudness and
perform many other useful circuit functions.
12. CALCULATING RESISTANCE
The resistance R of a material of length l and area of cross-section A is given by :
l
R =
A
where (Greek letter Rho) is called resistivity or specific resistance of the material. Its value depends
upon the nature of the material and temperature.
13. RESISTIVITY OR SPECIFIC RESISTANCE
R = l
A
If l = 1 m ; A = 1 m , then R =
2
2
Hence specific resistance (or resistivity) of a 1m
material is the resistance offered by 1 m length of wire
2
material having area of cross-section of 1 m (See Fig. 1m
1.9). Fig. 1.9
The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-m ( m). Different materials have different resistivities. For
example, the resistivity of copper is 17 108 m. It means that if you take a copper wire 1 m long and
having an area of Xsection of 1 m2, then resistance of this piece of copper wire will be 17 108.
14. CONDUCTANCE
The reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called its conductance (G). If a conductor has a
resistance R, then its conductance G is given by :
1
G =
R
A circuit with high conductance has low resistance, and a circuit with low conductance has high
resistance. The SI unit of conductance is siemen. It is denoted by the symbol S. Suppose a wire has
a resistance of 0.5 . Then its conductance is given by :
1 = 1 =2S
G =
R 0.5
Conductivity. The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is called its conductivity. It is denoted
by the symbol . If a conductor has resistivity , then its conductivity is given by :
=
1

Now G =
1 = A
R l
A
G =
l
1
Clearly, SI unit of conductivity is siemen per metre (Sm ).
15. CARBON RESISTORS
A component whose function in a circuit is to provide a specified value of resistance is called a
resistor. The most commonly used resistors in electrical and electronic circuits are the carbon resistors.
A carbon resistor is made from powdered carbon mixed with a binding material and baked into a small
tube with a wire attached to each end. These small-sized resistors are manufactured in values from a
fraction of an ohm to several million ohms. Note that the power rating of a carbon resistor
Basic Concepts 7

depends upon the physical size of the resistor. A larger

resistor is able to throw off (dissipate) more heat than a
smaller one.
Colour code for carbon resistors: Since a carbon A B C D
resistor is physically quite small, it is more convenient to Fig. 1.10
use a colour code indicating the resistance value than to
imprint the numerical value on the case. In this scheme, there are generally four colour bands A, B, C
and D printed on the body of the resistor as shown in Fig. 1.10. The first three colour bands (A, B and
C) give the value of the resistance while the fourth band (D) tells about the *tolerance in percentage.
The table below shows the colour code for resistance values and colour code for tolerance.
Colour Code for Resistance Values Colour Code for Tolerance
Black 0 Green 5 Gold 5%
Brown 1 Blue 6 Silver 10%
Red 2 Violet 7 No colour 20%
Orange 3 Grey 8
Yellow 4 White 9
(i) To read the resistance value, we refer to the first three colour bands (A, B and C). The first
two colour bands (A, B) specify the first two digits of the resistance value and the third
colour band (C) gives the number of zeros that follow the first two digits. Suppose the first
three colour bands (A, B , C) on the resistor are red, brown, orange respectively. Then value
of the resistance is 21,000 .
Red : 2
Brown : 1 Value = 21,000
Orange : 000
(ii) The fourth band D gives the value of tolerance in percentage. If colour of the fourth band is
gold, tolerance is 5 percent and if silver, then tolerance is 10 percent. If the fourth band
is omitted, the tolerance is assumed to be 20 percent.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
B B R O Y Great Britain Very Good Wife
Red Yellow
Black Brown Orange Green Blue Violet Grey White

Note: In order to remember the colour code, the above sentence

may be helpful.
16. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE
It has been found that in the normal range of temperatures, the
resistance of a metallic conductor increases linearly with the rise in
temperature. Therefore, resistance/temperature graph is a straight
line as shown in Fig. 1.11.
o
Consider a metallic conductor having resistance R0 at 0 C and R1
o
at t1 C. Then in the normal range of temperatures, the increase in
resistance (i.e., R1 R0)
(i) is directly proportional to the initial resistance, i.e.,
R1 R0 R0

* Due to manufacturing variations, the resistance value may not be the same as indicated by colour code.
Thus, a resistor marked 100 ; 10% tolerance means that resistance value is between 90 and 110 .
8 Objective Electrical Technology

(ii) is directly proportional to the rise in temperature, i.e.,

R1 R0 t 1
(iii) depends upon the nature of the material.
Combining the first two, we get,
R1 R0 R0 t1
or R1 R0 = R0 t1 ...(i)
where is a constant of proportionality and is called temperature co-efficient of resistance. Its value
depends upon the nature of the material and temperature.
Rearranging eq. (i), we get, R1= R0 (1 + t1)
R1 R0
Definition of : From eq. (i), we get, =
R0 t1
o
= increase in resistance/ohm original resistance/ C rise
in temperature
Hence, temperature co-efficient of resistance of a conductor is the increase in resistance per
ohm original resistance per oC rise in temperature.
A little reflection shows that unit of will be ohms/ohms C i.e. / C. Thus copper has a
o o
o
temperature co-efficient of resistance of 0004/ C. It means that if a copper wire has a resistance of 1
at 0 C, then it will increase by 0004 for 1 C rise in temperature, i.e., it will become 1004 at 1 C.
o o o

