GENERAL LABORATORY RULES AND PRECAUTIONS

FOR ELECTRICAL SAFETY

The following general rules and precautions are to be observed at all times in the
laboratory. These rules are for the benefit of the experimenter as well as those around
him/her. Additional rules and precautions may apply to a particular laboratory.

1. There must be at least two (2) people in the laboratory while working onlive circuits or
chemical processing.

2. Shoes must be worn at all times.

3. Remove all loose conductive jewelry and trinkets, including rings, which may come in
contact with exposed circuits. (Do not wear long loose ties, scarves, or other loose clothing
around machines.)

4. Consider all circuits to be "hot" unless proven otherwise.

5. When making measurements, form the habit of using only one hand at a time. No part of
a live circuit should be touched by the bare hand.

6. Keep the body, or any part of it, out of the circuit. Where interconnecting wires and
cables are involved, they should be arranged so people will not trip over them.

7. Be as neat a possible. Keep the work area and workbench clear of items not used in the
experiment.

8. Always check to see that the power switch is OFF before plugging into the outlet. Also,
turn instrument or equipment OFF before unplugging from the outlet.

9. When unplugging a power cord, pull on the plug, not on the cable.

10. When disassembling a circuit, first remove the source of power.

11. "Cheater" cords and 3-to-2 prong adapters are prohibited unless an adequate separate
ground lead is provided, the equipment or device is double insulated, or the laboratory
ground return is known to be floating.

12. No ungrounded electrical or electronic apparatus is to be used in the laboratory unless

it is double insulated or battery operated.

13. Keep fluids, chemicals, and beat away from instruments and circuits.

14. Report any damages to equipment, hazards, and potential hazards to the laboratory
instructor.
15. If in doubt about electrical safety, see the laboratory instructor. Regarding specific
equipment, consult the instruction manual provided by the manufacturer of the equipment.
Information regarding safe use and possible- hazards should be studied carefully.

STUDY OF SYMBOLS,ACCESSORIES,TOOLS USED IN WIRING AND SAFETY

PRECAUTIONS
AIM
To study the various types of accessories, tools used in house wiring, study of symbols and safety
precautions.
STUDY OF SYMBOLS

Wires
Electrical Circuit Symbol Description
Component
Wire Used to connect one component to another.

Wire Circuit Symbol

Wires Joined One device may be connected to another

through wires. This is represented by drawing
Wires Joined Circuit Symbol blobs on the point where they are shorted.

When circuits are drawn some wires may not

Wires touch others. This can only be shown by
Unjoined bridging them or by drawing them without
Wires Not Joined Circuit Symbol blobs. But bridging is commonly practised as
there will not arise any confusion.
Power Supplies
Cell
Used to provide a supply for a circuit.

Cell Circuit Symbol

Battery A battery has more than a cell and is used for the
same purpose. The smaller terminal is negative
and the larger one is positive. Abbreviated as B.
Battery Circuit Symbol
 DC Supply Used as a DC power supply, that is, the current
will always flow in one direction.
DC Supply Circuit Symbol

AC Supply Used as AC power supply, that is, the current

will keep alternating directions.
AC Supply Circuit Symbol

Fuse Used in circuits where a probability of excessive

current flows. The fuse will break the circuit if
Fuse Circuit Symbol excessive current flows and saves the other
devices from damage.
Transformer
Used as an ac power supply. Consists of two
coils, the primary and secondary that are linked
together through an iron core. There is no
Transformer Circuit Symbol physical connection between the two coils. The
principle of mutual inductance is used to obtain
power. Abbreviated as T.
Earth/Ground Used in electronic circuits to represent the 0
volts of the power supply. It can also be defined
Earth Circuit Symbol as the real earth , when it is applied in radio
circuits and power circuits.
Meters
Voltmeter
Voltmeter is used to measure the voltage at a
certain point in the circuit.
Voltmeter Circuit Symbol

Ammeter An Ammeter is used to measure the current that

passes through the circuit at a particular point.

Ammeter Circuit Symbol

Galvanometer A galvanometer is used to measure very small

currents in the order of 1 milli ampere or less.
 Galvanometer Circuit Symbol

Ohmmeter
Resistance of the circuit is measured using an
Ohmmeter.
Ohmmeter Circuit Symbol

Oscilloscope An oscilloscope is used to measure the voltage

and time period of signals along with their shape
display.
Oscilloscope Circuit Symbol

Sensors
Light It is abbreviated as LDR. Light Dependent
Dependent Resistor is used to convert light into its
Resistor corresponding resistance. Instead of directly
(LDR) LDR Circuit Symbol measuring the light, it senses the heat content
and converts it onto resistance.
Thermistor Instead of directly measuring the light, a
thermistor senses the heat content and converts
it into resistance. Abbreviated as TH.
Thermistor Circuit Symbol

Switches
Push
Switch This is an ordinary switch that passes current only
upon pressing.
Push Switch Circuit Symbol

Push to
Break The push to break switch is usually kept in the ON
Switch state (closed). It turns to OFF state (open) only
Push to Break Switch Circuit Symbol when the switch is pressed.
Singe Pole
Single Also known as the ON/OFF switch. This switch
Throw allows the flow of current only when it is kept ON.
Switch On Off Switch (SPST) Circuit Symbol Abbreviated as SPST.
Single Pole Also known as the 2-way switch. It can be also
Double called as an ON/OFF/ON switch as it has an OFF
Throw position in the center. The switch causes the flow
 2-Way Switch (SPDT) Circuit Symbol
Switch of current in two directions, depending on its
position. It can be abbreviated as SPDT.
Double Abbreviated as DPST. Can also be called as a dual
Pole Single ON-OFF switch. This is used to isolate between
Throw the live and neutral connections in the main
Switch Dual On-Off Switch (DPST) Circuit electrical line.
Symbol

Double Abbreviated as DPDT. The switch uses a central

Pole OFF position and is applied as reversing switch for
Double motors.
Throw
Switch DPDT Circuit Symbol

Relay
Relay is abbreviated as RY. This device can
easily switch a 230 Volt AC mains circuit. It has
three switching stages called Normally Open (NO).
Relay Circuit Symbol Normally Closed (NC), and Common (COM).

