Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

The
Chemical
Earth
Notes
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

1. The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures

Identify the difference between elements, compounds and mixtures in terms of Particle
Theory.

Element Pure substance that is composed entirely of one type of atom. Cannot be further
separated by physical nor by chemical means. E.g. N2

Compound Substances which contain 2 (or more) types of atoms which are chemically bonded
together in a fixed ratio by mass. Cannot be physically separated by can be chemically separated
into the elements present. E.g. H2O

Mixtures Not pure substances which contain a variety of different elements and/or
compounds combined in a variable ratio by mass. E.g. Orange Juice

Elements and compounds have a defined chemical composition as opposed to the variable
composition of mixtures.

Identify that the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere contain examples of
mixtures of elements and compounds.

Lithosphere: The solid, rocky part of Earth which is composed of the crust and the upper portion of
the mantle. Rocks are mixtures of minerals which are crystalline compounds. Each type of rock
contains a different mixture, with different minerals in its composition, in varying proportions. Most
abundant elements include Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminium, Iron and Calcium.

E.g. Compounds and Minerals include:

Aluminium Oxide (bauxite)

Calcium Carbonate (limestone)
Silicon Dioxide (quartz/sand)
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

Hydrosphere: The liquid part of Earth, mainly oceans but also includes rivers and lakes among
others. Most of its mixture of water contains suspended soils (Dirt), dissolved compounds (Salt) and
dissolved elements such as Oxygen and Nitrogen.

E.g. Compounds and Elements include:

Oxygen, Hydrogen, Chlorine, Sodium and Magnesium.

H2O, NaCl, CaCl2 and Mg Cl2.

Atmosphere: Relatively thin gaseous part that encompasses the Earth compared to the other
spheres. Air is a mixture of various elements Nitrogen (N2), Oxygen (O2) and Argon (Ar) primarily
- and compounds - Water Vapour (H2O), Methane (CH4) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2).

Biosphere: Refers to part of the Earth where living things are found, and so encompasses the
Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and Atmosphere. Living things themselves are complex mixtures of mainly
water, proteins, carbohydrates, fats and so on. These chemicals also retain more complex
compounds such as DNA.

E.g. Compounds/Elements include:

Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Calcium.

Carbon-based/Organic compounds such as Glucose (C6H12O6)

Assess separation techniques for their suitability in separating examples of earth materials,
identifying the differences in properties which enable these separations.
Substances are suited to separating techniques because they have different properties, eg.
Boiling points, state at room temperature, particle size, miscibility/density, whether it is a metal
or non-metal, reactivity. As a result, diverse separation techniques are required in order to
overcome these properties.

2. Although most elements are found in combinations on Earth, some elements are found
uncombined

Explain the relationship between the reactivity of an element and the likelihood of its existing
as an uncombined element.
Very reactive elements do not occur by themselves, but very strongly bonded with another
element(s). This is because they cannot exist in a stable form without reacting with some other
material due to their need to achieve a stable valency. Noble gases exist on their own because
they have stable valencies (full shells). The deduction made is that the higher the reactivity of a
substance, the reduced chance that it is able to be found in pure form
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

Classify elements as metals, non metals and semi-metals according to their physical
properties.
Metals Non-Metals Metalloids
Usually high MPs and BPs Usually low MPs and BPs Usually high to very high MPs and BPs
Shiny Dull Shiny
Very hard or hard Brittle Brittle
Malleable Non-malleable Reactivity depends on properties of other elements in reaction
Ductile Non-ductile Unique semi-conductor properties
Fine heat conductor Bad heat conductor Act like metals upon reaction with non-metals
Fine electricity conductor Bad electricity conductor Act like non-metals upon reaction with metals
Solid Solids, Liquids and Gases Variable chemical properties
Generally higher density Generally lower density

Account for the uses of metals and non-metals in terms of their physical properties.
Various metals and non-metals can be utilised in a variety of industries due to the mainly the
physical or chemical properties which allow them to work in certain situations.

Metals
Copper: Electrical wiring. This is due to the superior electrical conductivity for obvious reasons
and the high ductility makes it capable of drawing it into long wires.
Aluminium: Airplane and window frames. It is strong, malleable and ductile, meaning it is
versatile. Also, this material is lightweight and has corrosion resistance where is durable for long
periods.