It may be noted that metals have positive temperature co-efficient of resistance while semiconductors
and insulators have negative temperature co-efficient of resistance.
o o
Note. If the resistance of a conductor is R2 at t2 C and R1 at t1 C (t1 < t2), then,
R2 = R1 [1 + (t2 t1)]

17. OHMIC AND NON-OHMIC CONDUCTORS

There are two types of conductors viz (i) ohmic conductors and (ii) non-ohmic conductors.
(i) Ohmic conductors. Those conductors which obey Ohms law (I V) are called ohmic
conductors e.g. metals. The V I graph for such a conductor is a straight line passing
through the origin. Fig. 1.12 (i) shows V-I graph for two ohmic conductors namely 1 k and
2 k resistors. The 1-k resistor conducts 5 mA at 5 V, 10 mA at 10 V. The 2 k resistor
conducts 25 mA at 5 V and 5 mA at 10 V.
I I
R = 1 k

10 10
Milliamperes

Milliamperes

7.5
2k
R= V = 10 volts
5 5

2.5 2.5

0 0
0 5 10 V 0 1k 2k 3k 4k 5k 6k R
Volts Ohms
(i) (ii)
Fig. 1.12
(ii) Non-ohmic conductors. Those conductors which do not obey ohms law (I V) are called
non-ohmic conductors e.g. vacuum tubes, transistors, electrolytes etc. The V-I graph for
Basic Concepts 9

such a conductor is non-linear. Fig. 1.12 (ii) shows ohm-ampere graph of a non-ohmic
conductor for a fixed p.d. of 10 V. A 1 k conductor conducts 10 mA, a 2 k conductor
conducts 5 mA and a 4 k conductor conducts 25 m A. Note that relationship between
resistance and current is non-linear.
18. ELECTRIC POWER
The power of an electric appliance is the rate at which electrical energy is converted into other
forms of energy (e.g. heat, etc.). For example, a 60 W bulb q = It R B
A
converts 60J of electrical energy into heat and light each
second.
V
Thus referring to Fig. 1.13, as the charge q (= I t) moves
from point A to B, it loses electric potential energy = qV. In Fig. 1.13
other words, qV joules of electrical energy is converted into
heat in t seconds.

lectric Power =
qV
=
b g
It V
= VI J/s or watts
t t
Electric Power = V I watts ... (i)
2
= I R watts (V = I R) ... (ii)
2
= V / R watts ... (iii)
Any one of the three formulas can be used to calculate electric power, depending upon the
problem in hand.
Unit of Electric Power
P = VI
The SI unit of p.d. is 1 V and that of current is 1 A so that SI unit of power = 1 V 1 A = 1 VA or
1 watt (1W).
Hence electric power of a circuit or device is one watt if a current of 1 A flows through it when
a p.d. of 1 V is maintained across it.
The bigger units of electric power are kilowatt (kW) and megawatt (MW).
3 6
1 kW = 1000 W ; 1MW = 10 kW = 10 W.
Note. Electric appliances are rated in terms of electric power. The faster the appliance converts electrical
energy into some other from of energy, the greater the electric power it has. Thus, in 1 second, a 100 W bulb
converts more electrical energy into heat and light than a 60 W bulb.

19. ELECTRICAL ENERGY

The loss of electrical potential energy in maintaining current in a circuit is called electrical energy
consumed in the circuit.
Thus in Fig. 1.13 above, as the charge q (= I t) moves from point A to B, it loses electric
potential energy = q V = V I t joules. This loss of electric potential energy is converted into heat.
We say that electrical energy consumed in t seconds is VIt joules.
2
Electrical energy consumed, W = V I t = I2 R t = V t joules
R
Unit of Electrical Energy
W = V I t = power time
The SI unit of power is 1 W and that of time is 1 s so that SI unit of electrical energy = 1 W 1 s
= 1 Ws or 1 J.
I J (or 1Ws) energy is consumed when a device (e.g., bulb, heater, etc.) converts electrical
10 Objective Electrical Technology

energy to other forms at a rate of 1 W for a time of 1 second.