Output Devices
Lighting This is used to provide light for the output.
Lamp

Lamp Circuit Symbol

Indicator Used to convert electrical energy into light. The best

Lamp example is the warning light on a car dashboard.

Lamp Indiator Circuit Symbol

Heater This transducer is used to change electrical energy

into heat.
Heater Circuit Symbol

Inductor Inductor is used to produce a magnetic field when a

certain current is passed through a coil of wire. The
Inductor Circuit Symbol wire is coiled on a soft iron core. Have applications
in motors, and tank circuits. Abbreviated as L.
Motor This device is used to convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy. Can be used as a generator as
well. Abbreviated as M.
Motor Circuit Symbol

Bell Used to produce a sound as the output, according to

the electrical energy produced as the input.

Bell Circuit Symbol

Buzzer It is used to produce an output sound corresponding

to the electrical energy in the input.

Buzzer Circuit Symbol

ACCESSORIES
1.Lamp Holders
A lamp holder is used to hold the lamp required for lighting purposes.
2.Lamp Holder Adopter
It is used for tapping temporary power for small portable electric appliances from lamp holders. Such a practice is
not advised.
3.Ceiling Roses
It is an end point of an electrical wire, which provides a cover to the wire end. These are used to
provide a tapping to the lamp holder through the flexible wire or a connection to a fluorescent
tube or a ceiling fan. It consists of a circular base and a cover made of bakelite. One end of the
plates is connected to supply and the other end to a flexible wire connected to appliances.
4.Mounting Blocks
These are nothing but wooden round blocks. They are used in conjunction with ceiling roses, batten holder, surface
switches, ceiling switches, etc
5.Socket Outlets
It is a wiring accessory to which electrical appliances are connected for power supply. These have insulated base
with molded or socket base having three terminal sleeves. The two thin terminal sleeves are meant for making
connection to the load circuit wires and the third terminal sleeve ,larger in cross section, is used for an earth
connection.
6.Plugs
These are used for tapping power from socket outlets. Two-pin plugs and three-pin plugs are commonly available.
7.Main Switch
This is used at the consumers premises so that he may have self-control of the entire distribution circuit. This switch
is a master control of all the wiring circuit made in the building. The different classifications are double poled and
triple poled switches.
8.Distribution Fuse Boards
In industries or in very big buildings, where a number of circuits are to be wired, distribution fuse boards are used.
They are usually iron clad and are designed with a large space for wiring and splitting the circuits. The fuse bank in
the distribution board can easily be removed.
9.Earthing
When a wire is connected from the ground to the outer metal casing of the electrical appliances, then it attain zero
potential and the appliance is said to be earthed and this process is known as earthing.
10.Purpose of Earthing
Under normal condition, there is no electrical potential is available in the outer metal casing of the electrical
appliances. When some fault develops in the appliances, then electrical potential leaked to the metal casing causes
heavy current flow due to earthing. This heavy current blows the fuse and cutoff electrical supply to the
appliances.Thus earthing provides protection to human being and electrical appliances.
TOOLS:
1. Cutting Pliers
They are used to cut the wires, nipping by hand and twisting the wires and also to hold them. Long nose pliers are
used to hold the wires in small space and also to tighten and loosen small nuts.
2. Screw Driver
They are used to drive and tighten screws into pointed holes in the switches and electrical machines. They are
generally insulated.
3. Line Tester
It is used to check the electric supply in the line or phase wire. It has a small neon bulb, which indicates the presence
of power supply. It can also be used as a screw driver.
4. Knife
It is generally used for removing the insulation from the wire. The closing type knife is always preferred.
5. Soldering Rod
It is used for soldering wires to small joints with solder. It consists of pointed oval Cu bit fixed to an iron rod, which
is heated by an electric element only.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
1.While work on electrical installations, wear always rubber shoes and avoid loose shirting.
2.Do not work on live circuits, if unavoidable use rubber gloves, rubber mats etc
3.Use wooden or PVC insulated handle screwdrivers when working on electric circuits.
4.Do not touch bare conductors
5.Replace or remove fuses only after switching OFF the circuit switches.
6.Never extend wiring by using temporary wiring.
7.Stand or rubber mats while working or operating switch panels,control gears etc.
8.Always use safety belts while working on poles or high rise points.
9.Do not connect earthing to the water pipe lines.
10.Only skilled persons should do electric work.
11.Wear all the protective clothing and use all the necessary safety equipment.
12.In case of any person suffered by electrical shook and if the victim is still in contact with the supply, break the
contact either by switching off or by removing the plug or pulling the cable free.
13.Do not give an unconscious person anything to eat or drink and do not leave an unconscious person unattended.
14.First restore the normal breathing to the victim and ensure that the patient can breathe normally unaided. Then
we can render other first aids.
WIRING DIAGRAM
Wiring is the method of drawing or laying wires or cables and connecting accessories and
fittings for the purpose of distributing electrical power to the various points or equipments from
the mains.
Durability
Safety
Mechanical Protection
Appearance
Environmental Conditions
Accessibility
RESULT
Thus a study on the various types of accessories, tools used in house wiring and safety precautions for
electrical engineering practice was performed
RESIDENTIAL HOUSE WIRING USING SWITCHES,FUSE,INDICATOR,LAMP AND
ENERGY METER
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
LAYOUT DIAGRAM
AIM
To construct house wiring using switches,fuse,indicator,lamp and energy meter.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
S.NO APPARATUS RANGE QUANTITY

1 Energy meter 240V,(5-10)A, 1

2 Fuse 5A 1

3 Indicator - 1

4 Switches 5A 3

5 Lamp 60W 3

THEORY:
Any Conductor which is composed of a conducting material and is uniform in diameter
and circular in cross section is called wire.A cable consists of three main parts Conductor,
Insulation Covering and Protective Covering.There are various types of wires are Vulcanized
Insulation rubber (VIR) wires,Cab Type Sheathed(CTS),Poly Vinyl Chloride(PVC)
wires,Flexible wires etc.. out of these for house hold applications PVC wires are used.
Switch
A switch is used to make or break an electric circuit. Under some abnormal conditions it must retain its rigidity and
keep its alignment between switchblades and contacts correct to a fraction of centimeter.
Fuse
A fuse is a protective device, which is connected such that the current flowing through the protected circuit also
flows through the fuse. There is a resistive link inside the fuse body that heats or melts up when current flows
through it. If the current is beyond the permissible limit, the resistive link burns open, which stops all current to flow
in the circuit. At this condition we say that the fuse is blown.
Indicator:
A test light, test lamp, voltage tester, or mains tester is a simple piece ofelectronic test
equipment used to determine the presence or absence of an electricvoltage in a piece of equipment
under test.
Lamp:
An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is anelectric
light which produces light with a wire filament heated to a high temperature by an electric current
passing through it, until it glows (see Incandescence).
Energy Meter:
Induction type energy meters are most commonly form of an A. c. KWh meter used to measure
the energy consumed in any a.c. circuit in a prescribed period when supply voltage and
frequency are constant, in day today life & in industrial installation. Energy meter is an
integrating instrument which measure the total quantity of electrical energy supplied to the
circuit in a given period. These meters measure electrical energy in Kilowatt hours.