Non-Metals
Helium: Dirigibles and balloons. This is because this element retains low density and lack of
reactivity.
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

1. The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures

Describe situations in which gravimetric analysis supplies useful data for chemists and other
scientists

Gravimetric analysis involves the separation of components in a mixture and an accurate

measurement of the mass of these components. This process is done to calculate the percentage
composition of the mixture. Examples of this put into effect include:
Measuring the quantity of mineral that could potentially be extracted within an ore deposit
to determine whether it is economically viable to mine
Measuring quantities of pollutant chemicals in a substance (i.e. Effluent, Water, Air)

Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment and perform a firsthand investigation to separate
the components of a naturally occurring or appropriate mixture such as sand, salt and water

Materials
Oven Mixture (Contains pure water, salt
Filtration apparatus and sand)
Evaporating Basin Appropriate weighing device

Procedure
1. Stir mixture until the salt dissolves and the sand doesnt.
2. Weigh the mixture. (A)g
3. Filter to collect the sand.
Note: Weigh filter paper beforehand. (B)g
4. a) Dry the residue along with the filter paper and weigh accurately.
Note: For more accuracy, weigh the residue + filter paper, dry it again, weigh it again
and re-weigh it until the mass stays constant. (C)g
b) Evaporate the water from the filtrate until completely dry. (E)g
Note: Dry evaporating basin in the oven and weigh accurately beforehand. (D)g
5. Weigh the salt (dried). (E-D)g
Note: For more accuracy, weigh the salt, dry it again, weigh it again and re-weigh it until
the mass stays constant.

Gather first-hand information by carrying out a gravimetric analysis of a mixture to estimate its
percentage composition

Total mass of mixture = (A)g

After filtration + drying: After evaporation:
Mass of filter paper = (B)g Mass of evaporating basin = (D)g
Mass of filter paper + sand = (C)g Mass of evaporating basin + salt = (E)g
Mass of sand = (C-B)g Mass of salt = (E-D)g

Mass of water = A-[(C-B) + (E-D)]

Composition % SAND = (C-B)/A x 100% (To 3 significant figures for precision)

Composition % SALT = (E-D)/A x 100% (To 3 significant figures for precision)
Composition % WATER = [A-(C-B)-(E-D)]/A x 100% (To 3 significant figures for precision)
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

Note: If %s do not add to 100%, there may be other substances present in the original mixture OR there
is an experimental error. This may mean that there was some moisture not accounted f

3. Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds because of interactions at the atomic
level

Identify that matter is made of particles that are continuously moving and interacting

According to the Particle Theory or the kinetic theory of matter, it is stated that all matter consists of
many small, indivisible particles called atoms which are constantly moving or in a continual state of motion.

Gases:
Rapid and random translation of
particles
Widely spread
Spaces between particles are
larger than the particles
Particles move freely and quickly

Liquids:
Particles vibrate and translate
Less closely packed than solids
Minimal space between particles

Solids:
Particles vibrate about their fixed
positions
Closed together (lattice)

Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in atoms

Energy Level Maximum Number of electrons

n=1 1st 2
n=2 2nd 8
n=3 3rd 18
n=4 4th 32

Energy levels in an atom can only hold a certain number of

electrons; there is less energy in electrons the further away it
is from the nucleus.

A formula that can be used to obtain the maximum number of electrons is the 2n^2 rule. Using the number
on the left column representing the shell number, the number is substituted in the formula to give the
maximum electron capacity.

Note: Maximum capacity meaning an electron shell may hold less than the designated number.
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number

Mass Number: 19 Proton: Subatomic particle with a positive charge

F
19
Electron: Subatomic particle with a negative charge
Symbol of Element: Fluorine
9 Neutron: Subatomic particle that is neutral, no electrical
charge
Atomic Number: 9

Atomic Number = Number of protons (Positive charge of nucleus)

= Number of Electrons (In neutral atom)

Mass Number= Number of protons + Number of Neutrons (Mass of nucleus)

Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or losing electrons

Every atom can achieve its best possible energy state if its valence outer shell is full. Most atoms do not
have the correct number of electrons for this to occur. Nonetheless, atoms in nature will readily lose or
gain electrons to form a positive or negative ion.

Atom Electron/s (xe-) Greater Positive Ion (Cation)

Atom + Electron/s (xe-) Greater Negative Ion (Anion)

Where x = The number of electrons gained or lost

Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms of metals and non-metals

The valency of an atom is the determining factor of whether it will form an anion or cation. If the valency is
closer to 0 than it is 8, it will lose a certain number of electrons (x) to have a full valence shell and will
become a cation with charge +(x). On the other hand, if the valency is closer to 8 than to 0, the atom will
tend to gain a certain number of electrons (y) to have a full valence shell and become anion with charge
(y).

For this reason, Group 1, 2 and 3 metals on the Periodic table form positive ions since they must lose
electrons in their outermost shell. Conversely, Group 5, 6 and 7 non-metals on the Periodic table form
negative ions since they must gain electrons in their outermost shell. For Group 8 (Noble Gases), the
valence shell is full already therefore stable not forming ions under natural circumstances.