Commercial Unit : In practice, electrical energy is measured in kilowatt-hour (kWh).
1 kWh energy is consumed when a device converts electrical energy to other forms at a rate of
1 kW for a time of 1 hour.
Electrical energy in kWh = Power in kW Time in hours
The electricity bills are made on the basis of total electrical energy consumed by the consumer.
The unit for billing of electrical energy is 1 kWh. Thus when we say that a consumer has consumed
100 units, it means that electrical energy consumption is 100 kWh.
20. USE OF POWER AND ENERGY FORMULAS
It has already been discussed that electric power as well as electrical energy consumed can be
expressed by three formulas. While using these formulas, the following points may be kept in mind :
2
(i) Electric Power,
2
P = I R=
V watts
R
2
Electrical energy consumed, W = I2 R t = V t joules
R
The above formulas apply only to resistors and to devices (e.g., electric bulb, heater, electric
kettle etc.) where all electrical energy consumed is converted into heat.
(ii) Electric power, P = V I watts
Electrical energy consumed, W = V I t joules
These formulas apply to any type of load including the one mentioned in para (i).
21. ELECTRICAL MATERIALS
The materials used in electricity and electronics can be broadly divided into three major types viz
1. Conductors 2. Semiconductors 3. Insulators
Conductors (e.g copper, aluminium etc.) conduct current very easily while insulators (e.g. glass,
mica, paper) practically conduct no current. In other words, conductors have small resistivity and
insulators have high value of resistivity. The resistivity of semiconductors (e.g. germanium, silicon
etc.) lies between conductors and insulators.
1. Conductors
(i) Conductors are formed by metallic bonds. These bonds are based on a structure of positive
metal ions surrounded by a cloud of electrons.
(ii) Conductors have positive temperature coefficient of resistance i.e their resistance increases
with the rise in temperature and vice-versa [see Fig. 1.14].

Positive coefficient (conductors)

Resistance

Zero coefficient

Negative coefficient
(Insulators and
semiconductors)

Temperature

Fig. 1.14
(iii) Conductors are used to carry current in electric circuits.
Basic Concepts 11

2. Semiconductors
(i) Semiconductors are formed by covalent bonds.
(ii) Semiconductors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance i.e. their resistance
decreases with the rise in temperature and vice-versa [See Fig. 1.14]
(iii) Semiconductors are used in the manufacturing of electronic devices (e.g crystal diodes,
transistors etc .)
3. Insulators
(i) Insulators are predominantly covalent compounds. The valence electrons are tightly locked
with neighbouring atoms and are not available to support the flow of current.
(ii) Insulators have negative temperature coefficient of resistance i.e. their resistance decreases
with the rise in temperature and vice-versa.
(iii) Insulators are used to confine the current to the desired path.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Q. 1. Why does a positive charge attract a negative charge ?
Ans. It is the tendency of every body to have minimum electric potential i.e., to obtain zero potential.
A positive charge means deficit of electrons while the negative charge indicates excess of
electrons. Consequently, positive and negative charges attract each other to have minimum
electric potential.
Q. 2. A wire is carrying current. Is it charged ?
Ans. No. The current in a wire is due to the drifting of free electrons in a definite direction. But the
number of electrons in the wire at any instant is equal to the number of protons. Hence, the
net charge on the wire is zero.
Q. 3. The thermal speeds of free electrons are very large. Inspite of these high speeds, why they
fail to escape from the surface of a conductor ?
Ans. The free electrons in a conductor are free only to the extent that they may transfer from one
atom to another within the conductor. It is because the free electrons that start at the surface
of a conductor find behind them the positive ions pulling them back and none pulling forward.
Thus at the suface of a conductor, a free electron encounters forces that prevent it to leave the
conductor surface. External energy is required for the free electron to escape the conductor
surface.
Q. 4. What are the fundamental differences between e.m.f. and p.d. ?
Ans. The following are the differences between e.m.f. and p.d. :
(i) The name e.m.f. at first sight implies that it is a force that causes current to flow. But this
is not correct because it is not a force but energy supplied to charge by some active
device such as a battery.
(ii) E.M.F. maintains p.d. while p.d. causes current to flow.
(iii) When we say that e.m.f. of a device (e.g., a cell) is 2 V, it means that the device supplies
an energy of 2 joules to each coulomb of charge. When we say that a p.d. between
points A and B of a circuit (suppose point A is at higher potential) is 2 V, it means that
each coulomb of charge will give up an energy of 2 joules in moving from A to B.
Q. 5. Is volt a unit of energy ?
Ans. Yes, volt is the unit of energy. It is because volt is the unit of electric potential.
Work done W
Electric potential, V = =
Q Q
12 Objective Electrical Technology

Therefore, the unit of electric potential is Joules/C. Now, Joules/C is named as volt.
Q. 6. Two wires of equal length, one of copper and the other of manganin have the same resistance.
Which wire is thicker ?