PRECAUTIONS:
The Circuit should be checked by series test lamp.
Bare portion of the conductor should not come out of the terminal and the
insulation of the conductor should keep up to the end of the terminal.
All the connections should be tight.
All the switches should be connected in positive wire.
Always keep the live wires on the right hand side.
PROCEDURE:
(i) Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
(ii) Switch ON the AC supply
(iii) The power supply supply is given to the circuit and the bulb was being made to
glow by operating the switch.
RESULT:
Thus the wiring of one bulb connecting one way switch was construct and output was
verified successfully.

ONE LAMP CONTROLLED BY ONE WAY SWITCH

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
LAYOUT DIAGRAM
AIM:
To Construct the wiring for one lamp controlled by one way switch.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO APPARATUS APPARATUS QUANTITY

1 Screw Drive Bulb Holder 1

2 Incandescent bulb Tester 1

3 One way switch Cutting plane 1

4 Insulation tap wire few

5 Lamp Lamp Holder 1

THEORY:
A Network of cable connecting various electrical accessories for distribution of electrical
energy from the meter board to the various consuming devices such as lamps,fans,T.Vs etc
through controlling a safety is known as wiring system.Generally conduit wiring system consists
of either VIR or PVC cables taken through tubes or pipes and terminated at the outlets or
switches.The tube or pipe is known as conduit.Conduit wiring may run over the surface of the
walls and ceiling or may be concealed under masonry work.Nowadays PVC conduits are
increasingly being used in place of steel conduits.PVC conduits are less expensive and are
resistant to acids,alkalis,oil and moisture.The lamp circuits used for house wiring are generally
controlled by one switch.The neutral cable is directly given to the lamp where as the phase cable
is directly given to the lamp through a switch.
PRECAUTIONS
PROCEDURE
RESULT
FLUORESCENT LAMP WIRING
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
LAYOUT DIAGRAM
AIM:
 To Construct a tubelight wiring using the given fluorescent bulb.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO APPARATUS APPARATUS QUANTITY

1 Tester Choke 1

2 Electrician Knife Starter 1

3 Wire Cutter Tube light holder (Frame) 1

4 Screw Driver Tube light 1

5 Combination Plier Connecting Wires few

THEORY
PRECAUTIONS
PROCEDURE:
The fluorescent tubes are usually available in lengths of 0.61 m and 1.22m.The various
parts of fluorescent tube include.1).Glass tube 2).Starter 3).Choke 4).Fluorescent materials
5).Filaments. The inside surface of the fluorescent tube is coated with a thin layer of fluorescent
material in the form of powder.The tube also contains low pressure argon gas and one or two
drops of mercury.The two filaments are coated with electron emissive material.The starter
(initially in closed position) puts the filaments directly across the supply mains at the time of
starting,there by initiating emission of electrons.After 1 or 2 seconds the starter switch gets
opened.The interruption of current makes the choke to act like ballast providing a voltage
impulse across the filaments.Due to this ionization of argon takes place.Mercury vapour arc
provides a conducting path between the filaments.The starter used may be of thermal starter or
glow starter whose function is to complete the circuit initially for preheating the filaments (to
initiate emission of electrons) and then to open the circuit for high voltage across choke for
initiating ionization.

RESULT:
Thus the fluorescent lamp circuit connection was given and studied.
STAIRCASE WIRING
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
LAYOUT DIAGRAM
AIM:
To construct and control the status of lamp using two way switch by staircase wiring.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO APPARATUS APPARATUS QUANTITY

1 Tester Two way switches 1

2 Electrician Knife Lamp 2

3 Wire Cutter Lamp holder 1

4 Screw Driver 1

5 Combination Plier Connecting Wires few

THEORY:
To control ON and OFF at the steps
An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is anelectric
light which produces light with a wire filament heated to a high temperature by an electric
current passing through it, until it glows (see Incandescence). The hot filament is protected from
oxidation with a glass or quartz bulb that is filled with inert gas or evacuated. In a halogen lamp,
filament evaporation is prevented by a chemical process that redeposits metal vapor onto the
filament, extending its life. The light bulb is supplied with electrical current by feed-through
terminals or wires embedded in the glass. Most bulbs are used in a socket which provides
mechanical support and electrical connections.

PRECAUTIONS:
The circuit should be checked by series test lamp
Ensure that the power is switched off on or before the connection are being made.
Make sure that the fuse is connected in phase.
All the connections should be tight and the switches should be constructed in
positive wire.
Always keep the live wires on the right hand side.
PROCEDURE
RESULT:
Thus the stair case wiring was constructed and output was verified.
MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES- VOLTAGE,CURRENT,POWER
AND POWER FACTOR IN RLC CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULATION
CALCULATION
AIM:
To measure the Power consumed by a Single Phase Resistive Load by using Wattmeter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO APPARATUS RANGE QUANTITY

1 Ammeter (0-10A)MI 1

2 Voltmeter (0-300V)MI 1

3 Wattmeter 300V,10A,UPF 1

4 Single phase resistive load 3KW,230V 1

5 Inductor - 1

6 Autotransformer 230V/(0-270)V 1

7 Connecting wires - few

THEORY:
The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or the supply rate
of electrical energy) in watts of any given circuit. Electromagnetic wattmeters are used for
measurement of utility frequency and audio frequency power; other types are required for radio
frequency measurements. A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical
potential difference between two points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer
across a scale in proportion to the voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical
display of voltage by use of an analog to digital converter. An ammeter is a measuring
instrument used to measure the electric current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured
in amperes (A), hence the name. Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the
milliampere or microampere range, are designated as milliammeters or microammeters.
The power factor of an AC electrical power system is defined as the ratio of the real
power flowing to the load, to the apparent power in the circuit,and is a dimensionless number in
the closed interval of -1 to 1. Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a
particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to
energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the
wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power will be greater than the real
power. A negative power factor occurs when the device (which is normally the load) generates
power, which then flows back towards the device which is normally considered the generator.

