VOLLEYBALL

1. VOLLEYBALL OVERVIEW:

1) HISTORY: Volleyball was invented in 1895 by William G. Morgan of Holyoke,

Massachusetts, at the Y.M.C.A. gymnasium. It was originally called
"Minnonette" and was designed to give middle-aged businessmen a good
workout. At first there was not even a net, and not until after World War I was
the number of court players reduced from nine to six per team. The game
spread to the Far East through American missionary schools and reached
Western Europe with the arrival of American troops during World War I. In
1947 the Federation Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) was founded in Paris.
World championships, sponsored by the FIVB, began in 1949. Women's
teams began to participate in 1952. Both men's and women's volleyball teams
were first featured in the Olympic Games in 1964.

Some volleyball internationalists contend that their sport's most thrilling

historical moment didn't come on any court, but rather in an International
Olympic Committee (IOC) hall in Sofia, Bulgaria, in 1957. The game had long
sought to be accepted into the Olympic Games. After much stalling, the IOC
overlords agreed to watch an exhibition. "A brilliant game was played with
spikes, volleys and blocks all over the place," wrote an eyewitness. "But
Games Chiefs sat stony faced and reacted not at all to the crowd's roar. We
thought we had just received the kiss of death. Next day, the IOC voted
unanimously to make volleyball an Olympic event at Tokyo in 1964. We were
flabbergasted."

This diving, leaping, net-and-ball team sport caught on around the world after
World War II, with crowds of 60,000 watching some matches. It was really
inevitable that policymakers should include it as part of the Olympics.

2) SYNOPSIS: Volleyball is a game played by two teams of six players each. It

is played on a rectangular court, 18 meters long and 9 meters wide,
separated into two 9-meter squares by a net. The height of the net for men is
8' and for women it is 7' 4 1/4".

The object of the game is to have the ball strike the floor on the opponent's
side of the net on or within the boundary lines. One team serves the ball to
the other team, and the team receiving the serve attempts to re-turn the ball
over the net (a blocked ball does not count as one hit). The right back player
is the server, with players assuming the serving position by rotating in a
clockwise direction. A team only makes points when it serves and the serving
team keeps the serve, with the same person serving, as long as it continues
to score. The opponent, or receiving team, is awarded the opportunity to
VOLLEYBALL 2.

serve when the serving team fails to score. The serve must cross the net
without touching the net or any of the serving team's players. The first team
scoring 15 points, provided there is a two-point advantage, wins the game.
Normally, a match consists of the best two out of three games or three out of
five.

Other basic rules are: after a ball is served all players on a team may play
anywhere on their side of the net; a player may not touch the net or the floor
on the opponent's side of the net, a blocker may reach over the top of the net
but a spiker may not; the ball must be clearly hit and may not visibly come to
rest on a player's body; the ball must be played by some part of the body
above the waist; the ball may not strike the body twice in succession.

3) OTHER BACKGROUND SOURCES:

1. See The Rule Book, pages 404-409, for the best description of the
technicalities of this sport.
2. See the Rand McNally Illustrated Dictionary of Sports, pages 66, 67, for
most basic definitions of this sport's terminology.
3. See Rules of the Game, pages 124, 125, for more good background.
4. See Olympic Access 1984, pages 68, 69, for an emphasis on Volleyball
as an Olympic sport and what to watch for under Olympic rules and
playing conditions.

2. VOLLEYBALL DICTIONARY:

1) See the Rand McNally Illustrated Dictionary of Sports, pages 66, 67, for most
basic definitions of this sport's terminology.
Other Definitions:
1. ATTACK: Any attempt to return the ball across the net from a height
above the net; usually a spike or dink
2. BACK LINE: The end line boundary of the court
3. BACK SET: A set made over the setter's head to a spot behind him.
Usually the set will go to the corner behind him where the net meets the
sideline.
4. BUMP: (See Pass)
5. CENTER LINE: The dividing line of the court, marked on the floor
directly below and parallel to the net
6. COURT: The playing area (30 feet wide by 60 feet long), which is
divided in half by the net.
7. DIVING: Leaping headlong in an attempt to keep the ball from striking
the floor
9. DOUBLE HIT: The act of a player who hits the ball twice in succession.
The act is illegal, EXCEPT in the following instances:
a) when a blocker touches the ball while in the act of blocking and
then plays it again, and
VOLLEYBALL 3.