l = l Am m
Ans. c or =
Ac m
Am Ac c
Since the resistivity of copper (c) is less than the resistivity of manganin (m), the area of X-
section of manganin wire (Am) will be more than the area of X-section of copper wire (Ac).
Hence, manganin wire will be thicker.
Q. 7. Why are alloys constantan and manganin used to make standard resistances ?
Ans. It is because these alloys have high resistivity and negligibly small temperature co-efficient of
resistance.
Q.8. The drift velocity of free electrons is very small. Why does room light turn on at once as the
switch is closed ?
Ans. The electric field is transmitted with the speed of light. As soon as the switch is closed, the
electric field is at once established in the whole circuit. As a result, free electrons everywhere
in the wire begin drifiting at once.
Q. 9. We know that a large number of free electrons are present in metals. Why is no current
established in the absence of electric field ?
Ans. In the absence of electric field, the free electrons in the metal have random motions, i.e., free
electrons move in all directions haphazardly. During motion, they collide with positive ions of
the metal again and again and after each collision, their direction changes. The result is that
the net motion in any particular direction is zero. However, when an electric field is applied,
the free electrons experience a force and start drifting towards the positive terminal of the
source with a small velocity (drift velocity).
Q. 10. Is ohms law true for all conductors ?
Ans. No, it is true only for metallic conductors provided physical conditions do not change.
Q. 11. Does the formula V = IR define ohms law ?
Ans. No. This formula defines resistance and can be applied to any conducting device whether or
not it obeys ohms law. The essence of ohms law is that the graph between V and I is linear
i.e. the value of R is independent of V.
Q. 12. Can we verify Ohms law by using a filament lamp ?
Ans. No. As the voltage across the lamp is varied, the temperature of the filament also changes.
This in turn changes the resistance of the filament. The essence of Ohms law is that relation
between V and I is linear if R is independent of the magnitude of V.
Q. 13. Why do conductors have positive temperature co-efficient of resistance ?
Ans. The rise of temperature of a substance causes two effects :
(i) It causes the molecules to vibrate more rapidly, thus impeding the movement of free
electrons through the substance.
(ii) It may break some bonds, releasing free electrons.
With the rise in temperature of a conductor (e.g., metals), there is no increase in the number of
free electrons and the sole effect of temperature rise is to increase resistance due to the
increased molecular vibration. Hence conductors have positive temperature co-efficient of
resistance i.e., their resistance increases with the rise in temperature.
Q. 14. Why do insulators have negative temperature co-efficient of resistance ?
Ans. A temperature rise in insulators creates many more free electrons than existed in the cooler
Basic Concepts 13

state. Often this increase in the number of free electrons more than offsets the interference to
the drift movement caused by the increased molecular activity. Hence resistance of insulators
(and for the same reason that of semiconductors) decreases with the increase in temperature
i.e., insulators have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
Q. 15. Why do some high resistance alloys (Eureka , manganin etc) have almost zero temperature
co-efficient of resistance ?
Ans. In case of some high resistance alloys (e.g., Eureka, Manganin, Constantan etc.), the rise of
temperature causes negligible increase in resistance i.e., they have almost zero temperature
co-efficient of resistance. It is because the two effects of temperature (mentioned in answer to
Q. 13) almost cancel each other.
Q. 16. What is the importance of temperature/resistance graph of a conductor ?
Ans. The temperature/resistance graph of a conductor is a straight
line as shown in Fig. 1.15. We can very easily find the value of R C
temperature co-efficient of resistance from this graph.
Rt R0 A B
0 =
R0 t R0 Rt

But Rt R0 = BC
0 t
and t = rise in temperature = AB t
But BC/AB is the slope of temperature/resistance graph. Fig. 1.15
Slope of temperature / resistance graph
o =
R0
Slope of temperature / resistance graph
Likewise, t =
Rt
Note that slope of temperature/resistance graph is constant (the graph being a straight line).
Q. 17. Why is 0 of a conductor more than its 10 ?
Ans. The slope of temperature/resistance graph is constant and R0 (i.e., resistance at 0oC) is less
than R10 (i.e., resistance at 10oC). Hence 0 of a conductor is more than 10.
Q. 18. How is the rise in temperature of the winding of a machine determined ?
Ans. The resistance of the winding is measured both before and after the test run. Let R1 and t1 be
the resistance and temperature before the commencement of the test. After the operation of
the machine for a given period, let these values be R2 and t2.
Now R1 = R0 (1 + 0t1) and R2 = R0 (1 + 0 t2)
R2 1 + 0 t2
= ...()
R1 1 + 0 t1
Since R1 and R2 can be measured and t1 (ambient temperature) and 0 are known, the value of
t2 can be calculated from eq.(i). The average rise in temperature of the winding will be
(t2 t1) C.
Q. 19. What happens if power rating of a machine is exceeded ?
Ans. Every electrical equipment has power rating marked on its body. While the equipment is in
operation, care should be taken that power rating is not exceeded otherwise the equipment
may be damaged/burnt due to excessive heat.
Q. 20. Why does a 100 watt bulb give more light than a 60 watt bulb ?
Ans. A 100 watt bulb means that it is giving out 100 joules of energy per second while a 60 watt bulb
indicates release of 60 joules of energy per second. Clearly, a 100 watt bulb will give more light
than a 60 watt bulb.
14 Objective Electrical Technology

Q. 21. How is work done in an electric circuit ?

Ans. When voltage is applied in a circuit, it causes current (i.e., movement of free electrons) to flow
through it. Clearly, work is being done in moving the electrons in the circuit.
Q. 22. What is the difference between an overload and a short circuit ?
Ans. An overload means that the circuit is carrying more than the rated current. A short circuit is
said to occur if the circuit carries an exceedingly high current. In general, if the circuit carries
more than 10 times the rated current, then short circuit should be suspected.
Q. 23. What does an electric circuit do ?
Ans. The function of an electric circuit is to convert electrical energy into some other form of
energy. For example, electrical energy is converted into heat energy by devising a suitable
heater circuit. In fact, the innumerable uses of electricity have been possible only due to the
proper use and applications of electric circuits.
Q. 24. Is the formula V = IR true for non-ohmic conductors ?
Ans.Yes. This formula defines resistance and not ohms law ?
Q. 25. Is matter electrical in nature ?
Ans. Yes, matter is electrical in nature. It is because every matter is made up of atoms and every
atom contains charged particles viz protons and electrons.