FORMULA USED

Multiplication Factor =
Actual Power in Watts = Observed Reading Multiplication Factor
Power P = VIcos in watts

Power factor cos =

PRECAUTIONS:
Single phase variac should be kept at minimum position,during starting period.
No load should be connected when the DPSTS is closed or opened.
PROCEDURE:
The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
Rated voltage is set in the voltmeter by gradually varying the single phase variac.
Resistive load is Switch ON.
Load is gradually increased and the ammeter,voltmeter and wattmeter readings
are noted.
RESULT:
Thus the Power consumed by a single phase resistive load was measured.
MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY USING SINGLE PHASE ENERGY METER
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULATION
CALCULATION
AIM:
To measure the Energy consumed by a Single Phase Resistive Load by using Single
phase Energy Meter.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.NO APPARATUS RANGE QUANTITY

1 Ammeter (0-10A)MI 1

2 Voltmeter (0-300V)MI 1

3 Single phase Energy Meter - 1

4 Single phase resistive load 3KW,230V 1

5 Stop Watch - 1

6 Autotransformer 230V/(0-270)V 1

7 Connecting wires - few

THEORY:
An electricity meter, electric meter, or energy meter is a device that measures the amount of electric
energy consumed by a residence, business, or an electrically powered device. Energy meter is an instrument
which is used to measure the consumption of electric energy in a circuit (DC or AC). It measures energy
in kWh. The essential difference between a energy meter and a wattmeter is that the former is fitted with
some type of registration mechanism where by all the instantaneous readings of power are summed over a
definite period of time whereas the latter indicates the value at particular instant when it is read.

An autotransformer (auto step down transformer) is an electrical transformer with only

one winding. In an autotransformer, portions of the same winding act as both the primary and
secondary sides of the transformer. The winding has at least threetaps where electrical
connections are made. Autotransformers are often used to step up or step down voltages in the
110-115-120 V range and voltages in the 220-230-240 volt range
FORMULA USED

Actual Energy in KWh =
Power in Watts = Voltage in volts Current in Amperes

True Energy in KWh =

%Error = 100

PRECAUTIONS:
Single phase variac should be kept at minimum position,during starting period.
No load should be connected when the DPSTS is closed or opened.
PROCEDURE:
 The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
Rated voltage is set in the voltmeter by gradually varying the single phase variac.
Resistive load is Switch ON.
Load is gradually increased and the ammeter,voltmeter and Energy meter
readings are noted.
RESULT:
Thus the Energy consumed by a single phase resistive load was measured.
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE TO EARTH OF AN ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
BLOCK DIAGRAM

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
TABULATION:
S.No Distance Between Electrode(Feet) Resistance(Ohms)

CALCULATION
AIM:
To measure the earth resistance using megger.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No Components Quantity

1 Megger 12 Rod 2

2 Transformer -
3 Fuse-15A 1 No
4 Connecting Wires Few
THEORY:

Megger is Insulation resistance quality of an electrical system degrades with time, environment
condition i.e. temperature, humidity, moisture & dust particles. It also get impacted negatively
due to the presence of electrical & mechanical stress, so its become very necessary to check the
IR (Insulation resistance) of equipment at a constant regular interval to avoid any measure fatal
or electrical shock.

Uses of Megger is The device enable us to measure electrical leakage in wire, results are very
reliable as we shall be passing electric current through device while we are testing. The
equipment basically use for verifying the electrical insulation level of any device such as motor,
cable, generator winding, etc. This is a very poplar test being carried out since very long back.
Not necessary it shows us exact area of electrical puncture but shows the amount of
leakagecurrent & level of moisture within electrical equipment/winding/system.

Types of Megger is 1. Electronic Type ( Battery Operated)

2. Manual Type (Hand Operated)
3. another types of megger which is motor operated type which does not use battery to
produce voltage it requires external source to rotate a electrical motor which in turn rotates the
generator of the megger.
Earthing means generally connected to the mass of the earth. It shall be in such a means as to ensure at all
times an immediate & safe discharge of electric current due to leakage, fault etc. All metallic parts of every
electrical insulation such as conduit, metallic sheathing, metallic panels, motor, gear, Transformer regulator shall be
earthed using continuous bus wire if one earth bus for installation is found impracticable move than one earthing
system shall be introduced the earthing conductors when taken outdoors to the earthing point, shall be incased in
pipe securely supported and continued up to point not less than0.3m below the ground. No joints are permitted in
earth bus whenever there is lighting conductors system installed in a building. Its earthing shall not be bonded to
the earthing of electric installation. Before the electric supply on apparatus is energized all earthing system shall be
tested for electrical resistance to ensure efficient earthing. It shall not be more than 2ohms including the ohmic
value of earth electrode.

PRECAUTIONS:
DPST Switch should be kept open
Megger should read zero value.
All equipment under test MUST be disconnected and isolated.
Equipment should be discharged (shunted or shorted out) for at least as long as the test voltage
was applied in order to be absolutely safe for the person conducting the test.
 Never use Megger in an explosive atmosphere.
Make sure all switches are blocked out and cable ends marked properly for safety.
Cable ends to be isolated shall be disconnected from the supply and protected from contact to
supply, or ground, or accidental contact.
Erection of safety barriers with warning signs, and an open communication channel between
testing personnel.
Do not megger when humidity is more than 70 %.
Good Insulation: Megger reading increases first then remain constant.
Bad Insulation: Megger reading increases first and then decreases.
Expected IR value gets on Temp. 20 to 30 decree centigrade.
If above temperature reduces by 10 degree centigrade, IR values will increased by two times.
If above temperature increased by 70 degree centigrade IR values decreases by 700 times.