b) when the ball deflects off two different parts of a player's body after
a hard-driven spike.
10. DOWN DEFENSE: A defensive play in which no blockers are used. All
six players stay down away from the net and prepare to dig any ball hit
over the net. This defense is usually employed in free ball situations, or
in playing hits that come from behind an opponent's ten-foot line.
11. FAST OFFENSE: An offense based on low, quick passes and short sets,
rather than on slower, higher passes and sets
12. FLAT SERVE: Striking the ball near the center to prevent it from
spinning, thus achieving a floating effect. Also called a "floater."
13. GAME: An official game in international competition is played to 15
points, providing the winning team has at least a two-point advantage.
14. HIGH OFFENSE: An offense that uses high sets without much speed or
faking. The offense works well with tall players who jump well.
15. KILL: An attack shot that is not returned by the opponents. Usually a
spike, but can also be a dink.
16. MIDDLE-BLOCKER: A player positioned at the net near center court.
The middle-blocker must anticipate an opponent's set and move quickly
to either side to form a two-man block with his outside hitter-blockers.
17. NET PLAYER: Only three players may attack and/or block. They are
called net players.
18. NON-NET PLAYER: The three back row players are non-net players.
They may, however, attack from behind their own ten-foot line.
19. OFF-HAND: The right side of the court at the net is usually the off-hand
side. Any ball set to the off-hand side of a right-handed hitter must travel
across his body before he hits it. Since a spiker has more power hitting
away from his body, rather than across his body, this is known as an off-
hand spike.
20. ON-HAND: The opposite of the off-hand, or the left side of the court. Any
ball set to the on-hand side of a right-handed hitter will reach his hitting
hand before it crosses his body. Therefore, he can hit the ball with
greater force.
21. ONE-ON-ONE: A situation in which one blocker faces one spiker. Since
the greater advantage would go to the hitter in this instance, blockers try
to team up two-on-one. Forcing a one-on-one situation is helpful to the
offense.
22. OVERHAND SERVE: A serve in which the ball is struck from a point
above the server's head
23. PASS: The initial contact of the ball by a team within its own court. The
object of the pass is to direct the ball to the setter, who in turn attempts
to set the ball up for an attacker.
24. POINT: A point is scored whenever the team that is serving propels the
ball to the floor within their opponent's boundaries.
25. POWER ALLEY: The angle that affords the spiker his most powerful
direction for hitting the ball. Usually this is across-court, from left-to-right
at a 45-degree angle from the net.
VOLLEYBALL 4.

26. RALLY: The continuous action of the ball passing back and forth across
the net
27. READING THE HITTER: Watching the movements of the opposing
spiker and anticipating how and where he will hit the ball
28. RECEIVER: The player making the first contact with an opponent's
serve
29. ROLLING: A technique for cushioning contact with the floor after leaning
to the side to dig a ball
30. ROUNDHOUSE: A flat serve hit with the striking arm fully extended and
brought around to a point above the server's head in a windmill, or
round-house movement. A powerful serve popularized by the Japanese.
31. SERVING ORDER: To establish the serving order of each player, the
coach submits a lineup before each game, which lists all the players in
the order in which the coach wishes them to serve. Players not in the
game when their turn to serve comes up, miss their turn and the next
player in the serving order serves.
32. SET: Usually the second contact of the ball by a team, the objective of
the set is to put the ball in position for a teammate to be able to attack.
33. SHOOT SET: A quick set with a low trajectory
34. SHORT SET: A well-timed set, in which the spiker leaps to hit the ball
shortly after it leaves the setter's fingertips
35. SIX-PACK: The act of hitting an opposing player in the face with a hard-
driven spike. The term was originally coined in beach volleyball, where
the victim would have to reward the spiker with a six-pack of his favorite
beverage.
36. SPIKE: The act of hitting the ball downward with great force, usually
from the top of a jump, into the opponent's court. The objective of the
spike is to direct the ball with such power and placement that the
opposing team cannot return it.
37. THROW: The illegal act of not playing the ball cleanly. To determine
which balls are thrown and which are hit cleanly is the most difficult
decision a referee has to make.
38. TOP-SPIN: Hitting the ball above its equator, so that it spins with a force
that causes it to drop after crossing the net
39. UNDERHAND SERVE: A serve in which the ball is struck below the
waist with an underhand motion
40. VALVE STOP: The heavy part of the volleyball, where inflation
attachments enter. Proper positioning of the valve stop during service
can cause the ball to dip and veer.