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The diameter of an atom is about (iv) none of the above.
10 8
(i) 10 m (ii) 10 m 7. If the number of valence electrons of an atom
2 15 is 4, then the substance is usually
(iii) 10 m (iv) 10 m
2. The number of compounds available in (i) a semiconductor (ii) an insulator
nature is (iii) a conductor (iv) none of the above
(i) 105 (ii) 300 8. One coulomb of charge is equal to the charge
(iii) 1000 (iv) unlimited on
(i) 625 10 electrons
16
3. The mass of a proton is ..... the mass of
electron. (ii) 6.25 1016 electrons
(iii) 62.5 10 electrons
16
(i) equal to (ii) less than
(iv) 0.625 10 electrons
16
(iii) about 1837 times (iv) 200 times
3
4. The electrons in the last orbit of an atom are 9. 1 cm of copper at room temperature has
called about
(i) free electrons (ii) bound electrons (i) 200 free electrons
(ii) 20 10 free electrons
10
(iii) valence electrons
(iv) thermionic electrons (iii) 8.5 1022 free electrons
(iv) 3 10 free electrons
5
5. If the number of valence electrons of an atom
is less than 4, the substance is usually 10. The electric current is due to the flow of
(i) a conductor (ii) an insulator (i) positive charges only
(iii) a semiconductor (ii) negative charges only
(iv) none of the above (iii) both positive and negative charges
6. If the number of valence electrons of an atom (iv) neutral particles only
is more than 4, the substance is usually 11. E.M.F. in a circuit
(i) a semiconductor (ii) a conductor (i) increases circuit resistance
(iii) an insulator (ii) decreases circuit resistance
Basic Concepts 15

(iii) maintains potential difference 20. The quantity of charge that will be
(iv) none of the above transferred by a current flow of 10 A over 1
12. The electric current in a metallic conductor hour period is
(ii) 36 10 C
4
is due to the flow of (i) 10 C
(iii) 24 10 C (iv) 16 10 C
3 2
(i) electrons only
(ii) positive ions only 21. The resistance of a straight conductor is
(iii) electrons and positive ions only independent of
(iv) neutral atoms only (i) temperature (ii) material
13. Potential difference has the unit of (iii) cross-sectional area
(i) charge (ii) power (iv) shape of cross-section
(iii) energy 22. A length of wire has a resistance of 6 ohms.
The resistance of a wire of the same material
(iv) none of the above
three times as long and twice the cross-
14. The electric current in a liquid is due to the sectional area will be
flow of
(i) 36 ohms (ii) 9 ohms
(i) electrons only
(iii) 1 ohm (iv) 12 ohms
(ii) positive ions only
23. The drift velocity of electrons is of the order
(iii) negative and positive ions both of
(iv) electrons and positive ions both 1 3 1
(i) 1 ms (ii) 10 ms
1
15. Electric current is a 6
(iii) 10 ms (iv) 3 10 ms1
8

(i) scalar quantity (ii) vector quantity 24. Conductivity is the reciprocal of
(iii) sometimes scalar and sometimes vector (i) current density (ii) resistance
(iv) number only (iii) resistivity
16. A billion electrons pass through a cross- (iv) none of the above
3
section of a conductor in 10 s. The current
25. The specific resistance of a metallic
is
7 7 conductor ........ with rise in temperature
(i) 10 A (ii) 16 10 A
4 3 (i) increases (ii) decreases
(iii) 2 10 A (iv) 26 10 A
(iii) remains unchanged
17. The electric current in a discharge tube
(iv) none of the above
containing a gas is due to
26. The potential difference of an energy source
(i) electrons only
that provides 50 mJ of energy for every micro
(ii) positive ions only coulomb of charge that flows is
(iii) negative and positive ions both (i) 5 V (ii) 50 V
(iv) electrons and positive ions both (iii) 500 V (iv) 50 kV
18. How long does it take 50 C of charge to 27. Insulators have ................. temperature co-
pass a point in a circuit if the current flow is efficient of resistance
15 mA ?
3 (i) zero (ii) positive
(i) 3.33 10 s (ii) 6 10 s
2
(iii) negative (iv) none of above
(iii) 2 s
28. Eureka has ......... temperature co-efficient of
(iv) none of the above resistance.
19. The specific resistance of a wire depends (i) almost zero (ii) negative
upon
(iii) positive
(i) its length
(iv) none of the above
(ii) its cross-sectional area
29. What quantity of charge must be delivered
(iii) its dimensions (iv) its material by a battery with a potential difference of
16 Objective Electrical Technology