PROCEDURE:
Collect the materials required for this experiment.
The terminal of ohmmeter E is first connected to earth.
The two earth rods are fixed to feet away from the ohmmeter. So that they are triangle with base
50 feet.
The wires are connected to each rod and the ohmmeter terminals are shown.

The ohmmeter is ranked and the readings are taken.

1.CURRENT ELECTRODE
2.POTENTIAL ELECTRODE
3.EARTH

FORMULA USED:

Selection of IR Testers (Megger):

Insulation testers with test voltage of 500, 1000, 2500 and 5000 V are available. The
recommended ratings of the insulation testers are given below:

Voltage Level IR Tester

650V 500V DC
1.1KV 1KV DC
3.3KV 2.5KV DC
66Kv and Above 5KV DC
When AC Voltage is used, The Rule of Thumb is:
Test Voltage (A.C) = (2X Name Plate Voltage) +1000.
When DC Voltage is used (Most used in All Megger)
Test Voltage (D.C) = (2X Name Plate Voltage).

Equipment / Cable Rating DC Test Voltage

24V To 50V 50V To 100V
50V To 100V 100V To 250V
100V To 240V 250V To 500V
440V To 550V 500V To 1000V
2400V 1000V To 2500V
4100V 1000V To 5000V

Measurement Range of Megger:

Test voltage Measurement Range

250V DC 0M to 250G
500V DC 0M to 500G
1KV DC 0M to 1T
2.5KV DC 0M to 2.5T
5KV DC 0M to 5T

RESULT:
Thus the earth resistance was measured in the given area.

CALIBRATION OF AMMETER
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULATION
CALCULATION
AIM
APPARATUS REQUIRED
THEORY
PRECAUTIONS
PROCEDURE
FORMULA USED
RESULT

CALIBRATION OF VOLTMETER
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
TABULATION
CALCULATION
AIM
APPARATUS REQUIRED
THEORY
PRECAUTIONS
PROCEDURE
FORMULA USED
RESULT

Aim:
To study Full- Wave Rectifier.
To find its:

1. Percentage Regulation
2. Ripple Factor
3. Efficiency

Components:
 Name Quantity

Diodes 1N4007(Si) 1

Resistor 1K 1

Capacitor 1000F 1
Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

CRO 0-20 MHz 1

Multimeter 1

Transformer 220V/9V, 50Hz 1

Connecting Wires
Theory:
The conversion of AC into DC is called Rectification. Electronic Devices can convert AC power
into DC power with high efficiency.
The full-wave rectifier consists of a center-tap transformer, which results in equal voltages above
and below the center-tap. During the positive half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode
of D1 while a negative voltage appears at the anode of D2. Due to this diode D1 is forward
biased it results in a current Id1 through the load R.
During the negative half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D2 and hence it is
forward biased. Resulting in a current Id2 through the load at the same instant a negative voltage
appears at the anode of D1 thus reverse biasing it and hence it doesnt conduct.
Ripple Factor:
Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of the effective value of AC components to the average DC
value. It is denoted by the symbol ' '.

Rectification Factor:
The ratio of output DC power to input Ac power is defined as efficiency.

, = 81%(if R >> Rf, then Rf can be neglected).

Percentage of Regulation:
It is a measure of the variation of AC output voltage as a function of DC output voltage.

Percentage of regulation = %
VNL = Voltage across load resistance, when minimum current flows through it.
VFL = Voltage across load resistance, when maximum current flows through.
For an ideal full wave rectifier, the percentage regulation is 0 percent. The percentage of
regulation is very small for a practical full wave rectifier.
Peak- Inverse Voltage (PIV):
It is the maximum voltage that has to be with stood by a diode when it is reverse biased
PIV = 2Vm
Advantages of Full wave Rectifier:

1. is reduced.
2. is improved.

Disadvantages of Full wave Rectifier:

1. Output voltage is half the secondary voltage.

2. Diodes with high PIV rating are used.

Manufacturing of the center-tapped transformer is quite expensive and so Full wave rectifier
with center-tapped transformer is costly.
Circuit Diagram:
Half Wave Rectifier (without filter):
Half Wave Rectifier (with filter):

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to AC mains and the secondary side to
rectifier input.
3. Using a CRO, measure the AC input voltage of the rectifier, AC and DC voltage at the
output of the rectifier.
4. Observe the Waveforms at the secondary windings of transformer and across load
resistance.

Calculations:

1. Ripple Factor
2. Ripple factor with filter is

3. Percentage Regulation = %
Expected Waveforms:

Result:
Full Wave rectifier characteristics are studied.

Viva Questions:
1. What is filter ?
Ans: Electronic filters are electronic circuits which perform signal processing functions,
specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal.
2. Give some rectifications technologies?
Ans: Synchronous rectifier, Vibrator, Motor-generator set , Electrolytic ,Mercury arc, and Argon
gas electron tube.
3. What is the efficiency of bridge rectifier?

Ans: %
4. PIV center tapped FWR?
Ans: 2Vm.
5. In filters capacitor is always connected in parallel, why?
Ans: Capacitor allows AC and blocks DC signal.in rectifier for converting AC to DC, capacitor
placed in parallel with output, where output is capacitor blocked voltage.If capacitance value
increases its capacity also increases which increases efficiency of rectifier.
Aim:
To study Half- Wave Rectifier.
To find its:

1. Percentage Regulation
2. Ripple Factor
3. Efficiency

Components:

Name Quantity

Diodes1N4007(Si) 1

Resistor 1K 1

Capacitor 100F 1
Equipment:

Name Range Quantity

CRO 0-20MHz 1
 Name Range Quantity

Multimeter 1

Transformer 220V/9V, 50Hz 1

Connecting Wires
Theory:
The conversion of AC into DC is called Rectification. Electronic Devices can convert AC power
into DC power with high efficiency.
Consider the given circuit. Assume the diode to be ideal i.e., Vf = 0, Rr = Infinite, Rs = 0. During
the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and it conducts and hence a current flows
through the load resistor. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it is
equivalent to an open circuit, hence the current through the load resistance is zero. Thus the
diode conducts only for one half cycle and results in a half wave rectified output.
Theoretical calculations for Ripple Factor:
Without Filter:
Vrms= Vm/2
Vdc= Vm/

Ripple factor =
With Filter:

Ripple Factor
Where
f = 50Hz
R = 1K
Percentage of Regulation:
It is a measure of the variation of AC output voltage as a function of DC output voltage.