3. VISUAL SKILLS IMPORTANT FOR VOLLEYBALL:

*1) VISUAL ACUITY: Both static and dynamic visual acuity are important in the
fast-moving, visual sport of volleyball.
VOLLEYBALL 5.

*2) PERIPHERAL VISION: This is a very essential skill for superior performance
in a game like volleyball.
*3) DEPTH PERCEPTION: Necessary for accurate serving, setting, and
boundary line play, or no play determinations.
*4) EYE MOTILITY: Eye tracking ability is important in volleyball. Quick, accurate
saccades are needed to survey rapidly the locations and movements of the
other 11 players and the ball in relationship to the net, boundary lines, etc.
*5) EYE-HAND/BODY/FOOT COORDINATION: All are helpful to performance
for a volleyball player, but particularly eye-hand as all balls are received in
this fashion.
*6) VISUALIZATION: This could be very useful for a volleyball player, particularly
before serving. However, the rest of the game is so fast-moving, the player
doesn't have time to think and visualize using the five-step technique a golfer
might employ. The volleyball player must simply react.
*7) SPEED OF RECOGNITION TIME: Quite an important and useful visual skill
for a volleyball player. Opportunities to return a spiked ball by an opponent
coming at you at over 70 mph only present themselves for a fraction of a
second.
*8) SPEED OF FOCUSING: Also important in volleyball because the ball and
other players move quickly and one has to be able to shift focus from near to
far or intermediate targets rapidly throughout the contest, while general body
stamina is running down due to heavy exertion.
9) GLARE RECOVERY SPEED: Of some minor importance in volleyball due to
bright lighting inside gymnasiums and sports arenas and especially in games
being televised because the T.V. crews bring in their own spotlighting
equipment. The sun in beach volleyball can also present some problems in
this area.
10) ABILITY TO SEE IN DIM ILLUMINATION: Not an important factor for
volleyball players unless it's a pickup game on the beach near dusk, etc. Most
league games are played in gyms under relatively good illumination.
*11) ABILITY TO WITHSTAND EYE FATIGUE WITHOUT DECREASED
PERFORMANCE: This is important in volleyball because it's a very fatiguing
sport with all its running, jumping, and requirements for constant
concentration. This is especially true in closely contested matches where the
teams might play all five of the best three out of five games to win the match.
12) COLOR PERCEPTION: This visual skill is not terribly critical to a volleyball
player's performance. Because both teams stay on their own sides of the net
there is no need to sort out intermingled opponent players by the colors of
their uniforms as in basketball, soccer, or football.
13) EYE DOMINANCE: Of some interest probably, but not as critical a factor in
volleyball as in baseball hitting, rifle shooting, or archery.
14) FIXATION ABILITY: This is somewhat important during the serving process
in volleyball. Otherwise, it's not as critical a skill to master as it would be for
an archer or marksman.
*15) VISUAL MEMORY: Past experience and the number of proper shots, spikes,
serves, blocks, sets, etc., on file in the visual memory, combined with good
VOLLEYBALL 6.

visualization techniques for serving the ball, etc., could be a big factor in the
steadiness and consistency of a volleyball player.
*16) CENTRAL/PERIPHERAL AWARENESS: This is essential for a volleyball
player on either defense or offense. The player must always watch the
location of the ball while being aware of where his fellow teammates are in
relation to the offensive or defensive alignments of the opponents on the
other side of the net.
*17) SPATIAL LOCALIZATION: Knowing where you are relative to other objects
is very important in volleyball because the court can become very congested
and it's such a fast-moving, powerful sport. Athletes and the ball are in
constant motion once the ball is in play. Many shots, blocks, and saves are
made while the athlete is moving laterally, vertically, diving, or "all of the
above."