100 V to do 500 J of work ? What will be the resistance of a hollow pipe

(i) 5 C (ii) 0.5 C of the material of length 1 m and having inner
(iii) 50 C (iv) 500 C and outer radii 10 cm and 20 cm
respectively ?
30. A piece of aluminium wire is stretched to 4 7
reduce its diameter to half of its original (i) 2 10 (ii) 21 10
5 3
value. Its resistance will become (iii) 3 10 (iv) 282 10
(i) two times (ii) four times 39. A piece of aluminium (Al) and germanium
(iii) eight times (iv) sixteen times (Ge) are called from T1 K to T2 K. The
resistance of
31. Semiconductors have ........ temperature
coefficient of resistance (i) each of them increases
(i) zero (ii) negative (ii) each of them decreases
(iii) positive (iii) aluminium increases and that of
germanium decreases
(iv) none of the above
(iv) aluminium decreases and that of
32. The thermal speed of electrons is of the order
germanium increases
of
1 3 1 40. At 0 K, germanium behaves as
(i) 1 ms (ii) 10 ms
1 (i) a conductor (ii) an insulator
6
(iii) 10 ms (iv) 3 10 ms1
8
(iii) a superconductor
33. Constantan wire is used for making standard
resistance because it has (iv) a ferromagnetic substance
(i) low specific resistance 41. The example of non-ohmic resistance is
(ii) high specific resistance (i) copper wire
(iii) negligibly small temperature co-efficient (ii) carbon resistance
of resistance (iii) aluminium wire (iv) tungsten wire
(iv) high melting point 42. A copper wire is stretched so that its length
34. The resistance of a material 2 m long and 2 is increased by 0.1%. The change in its
8 resistance is
m in area of x-section is 16 10 . Its
2

specific resistance will be (i) 0.3 % (ii) 0.4 %

8 8
(i) 16 10 m (ii) 64 10 m (iii) 0.2 %
8 8
(iii) 32 10 m (iv) 016 10 m (iv) none of the above
35. The SI unit of conductivity is 43. If an electric current is passed through a
(i) ohm-m (ii) ohm/m nerve, the man
(iii) mho-m (iv) mho/m (i) begins to laugh (ii) begins to weep
36. The value of (temperature co-efficient of (iii) is excited
resistance) depends upon (iv) becomes insensitive to pain
(i) length of the material 44. Which one of the following is the best
(ii) X-sectional area of the material conductor of electricity ?
(iii) volume of the material (i) silver (ii) gold
(iv) nature of the material and temperature (iii) copper (iv) zinc
37. A copper wire of resistance Ro is stretched 45. The temperature co-efficient of resistance
o
till its length is increased n times of its of a wire is 000125 per C. At 300 K, its
original length. Its resistance now will be resistance is 1 . The resistance of the wire
2 2 will be 2 at
(i) n Ro (ii) R o/n
3 (i) 1154 K (ii) 1100 K
(iii) nRo (iv) n R o
8 (iii) 1400 K (iv) 1127 K
38. The resistivity of a material is 2 10 m.
Basic Concepts 17

46. Ampere - hour is the unit of 51. Referring to Fig. 1.17, the value of R40 will
(i) quantity of electricity be .............
(ii) strength of current (i) 70 (ii) 40
(iii) power (iii) 35 (iv) 50
(iv) energy 52. Referring to Fig. 1.17, the value of 40 will
47. The resistance of a conductor is 5 at 50 C
o be ............
o o
and 6 at 100 C. What is its resistance at
o (i) 1/30 per C (ii) 1/70 per C
o o o
O C? (iii) 1/50 per C (iv) 1/1200 per C
(i) 1 (ii) 2 53. The value of 0 of a conductor is 1/236 per
(iii) 3 (iv) 4
o
C. The value of 18 will be.............
o o
48. Fig. 1.16 shows the temperature / resistance (i) 1/218 per C (ii) 1/272 per C
graph of a conductor. The value of o is
o
(iii) 1/254 per C
(i) 0.005/oC (ii) 0.04/oC (iv) none of the above
54. The value of 25 of a conductor is 1/255 per
o o
(iii) 0.1/ C (iv) 0.4/ C
C. The value of 20 will be
o
49. Referring to Fig. 1.16, the value of 50 will
o o
be ............. (i) 1/300 per C (ii) 1/230 per C
o
(iii) 1/250 per C (iv) 1/265 per oC
55. The value of 50 of a conductor is 1/230 per
C. The value of o will be
o
o o
(i) 1/180 per C (ii) 1/280 per C
Resistance ()

(iii) 1/250 per oC

(iv) none of the above
40 50
56. The number of free electrons passing
0 O through the filament of an electric lamp in
50 C t
Temperature one hour when the current through the
Fig. 1.16 filament is 032 A will be
(i) 3 10 (ii) 2 10
22 26
o o
(i) 0005/ C (ii) 0004/ C (iii) 72 10
19
(iv) 72 10
21
o o
(iii) 04/ C (iv) 005/ C 57. In which of the following substances the
50. Referring to Fig. 1.17, the value of 0 is resistance decreases with increase in
............... temperature ?
(i) carbon (ii) constantan
(iii) copper (iv) silver
Resistance ()