Percentage of regulation %
VNL = Voltage across load resistance, when minimum current flows through it.
VFL = Voltage across load resistance, when maximum current flows through.
For an ideal half-wave rectifier, the percentage regulation is 0 percent. For a practical half-wave
rectifier.

Converting Idc into its corresponding Im value and substituting in the percentage of regulation
formula we get.

Percentage of regulation %
Since Rf + R is small as compared to RL. The percentage of regulation is very small for half-
wave rectifier.
Circuit Diagram:
Half Wave Rectifier (without filter):

Half Wave Rectifier (with filter):

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to AC mains and the secondary side to
rectifier input.
3. Using a CRO, measure the AC input voltage of the rectifier, AC and DC voltage at the
output of the rectifier.
4. Observe the Waveforms at the secondary windings of transformer and across load
resistance.

Calculations:

Ripple Factor

Ripple Factor with filter

Percentage Regulation %
Expected Waveforms:
Result:
Half Wave rectifier characteristics with and without filter are studied.

Viva Questions:
1. What is a rectifier?
Ans: A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification.
2. What is a ripple factor?
Ans: Ripple factor can be defined as the variation of the amplitude of DC (Direct current) due to
improper filtering of AC power supply. it can be measured by RF = vrms / vdc
3. What is efficiency?
Ans: Rectifier efficiency is the ratio of the DC output power to the AC input power.
4. What is PIV?
Ans: The peak inverse voltage is either the specified maximum voltage that a diode rectifier can
block, or, alternatively, the maximum that a rectifier needs to block in a given application.
5. What are the applications of rectifier?
Ans: The primary application of rectifiers is to derive DC power from an AC supply. Virtually
all electronic devices require DC, so rectifiers are used inside the power supplies of virtually all
electronic equipment. Rectifiers are also used for detection of amplitude modulated radio signals.
ectifiers are used to supply polarised voltage for welding.

STUDY OF BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTS

AIM:
To study the various electronic components and equipments.

THEORY:
ELECTRONICS:
It is the branch of science which relates to the conduction of electricity through vaccum,gases
and semiconductors.The electronic devices are fairly complex,they are made of simple components
such as Resistors,capacitors and inductors come under passive components and tube devices and
semi-conductor devices fall under active components.
COMPONENTS:
PASSIVE COMPONENTS:
RESISTANCE
Resistance by definition is the opposition to free flow or motion of any substance. The
exact term is electrical resistance which we commonly refer to as resistance. The
electrical resistance of a material is the opposition to free flow of electrons inside that
material. Electrical resistance vary with different materials and it is measured in units of
Ohms.
Electronic Circuit Symbol Description
Component
Resistor A resistor is used to restrict the amount of
current flow through a device. Resistors are 2
Resistor Circuit Symbol terminal passive components. They are
basically of 2 types 1) Fixed Resistor
and 2) Variable Resistors
Rheostat A rheostat is used to control the current flow
with two contacts. Applicable in controlling
Rheostat Circuit Symbol lamp brightness, capacitor charge rate, etc.

Potentiometer A potentiometer is used to control the

Potentiometer Circuit Symbol
Preset
Preset Circuit Symbol
voltage flow and has three contacts. Have
applications in changing a mechanical angle
change to an electrical parameter. Abbreviated
as POT.
Presets are low cost variable resistors that are
used to control the charge flow with the help of
a screw driver. Applications where the
resistance is determined only at the end of the
circuit design.

CAPACITORS:
CAPACITANCE
Capacitance is the ability of a body to store an electrical charge. Any object that can be electrically
charged exhibits capacitance. A common form of energy storage device is a parallel-plate capacitor
.
Electronic Circuit Symbol Description
Component
Capacitor Capacitor is a device that is used to store
electrical energy. It consists of two metals
Capacitor Circuit Symbol plates that are separated by a dielectric. It is
applicable as a filter, that is, to block DC
signals and allow AC signals. Its unit is farad.
Capacitor - Capacitor can be used in a timer circuit by
Polarized adding a resistor.
Capacitor-Polarised Circuit Symbol

Variable Used to vary the capacitance by turning the

Capacitor knob. A type of variable capacitor is the
Variable Capacitor Circuit Symbol trimmer capacitor that is small in size. The
notations are all the same.

TYPESOF CAPACITORS:
1) Fixed Capacitors
Fixed Capacitors are classified into several types depending upon the dielectric material
used.Some of them are
Paper capacitors
Film capacitors
Mica capacitors
Glass capacitors
Ceramic capacitors
Tantalum capacitors
2)Variable Capacitors
Variable capacitors consist of a set of movable plates with air as dielectric.The change of
capacitance is obtained by changing the position of the moving plates with respect to fixed
plates. Used to vary the capacitance by turning the knob. A type of variable capacitor is
the trimmer capacitor that is small in size.
Trimmer capacitors
Ceramic trimmer capacitors
Mica trimming capacitors

INDUCTOR
 An inductor is a passive electronic component that storesenergy in the form of a magnetic field.
In its simplest form, an inductor consistsof a wire loop or coil. The inductance is directly proportional to
the number ofturns in the coil. Inductance also depends on the radius of the coil and on the type of
material around which the coil is wound. an inductor can be defined as an energy storage device
which stores energy in form of magnetic field.

INDUCTANCE
Inductance is one of the basic factors that affect electrical circuits.Any wire or coil has a
certain inductance associated with it which is caused by the magnetic field that is set up when the
current flows.Energy is stored in the field,and action of the coil is to exhibit a resistance to change of
the current flow within the conductor or coil. If a changing flux is linked with a coil of a conductor
there would be an emf induced in it. The property of the coil of inducing emf due to the changing flux
linked with it is known as inductance of the coil. Due to this property all electrical coil can be referred
as inductor.
TYPES
1) Fixed Inductors
Air core inductor
Iron core inductor
Ferrite core inductor
2) Variable Inductors
ACTIVE COMPONENTS
DIODES
Electronic Circuit Symbol Description
Component
Diode A diode is used to allow electric current to
flow in only one direction. Abbreviated as D.
Diode Circuit Symbol

Light Emitting LED is used to emit light when a current is

Diode (LED) passed through the device. It is abbreviated
LED Circuit Symbol
as LED.