Nevertheless, transition metals are able to form a different number of ions. The number of the charge of
the ions may range e.g. Iron (II) [Fe2+] and Iron (III) [Fe3+]. In addition to specific cases, for Group 4
metalloids where the valency of an atom is 4, it can form either an anion or cation. Such cases like silicon
(Si) with valency of 4, it is more likely to turn into a cation (+ve) than an anion (-ve).

Apply Lewis electron dot structures:

Lewis Diagrams uses dots to show the number of electrons in the outermost shell only.
To write Lewis diagrams:
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

1. Write the element symbol. Around this draw dots one for each valence electron.
2. The dots should be spread over four sides. Dots are not paired until all sides have at least one dot.
3. It does not matter on which side dots are placed. For example, hydrogen can be drawn four ways:

4. The number of valence electrons is equal to the group number. For example, hydrogen is in group 1 and
it has one valence electron. Neon is in group 8 and it has 8 valence electrons. The only exception is He
which is in group 8 but has 2 valence electrons.

The Octet Rule

When atoms form ions or combine in compounds they obtain electron configurations of the nearest noble
gas (usually this means that there will be 8 outer electrons).

The formation of ions

Ionic bonding involves the formation of ions.

Ions

Ionic Compounds
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

The electron sharing in some simple molecules

To depict covalent bonding in Lewis Diagrams, the covalent bond between molecules has a circle drawn
around the pair of bonding electrons that are shared.

Covalent
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

Multiple Bonds

Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the attraction of ions of opposite charge
When an ionic bond is established, the cation (positive ion) and the anion (negative ion) will attract each
other with their respective positive and negative charges due to electrostatic forces. This forms an ionic
compound.

Construct ionic equations showing metal and non-metal atoms forming ions
1. The living and non-living components of the Earth contain mixtures

Apply systematic naming of inorganic compounds as they are introduced in the laboratory

Ionic Compound
1. Name metal first (which may include Roman Numerals)
2. Name non-metal or anion with suffix ide. E.g. carbide,
oxide, nitride

Covalent Compound
1. Write the name off the first element; which is the one
further to the left of the Periodic table or
lower down in a group.
Exception: Name halogens first in compounds with oxygen
2. Use prefixes to show each type of atoms.
3. Name second non-metal with suffix ide.

Identify IUPAC names for carbon compounds as they are encountered

Homologous Series Suffix Bonding between Carbon (C) Formula
Alkane -ane Single bond CnH2n+2
Alkene -ene Double bond CnH2n
Alkyne -yne Triple bond CnH2n-2
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

Prefix Number of Carbon Atoms

Meth- 1
Eth- 2
Prop- 3
But- 4
Pent- 5
Hex- 6
Hept- 7
Oct- 8
Non- 9
Dec- 10

3. Elements in Earth materials are present mostly as compounds because of interactions at the atomic
level

Describe molecules as particles which can move independently of each other

A molecule is the smallest particles of a substance that can have a separate existence, and can more around
independently of other particles.

Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the noble gases) and molecules with more than one
atom

Noble Gases (Monatomic molecules) Tri-atomic Gases

Chemically inert Exists as three-atom molecules

Exists as single atoms e.g. Ozone (O3)
e.g. Helium (He)
Tetra-atomic Gases
Diatomic Gases
Exists as four-atom molecules
Exists as two-atom molecules e.g. Phosphorus (P4)
e.g. Oxygen gas (O2)
Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms of sharing of electrons

Contrary to ionic bonding, there are no electrostatic attractions in covalent bonding. Covalent bonds
in covalent compounds are formed when pairs of share one (single bond) or more pairs (double
bond or triple bond) of electrons to attain a stable electron configuration (Octet Rule). This
formation of a covalent bond usually occurs when both atoms want to gain electrons, especially
between non-metals.

Construct formulae for compounds formed from:

Ions
Atoms sharing electrons
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

5. The properties of elements and compounds are determined by their bonding and structure
distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

Describe the physical properties used to classify compounds as ionic or covalent molecular or
covalent network

Melting and boiling points (which are measured at Standard Laboratory Conditions)
Electrical conductivity
Hardness and flexibility (also including malleability and ductility)

Melting Point Temperature at which the substance changes states from solid to liquid
Boiling Point Temperature at which the substance changes states from liquid to gas
Ductility Ability to be stretched into a long thin wire
Malleability Ability to be bent and sculpted into various shapes
Hardness When an object strikes the substance, hardness is determined by the substances
resistance to indentation
Conductivity Ability to allow an electric current to pass through the substance

Distinguish between metallic, ionic and covalent bonds

Ionic Bond:
A type of chemical bond that often occurs between metal and non-metal ions as a result of
electrostatic forces which attract the cation (positive ion) and the anion (negative ion) of the atoms.
This bond involves the transfer of electrons.
Covalent Bond:
A type of chemical bond formed between non-metals through the sharing of valence electrons in
order to establish a stable electron configuration. One or more pairs of electrons are shared
between atoms.
Metallic Bond: A chemical bond formed between metals in which mobile valence electrons (sea of
delocalised electrons) are shared between positive metal ions (cations) due to electrostatic
attractions.