58. A wire having very high value of

conductance is said to be
45
O (i) very good conductor
(ii) moderately good conductor
30 (iii) insulator
0 O
40 C
(iv) none of the above
t
Temperature 59. An electric heater is marked 2000 W , 200 V.
Fig. 1.17 The resistance of the coil is
(i) 1/30 per C
o
(ii) 1/40 per C
o (i) 0.1 (ii) 20
o
(iii) 1/1200 per C (iii) 1/20 (iv) 200
(iv) none of the above 60. he current in a circuit having constant
18 Objective Electrical Technology

resistance is tripled. The power increases (i) T2 > T1 (ii) T2 < T1

1 (iii) T2 = T1
(i) times (ii) 3 times
9 (iv) none of the above
1
(iii) 9 times (iv) times
3 67. 10 20 electrons each having a charge of
61. What voltage drop will be there across a 1 16 1019 C pass from a point X to a point Y
kW electric heater whose resistance when in 01 s. The current flowing is
hot is 40 ? (i) 16 A (ii) 16 A
(i) 100 V (ii) 50 V (iii) 160 A (iv) 1 A
(iii) 150 V (iv) 200 V 68. No current flows between two charged
62. A resistor R1 dissipates the power P when bodies if they have same
connected to a certain generator. If (i) capacity (ii) potential
resistance R2 is put in series with R1, the (iii) charge
power dissipated by R1 (iv) none of the above
(i) decreases (ii) increases 69. A carbon electrode has a resistance of 0125
at 20 C. The temperature coefficient of
(iii) remains the same o

carbon is 00005 at 20 C. What will be the

o
(iv) any of the above depending upon the
o
values of R1 and R2 resistance of electrode at 85 C ?
63. In case of liquids, ohms law is (i) 4 (ii) 05
(i) fully obeyed (ii) partially obeyed (iii) 12 (iv) 0121
(iii) there is no relation between current and 70. The specific resistance of a wire 11 m long,
p.d. 04 mm diameter having a resistance of
(iv) none of the above 42 will be
8
(i) 48 10 m (ii) 40 10 m
8
64. Two electric bulbs rated for the same voltage
6
have powers of 200 W and 100 W. If their (iii) 4 10 m
resistances are respectively R1 and R2, then, (iv) none of the above
(i) R1 = 2 R2 (ii) R2 = 2 R1 71. Which of the following is the best material
(iii) R2 = 4 R1 (iv) R1 = 4 R2 for making connecting wires ?
65. A copper wire has a resistance of 10 . It is (i) manganin (ii) constantan
stretched by one-tenth of its original length. (iii) copper (iv) nichrome
Then its resistance will be 72. The specific resistance of the material of wire
(i) 10 (ii) 12.1 depends on
(iii) 9 (iv) 11 (i) the area of cross-section
66. he current-voltage graphs for a given (ii) length
metallic wire at two different temperatures (iii) mass
T1 and T2 are shown in Fig. 1.18. Then
(iv) none of the above
73. Ampere - second is the unit of
T1
(i) power (ii) energy
I (iii) e.m.f. (iv) charge
74. The percentage by which the
T2 incandescence of lamp decreases due to
drop of current by 3% is
(i) 6 % (ii) 3 %
(iii) 9 % (iv) 12 %
V
Fig. 1.18
Basic Concepts 19

75. What will be the resistance value (iii) 5 (iv) 40

corresponding to colour code yellow, violet, 80. An electron moves in a circle of radius
1
10 cm with a constant speed of 4 10 ms .
orange, silver ? 6

(i) 47 k 10% (ii) 4.7 k 20 % The electric current at a point on the circle
(iii) 2 k 10 % is
12 7
(iv) none of the above (i) 1 10 A (ii) 4 10 A
76. What will be the resistance value (iii) 2 106 A (iv) none of above
corresponding to colour code brown , black, 81. The resistance of human body is about
red ? (i) 200 (ii) 10
(i) 2 k 10 % (ii) 1 k 20 % (iii) 1000 (iv) 25
(iii) 7 k 20 % 82. The filament of an electric bulb is made of
(iv) none of the above (i) tungsten (ii) nickel
77. Two resistors A and B have resistances RA (iii) steel (iv) aluminium
and RB respectively with RA < RB. The 83. The hot resistance of electric bulbs filament
resistivities of their materials are A and B. is higher than its cold resistance because
Then the temperature co-efficient of filament is
(i) A > B (ii) A = B (i) zero (iv) positive
(iii) A < B (iii) negative (iv) none of above
(iv) Information insufficient 84. A nichrome wire used as a heater coil has a
78. As the temperature of a metallic resistor is resistance of 2 /m. For a heater of 1 kW at
increased, the product of its resistivity and 200 V, the length of the wire required is
conductivity (i) 80 m (ii) 40 m
(i) increases (ii) decreases (iii) 20 m (iv) 24 m
(iii) remains constant 85. When 1 V is applied in a circuit a current of
(iv) may increase or decrease 1 A flows through it. The conductance of
79. A resistor develops 400 J of thermal energy the circuit is
in 10 s when a current of 2 A is passed 6
(i) 1 mho (ii) 10 mho
through it. The resistance of the resistor is (iii) 2 mho (iv) none of above
(i) 10 (ii) 20