Zener Diode After a breakdown voltage, the device allows

current to flow in the reverse direction as
Zener Diode Circuit Symbol
well. It is abbreviated as Z.
Photo Diode Photodiode works as a photo-detector and
converts light into its corresponding voltage
Photo Diode Circuit Symbol
or current.

Tunnel Diode Tunnel Diode is known for its high-speed

operation due to its application in quantum
Tunnel Diode Circuit Symbol
mechanical effects.

Schottky Diode The Schottky Diode is known for its large

forward voltage drop and hence has great
Schottky Diode Circuit Symbol
applications in switching circuits.

Transistor
Electronic Circuit Symbol Description
Component
NPN Transistor
This is a transistor with a layer of P-doped
semiconductor fixed between two layers of
N-doped semiconductors that act as the
Transistor NPN Circuit Symbol emitter and collector. Abbreviated as Q.

PNP Transistor
This is a transistor with a layer of N-doped
semiconductor fixed between two layers of
P-doped semiconductors that act as the
Transistor PNP Circuit Symbol emitter and collector. Abbreviated as Q.

Phototransistor
The working of a phototransistoris
similar to that of a bipolar transistor with a
difference that it converts light into its
Phototransistor Circuit Symbol corresponding current. The phototransistor
can also act as a photodiode if the emitter is
not connected.
Field Effect Like a transistor, a FET has three terminals,
Transistor the Gate, Source and Drain. The device has
an electric field that controls the
 Field Effect Transistor Circuit Symbol
conductivity of a channel of one type charge
carrier in a semiconductor substance.
N-Channel The Junction Field Effect Transistor
Junction FET (JFET) is the simplest type of FET with
applications in Switching and voltage
n-channel Junction Field Effect variable resistor. In an N-channel JFET an
Transistor (JFET) Circuit Symbol
N-type silicon bar has two smaller pieces of
P-type silicon material diffused on each
sides of its middle part, forming P-N
junctions.
P-Channel P-channel JFET is similar in construction to
Junction FET N-channel JFET except that P-type
semiconductor base is sandwiched between
p-channel Junction Field Effect two N-type junctions. In this case majority
Transistor (FET) Circuit Symbol
carriers are holes.
Metal Oxide Given Below Abbreviated as MOSFET. MOSFET is a
Semiconductor three terminal device and is controlled by a
FET gate bias. It is known for its low capacitance
and low input impedance.
Enhancement
MOSFET The enhancement MOSFET structure has no
channel formed during its construction.
Voltage is applied to the gate, so as to
develop a channel of charge carriers so that
e-MOSFET Circuit Symbol a current results when a voltage is applied
across the drain-source terminals.
Abbreviated as e-MOSFET.
Depletion
MOSFET In the depletion-mode construction a
channel is physically constructed and a
current between drain and source is due to
voltage applied across the drain-source
d-MOSFET Circuit Symbol terminals. Abbreviated as d-MOSFET.

Audio and Radio Devices

Electronic Circuit Symbol Description
Component
Microphone This device is used for converting sound to its
corresponding electrical energy. Abbreviated
as MIC.
Microphone Circuit Symbol

Earphone Does the reverse process of microphone and

converts electrical energy into sound.

Earphone Circuit Symbol

Loudspeaker Does the same operation as an earphone, but

converts an amplified version of the electrical
energy into its corresponding sound.
Loudspeaker Circuit Symbol

Piezo- It is a transducer that converts electrical

Transducer energy into sound.
PiezoTransducer Circuit Symbol

Amplifier Used to amplify a signal. It is mainly used to

represent a whole circuit rather than just one
Amplifier Circuit Symbol
component.

Aerial This device is used to transmit/receive

signals.
Aerial Circuit Symbol

EQUIPMENTS

1)CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

2)MULTIMETER

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is anelectronic measuring

instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter would
include basic features such as the ability to measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog
multimeters use amicroammeter whose pointer moves over a scale calibrated for all the different
measurements that can be made. Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM) display the measured value
in numerals, and may also display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured.

RESULT:
Thus the study of basic electronic components and equipments have been studied.

Color coding is used in electronics to identify between different components. In the

case of resistors, color coding is used to identify a specific resistance value, for example a
100 ohms resistor or a 1 kilo ohms resistor with 5% tolerance. Electronic components like
resistors are very small in size and its difficult to print its value directly on to the component
surface. Hence a standard was formed in 1920 by then Radio Manufacturers Association
(now part of EIA Electronic Industries Alliance) to identify values and ratings of electronic
components by printing color codes on them. Color coding technique makes it easy to print
values (based on color codes) on small components, such as resistors and facilitates cost
effective manufacturing.
This technique of color coding has 2 disadvantages. The first one appeals to general
users where it becomes difficult to distinguish between colors (for example Red and
Brown ) when the component is over heated. But this is not a major concern as the exact
value can be easily identified using a multimeter (in case of confusion). The next drawback
is for a specific group of people color blind people can not identify the device using color
codes. However they too can depend on multimeter to identify resistance values.
How to Identify Resistor Color Code
The figure below shows the layout of the bands, the multiplier and the tolerance value of a
resistor. For a 6-band resistor, an additional temperature coefficient band is provided.

