Professional Documents
Culture Documents
www.elsevier.com/locate/etfs
Industrial Research Institute Swinburne (IRIS), School of Engineering and Industrial Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology,
P.O. Box 218, Hawthorn, Melbourne, Vic. 3122, Australia
Abstract
Abrasive water jet cutting can produce tapered edges on the kerf of workpiece being cut. This can limit the potential applications of
abrasive water jet cutting (AWJ), if further machining of the edges is needed to achieve the engineering tolerance required for the part. In
this study, the kerf geometry has been measured using an optical microscope. Using these measurements, a simple empirical correlation
for the kerf profile shape under different traverse speed has been developed that fits the kerf shape well. The mechanisms underlying the
formation the kerf profile are discussed and the optimum speed for achieving the straightest cutting edge is presented.
2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
0894-1777/$ - see front matter 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.expthermflusci.2005.08.003
338 C. Ma, R.T. Deam / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 337–343
2. Experimental
Table 1
Properties of acrylic
Density 1.19 · 103 kg m3
Light transmittance 92%
Tensile strength 55–76 MPa (8000–11,000 psi)
Compressive strength 76–131 MPa (11,000–19,000 psi)
Elongation 2–7%
Fig. 1. Optical microscope images of the kerf geometry (·6): (a)
Rockwall hardness ME0-100
U = 0.2 mm/s, (b) U = 0.5 mm/s, (c) U = 1.5 mm/s, (d) U = 1.8 mm/s,
Specimen thickness 30 mm
(e) U = 2.5 mm/s, (f) U = 3.0 mm/s, (g) U = 4.0 mm/s, (h) U = 5.0 mm/s.
C. Ma, R.T. Deam / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 337–343 339
this is used to develop the correlation for the kerf width. 0.4
0.3
The same procedure is used to develop a correlation for Pearson fit 99.9%
0.2
kerf width that works for all the cutting speeds used. An
0.1
example is shown in Figs. 3–5 using the kerf shape for
0.0
the traverse speed of 0.1 mm/s. 2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30
The form of the correlation chosen for the first 2 mm Cut Depth (mm)
Measured Width - Stage 1 Correlation Stage 2
(Stage 1) of the cut depth was
B Fig. 4. Kerf profile for 0.1 mm/s cutting speed: Stage 2 fit.
w¼Aþ ð1Þ
ðd þ X 0 Þ
where w is the width of the cut in mm, d is the depth of the where C and D are the constants to be determined. This is
cut in mm, A, B and X0 are constants to be determined. shown in Fig. 4.
This is shown in Fig. 3. The combined correlation is shown in Fig. 5.
The form of the correlation for depths greater than For the width and depth data measured for the cut at
2 mm (Stage 2) was chosen as 0.1 mm/s the best-fit data is given in Table 3.
When combining the Stages 1 and 2 correlations a Pear-
w ¼ Cd þ Dd 2 ð2Þ son fit coefficient of R2 = 99.8%, is obtained. The form of
U=5 mm/sec
U=4 mm/sec
1.5 U=3 mm/sec
Cut Width (mm)
U=2.5 mm/sec
U=1.8 mm/sec
U=1.5 mm/sec
U=1 mm/sec
1 U=0.5 mm/sec
U=0.2 mm/sec
U=0.1 mm/sec
0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Cut Depth (mm)
2.0 1.15
1.9
1.8 1.1
Cut Width (mm)
1.7
1.05
1.6
Value of A
1.5
1
1.4 A = -0.0616Ln(x) + 0.9241
1.3 R2 = 0.9305
0.95
1.2 Pearson fit 99.8%
1.1 0.9
1.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0.85
Cut Depth (mm)
Measured Width Final Correlation 0.8
0.1 1 10
Speed (mm/sec)
Fig. 5. Kerf profile for 0.1 mm/s cutting speed.
Data A Log. (Data A)
-0.01
the correlations for the two stages was chosen so that they -0.02
could be added, without further fitting being required. 0.1 1 10
Speed (mm/sec)
A similar method was applied for other cutting speeds,
Data C Log. (Data C)
up to 5 mm/s, and the correlation coefficients are shown
in Table 4. Fig. 7. Correlation of C against cutting speed.