4. VISUAL SCREENING/TESTING PROCEDURES INDICATED FOR ATHLETES

IN BASKETBALL:

1) VISUAL ACUITY: (Static and Dynamic)

1. Normal Snellen
2. Vectographic
3. Autorefractor
4. Record player with visual acuity disk at three speeds (33, 45, 75 rpm)
5. Tachistoscopic Acuity
2) PERIPHERAL VISION:
Dicon, Synamed Fieldmaster, etc.
3) DEPTH PERCEPTION:
1. Randot distance
2. Stereo Circles - projected at distance
3. Stereo Fly near
4. Randot near
5 Consider timing the testing on the Randots.
4) EYE MOTILITY:
1. Eye Track:
1) This quantifies graphs on paper
2) Good for before/after studies.
3) Athletes and coaches can see if progress has been made.
2. Wayne Saccadic Fixator:
1) Pursuits
2) Saccades
3) Rotations
5) EYE-HAND/BODY/FOOT COORDINATION:
1. Wayne Saccadic Fixator:
1) Normal use with the hands
2) Footboard use which ties in the volleyball player's balance system
2. Strobe Light:
VOLLEYBALL 7.

Creates more visual noise - so the athlete has to concentrate more.

6) VISUALIZATION:
1. No specific testing
2. The principles can be taught and trained however.
7) SPEED OF RECOGNITION TIME:
1. Tachistoscope
2. Computerized Anaglyphic Trainer - developed by Dr. Shearer and
Bernell Corporation
8) SPEED OF FOCUSING:
1. Wayne's near/far fixation module (in 30 seconds, a good score = 15)
2 Flippers (for near only) +/- 2.00 D (2 seconds = normal response)
9) ABILITY TO WITHSTAND EYE FATIGUE WITHOUT DECREASED
PERFORMANCE:
1. Ask the volleyball player (or the coach of the player) whether he/she is a
consistent performer throughout the entire game
2. Do a complete evaluation of all pertinent visual skills before and
immediately after a game
10) VISUAL MEMORY:
1. No specific testing
2. The principles can be taught and trained however
11) CENTRAL/PERIPHERAL AWARENESS:
1. Wayne Saccadic Fixator with "stick-ups" and gun you can fire at the
light.
1) Mode 1 = 15 or greater = good
2) Mode 2 = 5 is pretty good
2. Dicon or Synamed Fieldmaster
12) SPATIAL LOCALIZATION:
1. Phorias:
1) Base-In
2) Base-Out
2. Brock String
3. Computerized Anaglyphic Trainer

5. VISION TRAINING TECHNIQUES WHICH MIGHT ENHANCE PERFORMANCE

IN THE VISUAL SKILLS IMPORTANT FOR VOLLEYBALL:

1) VISUAL ACUITY:
Keep the athlete in current glasses/contact lens prescriptions for best visual
acuity if an Rx is needed. Soft contact lenses are usually the Rx mode of
choice for this sport. But firm lenses and glasses are also used quite
frequently when soft contacts are ruled out for some reason.
2) PERIPHERAL VISION:
1. Awareness of peripheral vision can be enhanced (see under
central/peripheral awareness)
VOLLEYBALL 8.