The gap between the multiplier and the tolerance specifies the left and right side of the
resistor. So here are the key points;
4 band resistor has 3 color bands on left side and one color band on right side. First two
bands represent significant digits, the 3rd band represents multiplier and the fourth band
on right side represents tolerance.
5 band resistor - has 4 color bands on left side and one color band on right side. Here the
first 3 color bands represent significant digits, fourth one represent multiplier and the 5th
one on right side represents tolerance.
6 band resistor has 4 color bands on left side and 2 color bands on right side. Here the
first 3 color bands represents significant digits, fourth one represents multiplier, 5th one
represents tolerance and the 6th one represents temperature coefficient of the resistor.
In a 4-band resistor, the first two bands represent the first two digits of the resistor. The
multiplier band indicates the value that is to be multiplied with the first two digits. The
tolerance band after the multiplier band indicates the range of accuracy of the resistor. It is
represented in units of percentage. In case of 5 band resistor, the decimal multiplier will be
assigned to the fourth band and tolerance value will be assigned to the fifth band. Finally in
case of a 6 band resistor, the last band (i.e 6th band) represents temperature
coefficient. .The sixth temperature coefficient band increases the precision of the resistance
value. Temperature coefficient tells us the behavior of resistor under different heating
conditions (means the variation in resistance values under normal conditions and over
heated conditions)It is defined in units of ppm/K.
Resistor Color Code Chart
We have presented 3 charts below which are exactly resistor color code charts for 4 band,
5 band and 6 band resistors respectively.
4-Band Resistor Color Code Identification
Let us consider the color code for the resistor with the bands BROWN-BLACK-RED-GOLD.
Brown corresponds to the value 1 in the color chart. Black represents 0 and Red
represents the multiplier 100. Thus the value of the resistance to the corresponding color
code is 10*100 = 1000 ohms or 1 kilo ohm with the tolerance band being Gold which
represents a tolerance of +/- 5%. Thus the actual value of the 1 kilo ohm can be between 950
ohms and 1050 ohms.
Band 1 First digit value of resistor
Band 2 Second digit value of resistor
Band 3 Decimal Multiplier
Band 4 Tolerance Value
5-Band Resistor Color Code Identification
Let us consider the color code for the resistor with the bands YELLOW-VIOLET-BLACK-
BROWN-GREY. Yellow corresponds to the value 4 in the color chart. Violet represents 7
and Black represents the value 0. Brown represents the multiplier 10. Thus the value of
the resistance to the corresponding color code is 470*10 = 4700 ohms or 4.7 kilo ohm with
the tolerance band being Grey which represents a tolerance of +/- 0.05%.
Band 1 First digit value of resistor
Band 2 Second digit value of resistor
Band 3 Third digit value of resistor
Band 4 Decimal Multiplier
Band 5 Tolerance Value
6-Band Resistor Color Code Identification
Here also, if we can consider the same color code used for the 5-band, with an additional
temperature coefficient band with a blue color. This shows that the resistor has a value of
4.7 kilo ohms, with tolerance +/- 0.05% and with a temperature coefficient of 10 ppm/K.
Band 1 First digit value of resistor
Band 2 Second digit value of resistor
Band 3 Third digit value of resistor
Band 4 Decimal Multiplier
Band 5 Tolerance Value
Band 6 Temperature Coefficient

Note:- Nowadays with advances in printing technology, its possible to print numeric values
on small components as well. If you look at an SMD resistor (surface mount), you will see
the resistance value printed directly on the surface of the resistor.

FULL WAVE

Theory

A Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage
using both half cycles of the applied ac voltage.

It uses two diodes of which one conducts during one half cycle while the other conducts during
the other half cycle of the applied

ac voltage.
During the positive half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes forward biased and D2
becomes reverse biased. Hence D1 conducts

and D2 remains OFF. The load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be
equal to the input voltage.

During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, diode D1 becomes reverse biased and D2
becomes forward biased. Hence D1 remains

OFF and D2 conducts. The load current flows through D2 and the voltage drop across RL will
be equal to the input voltage.
Ripple Factor
The ripple factor for a Full Wave Rectifier is given by
 The average voltage or the dc voltage available across the load resistance is

RMS value of the voltage at the load resistance is

Efficiency
Efficiency, is the ratio of dc output power to ac input power

The maximum efficiency of a Full Wave Rectifier is 81.2%.

Transformer Utilization Factor
Transformer Utilization Factor, TUF can be used to determine the rating of a transformer
secondary. It is determined by considering

the primary and the secondary winding separately and it gives a value of 0.693.
Form Factor
Form factor is defined as the ratio of the rms value of the output voltage to the average value of
the output voltage.
Peak Factor
Peak factor is defined as the ratio of the peak value of the output voltage to the rms value of the
output voltage.

Peak inverse voltage for Full Wave Rectifier is 2Vm because the entire secondary
voltage appears across the non-conducting diode.

This concludes the explanation of the various factors associated with Full Wave
Rectifier.

HALF WAVE

Theory

The Half wave rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage.

In the Half wave rectifier circuit shown above the transformer serves two purposes.

1. It can be used to obtain the desired level of dc voltage (using step up or step
down transformers).
2. It provides isolation from the power line.

The primary of the transformer is connected to ac supply. This induces an ac voltage

across the secondary of the transformer.

During the positive half cycle of the input voltage the polarity of the voltage across
the secondary forward biases the diode. As a result a

current IL flows through the load resistor, RL. The forward biased diode offers a very
low resistance and hence the voltage
 drop across it is very small. Thus the voltage appearing across the load is practically
the same as the input voltage at every instant.

During the negative half cycle of the input voltage the polarity of the secondary
voltage gets reversed. As a result, the diode is reverse biased.

Practically no current flows through the circuit and almost no voltage is developed
across the resistor. All input voltage appears across the diode

itself.

Hence we conclude that when the input voltage is going through its positive half
cycle, output voltage is almost the same as the input voltage

and during the negative half cycle no voltage is available across the load. This
explains the unidirectional pulsating dc waveform obtained

as output. The process of removing one half the input signal to establish a dc level is
aptly called half wave rectification.

Peak Inverse Voltage

When the input voltage reaches its maximum value Vm during the negative half cycle
the voltage across the diode is also maximum. T

his maximum voltage is known as the peak inverse voltage. Thus for a half wave
rectifier

Let Vi be the voltage to the primary of the transformer. Vi is given by

where Vr is the cut-in voltage of the diode.

Ripple Factor

Ripple factor is defined as the ratio of rms value of ac component to the dc

component in the output.
 Ripple factor

Vav the average or the dc content of the voltage across the load is given by

RMS voltage at the load resistance can be calculated as

Ripple Factor

Efficiency

Efficiency, is the ratio of the dc output power to ac input power

 Thus

Transformer Utilization Factor

Transformer Utilization Factor, TUF can be used to determine the rating of a

transformer secondary.

In half wave rectifier the rated voltage of the transformer secondary is

But actually the RMS current flowing through the winding is only .

Form Factor

Form factor is given by,

Peak Factor
Peak factor is given by,