The coefficients B and X0 were chosen to give the best fit
over for all values of cutting speed used in these experi-
ments. The values of the coefficients A, C and D vary with 0.0001
A ¼ aA LnðU Þ þ bA -0.0002
Table 4
Fig. 8. Correlation of D against cutting speed.
Correlation coefficients for cutting speeds between 0.1 and 5.0 mm/s
Speed Value A Value B Value X0 Value C Value D R2 (%)
(mm/s) 4. Complete correlation at fixed standoff
0.1 1.09 0.086 0.33 0.041 0.0004 99.8
0.2 1.01 0.086 0.33 0.034 0.00038 99.1 The complete correlation of the kerf width as a function
0.5 0.93 0.086 0.33 0.0215 0.00036 99.2
1 0.925 0.086 0.33 0.009 0.00028 94.6
of cut depth and cutting speed is shown below in Eq. (4),
1.5 0.9 0.086 0.33 0.0001 0.00009 98.0 which is obtained by adding Eqs. (1) and (2). The coeffi-
1.8 0.89 0.086 0.33 0.002 0.00006 98.5 cients A, C and B are a function of cutting speed and are
2.5 0.89 0.086 0.33 0.005 0.00005 98.2 given in Eq. (4).
3.0 0.89 0.086 0.33 0.009 0.00004 99.0
4.0 0.82 0.086 0.33 0.011 0.00002 95.2 0:086
w¼Aþ þ Cd þ Dd 2 ð4Þ
5.0 0.81 0.086 0.33 0.012 0.00005 80.2 ðd þ 0:33Þ
C. Ma, R.T. Deam / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 337–343 341
6. Erosion mechanisms
2.2
B
2 w1 ¼ A þ
1.8
ðd þ X 0 Þ
1.6 which we have called the developing flow stage
1.4 Whereas, the second section uses Eq. (2).:
1.2
w2 ¼ Cd þ Dd 2
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 which we have called the fully developed flow stage, where
Depth (mm)
df=2 mm df=1 mm df=3 mm df=5 mm df=7 mm df=4 mm w ¼ w1 þ w2
Fig. 9. Kerf profile for different standoff distances: cutting speed 0.5 mm/s. w is the kerf width at depth d.
342 C. Ma, R.T. Deam / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 337–343
Width v Depth the fluid flows in pipes. Usually, near the entry to the pipe
Cutting Speed 2.5 mm/sec, Stand off 4 mm
1.8 the variation of velocity across the section differs from the
1.6
‘‘fully developed’’ pattern, and gradually changes until the
final form is achieved. Fig. 12 illustrates the whole develop-
1.4
ing process, although the details of the development of the
Width (mm)
1.2
1.1
profile thus changes until its final form.
1 Chen and Siores [6] have shown that the abrasive parti-
0.9 clesÕ kinetic energy distribution in the jet, just before
0.8
0.7
impingement on the workpiece, is not even, but a can exhi-
0.6 bit a peak in particle kinetic energy at about 1/3 the radius
0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
of the jet. In other words the centre of the jet has a dip in
Depth (mm) the particles kinetic energy. This distribution will change in
data for 2 mm final correlation (±5%) the developing flow stage. So that the fluid dynamics of the
Fig. 11. Worst case fit to experimental kerf profile.
developing flow will probably depend on the abrasive par-
ticle mass flow rate as well as the water mass flow rate. A
correlation covering all the variables, including abrasive
The correlation has been constructed so that the two particle mass flow rate and water mass flow rate, would
correlations may be added, thus sections 1 and 2 blend into end up being quite complicated. However, the idea of a
one another. developing flow region and a fully developed region seems
Some researchers divide the whole kerf wall characteris- intuitively reasonable. A more useful approach might be to
tics into three sections called: correlate the depth of the developing flow region for range
of abrasive and water mass flow rates.