2. If a visual field defect is present, the volleyball player can be counseled

as to how to compensate by orienting his/her game toward negating the
weak point
3) DEPTH PERCEPTION:
1. Stereopsis is the ultimate of good binocularity; so train binocularity (BI
and BO reserves) and stereo should improve with enhanced visual
functions
2. Red/Green Sports Tranaglyphs from Bernell can help build ranges
4) EYE MOTILITY:
1. Pegboard Rotators
2. Arneson Corrector (Audio Feedback mechanism)
3. Computerized Anaglyphic Trainer
4. Wayne Saccadic Fixator
5) EYE-HAND/BODY/FOOT COORDINATION:
1. Wayne Saccadic Fixator:
1) Normal use with the hands
2) Footboard use helps train the volleyball player's balance system in
response to the visual signals he/she is getting off the board.
2. Strobe Light:
The athlete has to concentrate more due to the increased visual noise.
This might be good for "setting" practice drills or "receiving" practice
drills.
6) VISUALIZATION:
An example will be given as to how to use the principles of visualization for
enhancing one's serving techniques.
1. Analyze: Look at the defensive alignment you face and the location of
the opposition's weakest players. Be sure the players on your team are
in their correct positions and that you are aware of the location of the
back line so you don't risk a foot fault.
2. Visualize: Precede your performance with a visual picture of the desired
action. Fine-tune visually (center) on the location between the
opponent's attack line and back line where you'd like your serve to land if
there was no interference with the flight of the ball at all. Trace the
trajectory of the ball from your release, above the net sufficiently high
and hard and properly placed so that it can't be blocked at the net by the
defense, and finally to the location on the opposite court where you hope
to score an ace (an unreturnable in-bounds service). See yourself:
1) taking your balanced stance at your proper beginning distance
behind your backline,
2) taking a deep breath while getting the feel of the ball in your hands,
3) bending the knees a little and leaning forward into the serve as you
toss the ball up the perfect height to suit the extension of your body
and arm coming forward to strike the ball, and
4) viewing your trajectory and "follow-through" right to the location on
the opponent's court that you want to hit.
VOLLEYBALL 9.

3. Center: Fine-center first on the portion of the court you intend to hit.
Then to the part of the ball in the air that you must strike for a well hit
serve. Then back to the smallest detail on the court you can aim for and
follow through. Develop a solid awareness of the target but don't stare
at it for long before serving because you may telegraph to the other team
where the serve is coming, and prolonging the fine-centering process
leads to loss of concentration.
4. Execute: Release your serve while fine-centering first on the ball and
then quickly shifting fixation to that most minute detail you are using as
your court target on the other side of the net. Do not break eye contact
with that target even after the ball is released.
5. Playback: Try to do this after all serves in practice sessions (both good
and bad). This may be too difficult to try to do under game conditions at
first because volleyball is a fast-moving sport and largely a game of
reactions once the game is on. But good servers or setters are made in
practice.... not games. And the playback portion of the visualization
sequence can be used extensively in practice to develop one's serving
technique. Playback is visualizing the complete sequence of making or
missing your serve again and reviewing all the visual images you
centered on. This will help to reinforce whatever there was to learn from
that serve (good or bad) for future visual memory.
7) SPEED OF RECOGNITION TIME:
1. Train this visual skill with the same instruments used to measure or test
this skill.
2. Instruments:
1) Tachistoscope (Targets = shapes, tic-tac-toe, numbers, letters, etc.)
2) Computerized Anaglyphic Trainer
3. Make progressions for your volleyball athletes from easy toward most
difficult.
8) SPEED OF FOCUSING:
1. Red/Green anaglyphic accommodative rock
2. Wayne's Saccadic Fixator
3. Flippers
9) ABILITY TO WITHSTAND EYE FATIGUE WITHOUT DECREASED
PERFORMANCE:
1. Use the five steps of visualization on all serves to enhance concentration
and give the player a definite plan of attack for at least the service part of
his/her game. This is very helpful in pulling him/her through competition
even when fatigued and at a low emotional level. It should help provide
some consistency so the volleyball player won't tend to become erratic.
10) VISUAL MEMORY:
1. This is where the playback phase of visualization (Step 5) pays big
dividends. It helps you build your frame of reference.
2. Later you can use this frame of reference to visualize what things you've
done in the past under similar circumstances to succeed.
VOLLEYBALL 10.