Describe metals as three-dimensional lattices of ions in a sea of electrons

A metal exists in the form of a metallic lattice, which is described as
a three-dimensional structure consisting with an array of positive
metal ions (cations) which are encompassed by a sea of
delocalised electrons the electrons have no designated cation as a
host. This 3D lattice is held together by metallic bonds, an attraction
formed between the metal cations and the sea of delocalised
electrons.
Note: The delocalised electrons are lost from the valence shell from
each of a metal atom forming ions in the process.
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

Describe ionic compounds in terms of repeating three-dimensional lattices of ions

An ionic compound consists of an orderly three-dimensional arrangement if ions called an ionic
lattice. The alternating positive (cation) and negative ions (anion) form relatively strong electrostatic
attractions called ionic bonds.

Note: The 3D lattice on the left

shows NaCl. Also, these models
only show the empirical formula
(ratio between atoms). In reality,
these atoms alternate at this same
formula infinitely.

Explain why the formula for an ionic compound is an empirical formula

There are no discreet molecules formed in ionic bonding due to electrostatic forces holding the
atoms together. The structure of an ionic compound is composed of alternating positive and
negative ions infinitely repeating. This implies that ionic compounds do not have a molecular
formula but an empirical formula which gives the simplest ratio of atoms or ions in the compound.

Identify common elements that exist as molecules or as covalent lattices

Molecules: Diatomic gases O2, N2, Cl2, F2, H2, I2 and Br2.
Covalent Lattices: Semi-metals and Carbon [C] (existing as diamond and graphite).

Explain the relationship between the properties of conductivity and hardness and the structure of
ionic, covalent molecular and covalent network structures
Ionic Compounds
Properties Explanation
Brittle When a distorting force is applied where like
charges are brought closer together, these ions
repel and the ionic lattice may be broken, thus
accounting for the brittleness and hardness of
ionic compounds
Relatively high MPs and BPs Relatively strong ionic bonds require a
considerable amount of energy to be broken,
thus the high temperatures required
Does not conduct electricity in solid state Ions held in fixed positions within the ionic
lattice by strong ionic bonds. This restrict
mobility and thus no free moving electrons to
allow an electric current to pass through
Does conduct electricity in aqueous state Where the ionic bonds are broken, the ions
dissociate and are able to move freely to carry
an electric current
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

Covalent Molecular Substances

Properties
Soft in solid state
Relatively low MPs and BPs (-ve)
No electrical conductivity in any state
Explanation
Molecules held together by weak intermolecular
forces which are easy to distort
Through the process of melting and boiling, the
weak intermolecular forces (NOT the covalent
bonds) are broken. This requires very little
energy, thus low temperatures required
All the electrons are tied-up in the covalent
bonds and movement is restricted. No charged
particles are able to flow through and move
freely in any state, thus accounting for no
electrical conductivity in any state
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

Covalent Network Lattice Solids

Properties Explanation
Very hard but brittle The rigid, tetrahedral structure containing strong
covalent bonds resist distortion. However, when
these covalent bonds are broken, the crystalline
structure will shatter
Very high MPs (in the 1000s) In order to melt the lattice, many strong covalent
bonds are to be broken. This requires high
amounts of energy, thus accounting for the
extreme temperatures required
No electrical conductivity in all states except All the electrons are tied-up in the covalent
graphite bonds and movement is restricted. No charged
particles are able to flow through and move
freely in any state, thus accounting for no
electrical conductivity in any state
Note: Graphite has an extra delocalised
electron which allows electrical conductivity

Diamond

Delocalised electrons between

the carbon layers
K

Metallic Lattice
Properties Explanation
Relatively high MPs and BPs Metallic bonds are relatively strong so
considerable energy is required to overcome
these, accounting for high MPs and BPs
Good electrical conductors in all states The sea of delocalised electrons is highly mobile.
When an electric field is applied, these electrons
will move and carry an electrical current
Malleable and Ductile When a distorting force is applied to the lattice
of cations, the delocalised electrons are able to
shift to accommodate the movements the
metallic bonds remain intact, giving rise to
malleability and ductility
Chemistry PEAK Study Notes

Choose resources and process information from secondary sources to construct and discuss the
limitations of models of ionic lattices, covalent molecules and covalent and metallic lattices.