1. Initial damage region (IDR), Finally the waviness or roughness of the kerf has not
2. smooth cutting region (SCR), and been addressed here, partly because the waviness or rough-
3. rough cutting region (RCR). ness contributes to less than 5% of the kerf width, but
mainly because the subject is worthy of a much more
This classification is based on the roughness of the kerf. detailed study. From our measurements it seems that there
The IDR located at the top of the kerf is due to jet are two separate components. One is where the cut has
expansion prior to impingement. The SCR follows the constant width; but waggles from side to side like a flag
IDR and is a region of the kerf at the top with smooth in a breeze (see Fig. 1(h)). The other is where the width
walls. The wall roughness increases further down the cut of the cut varies from its expected smooth value (see
and the SCR becomes the RCR. The increasing roughness
with depth can be seen in Fig. 2. This classification is a
good description of the kerf. However, it does not lend it-
self to an immediate understanding of the processes mak-
ing the cut and does not necessarily correlate with the
kerf width.
The correlation that has been found in this work seems
to fit a fluid dynamic dominated mechanism. The first sec- er
ary lay
Bound
tion (Eq. (1)) applies to the kerf width as the water jet
velocity profile develops when it first enters the cut groove. Entrance length
The second section (Eq. (2)) applies to the kerf width when
the velocity profile has fully developed. This is similar to Fig. 12. Jet velocity profile developing stage (after Massey [10]).
C. Ma, R.T. Deam / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 30 (2006) 337–343 343
Fig. 2, especially for high-speed cuts at depth). Part of the Further work will be required to measure the correlation
waviness of the second type could be from errors intro- coefficients for other materials, such as steel. However, we
duced by the measurement, but it seems that a large com- expect the form of the correlation to be the same.
ponent must be due to an inherent waviness of the
process. This could be similar to the mechanism proposed
References
and modelled in Ref. [9]. Since waviness occurs in the cut-
ting direction as well for the width, it is not unreasonable [1] Flow International Corporation. Available from: <http://www.
that these two effects are coupled. The strength of this flowcorp.com>.
coupling needs to be investigated further. [2] W. Momber, R. Kovacevic, Principles of Abrasive Water Jet
Machining, Springer, London, New York, 1998.
[3] D. Arola, M. Ramulu, A study of kerf characteristics in abrasive
7. Conclusions
water jet machining of graphite/epoxy composite, Journal of Engi-
neering Materials and Technology 118 (1996) 256–265.
The correlation for the kerf width developed in this [4] N.S. Guo, Schneidprozess und Schnittqualitat beim Wasser-
work has shown that there are two regions, which we have abrasivstrahlschneiden. VDI-Fortschritt-Berichte, Reihe 2, No. 328,
called the developing stage and the fully developed stage. 1994.
[5] Y. Chung, Development of Prediction Technique for the Geometry of
The first region (the developing stage), which ends after
the Abrasive Water Jet Generated Kerf, Ph.D. thesis, New Jersey
about 2 mm of the cutting depth, is due to the velocity pro- Institute of Technology, 1992.
file of the jet changing from a uniform profile to a fully [6] F.L. Chen, E. Siores, The effect of cutting jet variation on striation
developed flow in a groove. This is similar to the way the formation in abrasive water jet cutting, Journal of Materials
velocity profile develops when flow enters a pipe from a Processing Technology 35 (1) (2003).
[7] R. Balasubramaniam, J. Krishnan, N. Ramakrishnan, A study on the
large tank.
shape of the surface generated by abrasive jet machining, Journal of
In the second section (the fully developed stage) which Materials Processing Technology 196 (1996).
starts after about 2 mm of the cutting depth, the cutting [8] L. Chen, E. Siores, Y. Morsi, W. Yang, A study of surface striation
width can become wider or narrower with depth, depend- formation mechanisms applied to abrasive water jet process, Annals
ing on the cutting speed. The kerf width opens out at low of the CIRP (1997).
[9] R.T. Deam, E. Lemma, D.H. Ahmed, Modelling of the abrasive
cutting speeds and narrows down at high cutting speeds.
water jet cutting process, Wear 257 (9–10) (2004) 877–891.
The correlation can be used to identify the cutting speed [10] B.S. Massey, Mechanics of Fluids, Chapman & Hall, London,
that produces the straightest edge. 1989.