ANSWERS TO OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

1. (i) 2. (iv) 3. (iii) 4. (iii) 5. (i)
6. (iii) 7. (i) 8. (i) 9. (iii) 10. (iii)
11. (iii) 12. (i) 13. (iii) 14. (iii) 15. (i)
16. (ii) 17. (iv) 18. (i) 19. (iv). 20. (ii)
21. (iv) 22. (ii) 23. (ii) 24. (iii) 25. (i)
26. (iv) 27. (iii). 28. (i) 29. (i) 30. (iv)
31. (ii) 32. (iii) 33. (iii) 34. (i) 35. (iv)
36. (iv) 37. (i) 38. (ii) 39. (iv). 40. (ii)
41. (ii) 42. (iii) 43. (ii) 44. (i) 45. (ii)
46. (i) 47. (iv) 48. (i) 49. (ii) 50. (i)
51. (i) 52. (ii) 53. (iii) 54. (iii) 55. (i)
56. (iv) 57. (i) 58. (i) 59. (ii) 60. (iii)
61. (iv) 62. (i) 63. (i) 64. (ii) 65. (ii)
20 Objective Electrical Technology

66. (i) 67. (iii) 68. (ii) 69. (iv) 70. (i)
71. (iii) 72. (iv) 73. (iv) 74. (i) 75. (i)
76. (ii) 77. (iv) 78. (iii) 79. (i) 80. (i)
81. (iii) 82. (i) 83. (ii) 84. (iii) 85. (i)

HINTS TO SELECTED OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

19
I = n e = 10 1 63 10
9
16. = 1 6 10 7 A
t 10

q 50 10 6 3
18. t = = = 3 33 10 s
I 15 103
q = I t = (10) (60 60) = 36 10 C
4
20.
l1 l2
22. R1 = a ; R2 = a
1 2

R2
=
FG l IJ FG a IJ = F 3 l I FG a IJ = 15.
2 1
R1 H l K H a K H l K H 2 aK
1 2

or R2 = 1.5 R1 = 1.5 6 = 9 ohms

50 103
26. V = W = 6 = 50 10 V = 50 kV
3
Q
1 10
W 500
29. Q = = =5C
V 100
l l2
30. R1 = 1 ; R2 =
a1 a2
R2
=
FG l IJ FG a IJ
2 1
R1 Hl K Ha K
1 2

Now, l 1 a1 = l2 a2 or l 1 a1 = l 2 FG a IJ
1 l2 = 4l1
H 4K

R2
=
FG 4 l IJ a = 16
1 1
or R2 = 16 R1
R1 H l K c a / 4h
1 1

l0 l
37. R0 = ; R=
a0 a
Now l = n lo and volume remains the same.
ao lo = (n lo)a or a = ao /n

R = l ao = n n = n2
R0 l0 a
2
or R = n R0
l
38. R =
a
Basic Concepts 21

8
Herer = 2 10 m ; l = 1m ; a = r2 r1 = 0 2
2 2
d i a f a0 1f
2 2
= 9 42 10 2 m 2

8 1
R = 2 10 = 2 1 10 7
9 42 10 2
l l
42. R = ; R =
a a
0 1
Now l = l + l = 1 001 l
100
l a
As volume remains the same, al = a l or a = a =
l 1.001

R
=
l FH IK FH IK a

a
f a f
= 1 001 1 001 = 1 002
R l a
R R
or = 0002
R
R R
Percentage increase = 100 = 0 002 100 = 0 2%
R
48. 0 = slope of temp./resistance graph = 10 / 50 = 0 005/ o C
R0 40
50 = slope of temp./resistance graph 10 / 50
= = 0 004 / C
o
49.
R50 50
0
53. 18 = =
1
=
1
=
1 0
/C
1 + 0 18 1 / 0 + 18 236 + 18 254
c h
q ne
56. I = =
t t
0 32 3600
n = It = = 7 2 10
21
e 1 6 10 19
2
61. P = V
R
V = PR = 1000 40 = 200 volts
2 2
64. R1 = V ; R2 = V
200 100
R2 2
V 200 = 2
=
R1 100 V 2
69. R85 = R20[1 + 20 (t2 t1)] = 0125[1 + (00005 65)] = 0121
2
74. P = IR
or P = 2I(I)R
P I
or = 2 = 2 3% = 6%
P I
75. Yellow Violet Orange Silver

3
47 10 10% = 47 k 10%
22 Objective Electrical Technology

76. Brown Black Red None

10 102 20% = 1 k 20%

2
79. Energy = I Rt
Energy 400
R = = 2 = 10
I 2t (2) 10
80. The number of revolutions made by the electron in one second

v = 4 106
= 2 10
7
=
2r 2 10 102
Charge crossing the point on the circle per second

= FH 2 10 IK (1 6 10
7 19
) = 1 10 12 A

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