3.The Memory Book by Jerry Lucas is a good reference book for

understanding and applying principles of visual memory more fully.
11) CENTRAL/PERIPHERAL AWARENESS:
1. Wayne "stick-ups" are good for training.
2. As you go about your day, just concentrating on how much detail you
can gather from your periphery with-out actually looking over at the
details directly (with central vision) is great training for this visual skill.
3. This skill isn't something that is developed overnight. You have to work
at it daily until you're good at it. The skill should transfer well to your
volleyball game however.
12) SPATIAL LOCALIZATION:
1. Train with the same instruments and equipment you use to measure and
test this skill.
2. Instruments:
1) Brock String (in all 9 positions of gaze)
2) Computerized Anaglyphic Trainer

6. SPORTS VISION PROBLEMS RELATED TO VOLLEYBALL:

PROBLEMS POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

1) Safety Risks: Probably a spiked ball
in the face is the most common (or a
teammate's elbow, head, or knee in
the eye if both are diving to return a
ball hit between your court zone
defense responsibilities). However,
contact with the net wires, poles,
official's platform, etc., could cause
eye injuries.
2) Vision Correction Needed: Playing
volley-ball with blurry vision could
decrease performance.
3) High Velocity Projectiles: A volley-
ball can travel at speeds greater
than 70 mph and can break noses
and create eye trauma despite its
rather large size.
1) Not too much you can do about this
risk as it's just "part of the game."
Fortunately this isn't a high eye
injury sport because the ball is large
and players and their opponents are
separated by a net which makes
personal fouls more difficult. Good
peripheral awareness and visual
memory can help reduce injury risks.
If worn, sports goggles with
polycarbonate lenses may help
prevent eye injury.
2) Soft contact lenses generally are
best for volleyball players who
require a visual Rx. They would help
the player avoid facial injury and
frame damage when hit in the face
by spiked balls. Sports straps on
glasses would usually be needed if
the player was wearing glasses.
3) Not too much you can do about this
risk either as it's just "part of the
game." The quicker the volleyball
player's vision system can process
visual information, however, the less
likely it is he/she will be injured in this
fashion.
VOLLEYBALL 11.

PROBLEMS POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

4) Fogging of Glasses: This is a sweaty 4) Anti-Fogging compounds can be
sport and drops of sweat on the
back of a player's glasses can be a
problem.
5) Playing with Only One Useable Eye: 5) The player and his/her parents
The risk of eye injury while playing
volleyball isn't that great. Some
visual skills will be reduced by a
monocular or amblyopic player.
6) Dust and Wind: These are
occasionally problems when playing
volleyball on the beach. Playing the
ball out-side in the wind is much
more challenging too. Sand or dirt
can be blown in the eyes during
these windy periods or arrive there
when a player dives to dig a ball.
7) Glare: Overhead light sources can
be bother-some in volleyball as the
ball gets lost in the gym lights or the
sun itself in beach play.
helpful. Have a soft cloth on the
bench to wipe off lenses during time-
outs, substitutions, or other breaks in
play. Better yet, wear soft contacts if
possible.
should be counseled that the risks
aren't so high and why. There are
some, however.
6) Play is usually suspended during
exceptionally gusty periods. Good
eye movement skills become more
valuable when tracking a volleyball
outdoors in the wind. A corneal
abrasion could result from sand in
the eye so a good eye wash in a
first-aid kit could be useful.
7) Outdoors, sunglasses may be
helpful to reduce the "light problem."
However, now one has to weigh the
advantages of sun protection against
the disadvantages of getting hit in
the face with the volleyball while
wearing glasses frames.

7. MOST COMMON OCULAR INJURIES LIKELY TO BE SUSTAINED IN

VOLLEYBALL:

1) Blunt trauma to the globe - usually from the ball, but also from a teammate's
head, elbow, knee, fingers, or net wires, poles, or official's platform, with
subsequent secondary complications
2) Corneal abrasion - quite common from sand in the eyes during dives in beach
play

8. PROTECTIVE/CORRECTIVE EYEWEAR RELATED TO VOLLEYBALL:

1) Sports straps for glasses

2) Firm contact lenses - preferably gas permeable lenses if the player can't be fit
with soft contact lenses; also colored so easy to find on the court if dislodged
during a game
VOLLEYBALL 12.

3) Soft Contact Lenses - the corrective method of choice for most volleyball
players requiring Rx's
4) Sunglasses for beach play and glare off the water and sand

9. OCULAR SUPPLIES WHICH SHOULD BE CONTAINED IN A VOLLEYBALL

TRAINER'S FIRST AID KIT:

1) Sterile Blinx Eyewash

2) Artificial Tears (Clerz, Liquifilm Forte, etc.)
3) Q-tips
4) DMV (Hard Contact Lens Remover)
5) Fluorescein Strips
6) Black Light Penlight
7) Regular Penlight
8) Polysporin Ointment (over the counter) 1/2 oz. by Wellcome Co.
9) Oval Eye Pads (Johnson/Johnson)
10) Dermacel Tape 1" (Johnson/Johnson)
11) Spare contact lenses for all players wearing contact lenses (properly labeled
for each player's correct eye).
12) Four or five Unisol or Barnes-Hind unit dose twist-off-top tubes, or a 3 oz.
aerosol can of Allergan's Lens Plus
13) Some butterfly tape strips to hold lacerated skin edges together

10. APPROPRIATE EMERGENCY FIRST AID FOR VOLLEYBALL OCULAR

INJURIES:

1) Trainers should be taught how to properly lavage (rinse) out an eye with a
foreign body,
2) how to instill ophthalmic drops,
3) how to apply a proper lubricant to an injured eye prior to application of a
pressure bandage, and
4) how to handle contact lenses (hard and soft) and remove them from the eyes.

11. BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR A SPORTS VISION CONSULTANT TO VOLLEYBALL:

1) Rules of the Game, The Diagram Group, Bantam Books, New York, 1974, pp.
124-125. ($12.95 ISBN 0-553-01397-1)
2) Rand McNally Illustrated Dictionary of Sports, Rand McNally & Co., New
York, 1978, pp. 66-67. ($14.95 ISBN 528-81078-2)
3) The Rule Book, The Diagram Group, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1983, pp.
404-409. ($9.95 ISBN 0-312-69576-4)
4) Guinness Book of Sports Records, Winners & Champions, Norris McWhirter,
Bantam Books, New York, 1980, p. 352. ($3.50 ISBN 0-553-14921-0)
VOLLEYBALL 13.

5) Olympic Access 1984 (T.V. Viewers Guide), Richard Saul Wurman, Access
Press Ltd., Los Angeles, 1983, pp. 68-69. ($4.95 ISBN 0-9604858-7-2)
6) The Memory Book, Jerry Lucas and Harry Lorayne, Ballantine Press, 1975,
224 pages, paperback. ($2.50 ISBN 0-345-27808-9)
7) A Guide to Volleyball, Suguru Puruichi, Val Keller, 1978.
8) Point, Game and Match, Val Keller, Creative Sports Books, 1972.
9) Winning Volleyball - Fundamentals, Tactics and Strategy, Allen E. Scares,
Allyn and Bacon, 1972.
10) Modern Volleyball, Curtis Emery, McMillan Co., New York, 1953.
11) The 1984 Annual Official Volleyball Reference Guide of The United States
Volleyball Association, Colorado Springs, Colorado: United States Volleyball
Association, 1983.
12) "Journal of the National Volleyball Coaches Association," United States
Volleyball Association.
13) "Technical Module, Levels I & II," National Coaches Certification Program,
United States Volleyball Association.

12. MISCELLANEOUS COMMENTS:

Volleyball can be broken down into five specialized athletic skills which must be
mastered. Each has its own visual requirements as well. We'll deal with each of the
following individually and from a visual demand standpoint.

1) Serving
2) Receiving/Digging/Passing
3) Hitting/Spiking
4) Blocking
5) Setting

1) SERVING: The key to effective serving is consistency and location. The

server selects a specific target area on the court, tosses the ball into the air
with one hand and hits the ball with the other hand towards the selected area.
The execution of different types of spin serves, or serves which exhibit a
specific floating effect, require hitting different portions of the ball or hitting the
ball while the valve is in a given location. Perhaps the most obvious visual
skill that comes to mind is eye-hand coordination. The server must locate the
ball in the air and contact it with the hand while the eyes are in the superior
field of gaze. Any eye-hand coordination activity requires efficient ocular
motility. Accurate location of the ball while moving through the air requires
good binocularity and stereopsis.

Visualization is helpful in maintaining consistency and accuracy of response.

Since this is the only time the volleyball player can take his time (five
seconds) and mentally prepare himself/herself for the serve, it would be
helpful for him/her to quickly visualize the sequence of serving the ball. The
VOLLEYBALL 14.

toss is especially important. As in tennis, a toss which is too far forward or

backward or too far to one side will result in an errant serve. The player
should kinesthetically visualize the feel of executing the perfect toss for his
serve. He should see in his mind's eye:

a) the ball leaving his tossing hand,

b) passing through the arc of the toss with minimal spin, and falling into the
space where his/her serving hand contacts the ball.

He/she should also visualize the time required for the ball to arrive at the point
of contact with the serving hand. He/she should kinesthetically visualize the
follow through of the motion necessary to put the ball in the desired location
of the court and he/she should be able to visualize the ball passing over the
net and landing in that portion of the court.

2) RECEIVING/DIGGING/PASSING:
This phase of the game is extremely important in order for a team to be able
to execute its offensive plays. Consequently, passing becomes one of the
most fundamental skills of volleyball. Some successful volleyball teams spend
as much as 50% of their practice time on passing drills.

While awaiting the serve, the defensive player has time to prepare for the
coming play. At least part of this time should be devoted to visualizing the
actions necessary to pass the ball from his/her area of the court to the area of
the court where his/her team's setter will be. If their server always serves top
spin serves, the defensive player may watch a mental image of
himself/herself taking a quick step or two forward and extending his/her arms
as the ball sinks sharply into his/her area of court coverage. If the server has
a good floater, the defensive player may want to visualize himself/herself
being literally as light as a feather on the balls of his/her feet and ready to
make quick unpredictable adjustments in any one of several directions. If
he/she has watched this person serve before, he/she may know which way
his/her opponent's serves usually float, therefore, he/she may mentally
rehearse the movements necessary to field that particular serve.

Because the volleyball is 8-1/2 inches in diameter and subtends an angle of

40 min. of arc at a distance of 60 feet, the equivalent of the overall size of a
20/160 Snellen optotype, visual acuity and dynamic visual acuity are not as
important as they may be in other sports which involve small rapidly-moving
targets. However, during the act of serve reception, dynamic visual acuity
may be useful in picking up the spin of the serve which in turn would be useful
in predicting its trajectory.

Unless the player locates objects by virtue of their retinal image size,
accommodation does not become a significant visual skill requirement for
volleyball because the target is so large. It would be expected that good
VOLLEYBALL 15.

binocularity and stereopsis would be a much quicker and more efficient

means of locating the ball as it passes over the net towards the defender. If a
volleyball player is in proper position to field a serve, the ball will be coming
over the net directly at him, with the plane of his shoulders angled slightly so
that they could act like a backboard, bouncing the ball off his chest and
rebounding it into the area of the court where his setter will be. Consequently
vergence eye movement skills become important. Lateral eye movements
should only be necessary if the serve floats erratically during the latter part of
its trajectory.

When the passer actually makes contact with the serve he/she must exhibit
good eye-forearm coordination, a variation of traditional eye-hand
coordination which is unique to the sport of volleyball. The forearms are
extended in front of the body in a parallel and symmetrical fashion forming a
platform from which the ball will rebound toward the setter. As the passer
centers upon the approaching ball, he/she must be peripherally aware of the
location of his/her teammates, particularly the setter. Altering the angle of
contact of the ball with the platform alters the direction of the pass. Hence,
visualization of one's position on the court relative to the location of the setter,
and visualization or mental rehearsal of the changes that might conceivably
occur as the ball varies from its predicted course, become important.

Receiving a spike or a hard driven ball is a variation of the basic passing

technique which deserves some special comment. The same basic skills are
employed when receiving a spike as when receiving a serve. However,
depending upon the level of competition, a volleyball spike may require as
little as 0.3 seconds to reach the rear of the opponent's court or as much as
1.3 seconds. Reaction time for men and women averages about 0.3 seconds
before any observable movement is noticed. Therefore, the defender must be
in proper defensive position almost instantaneously. To do this, the defender
must concentrate on events which occur before the spiker contacts the ball.

The defender (person receiving or digging the spike) must concentrate upon
the direction of approach of the hitter's hand in relation to the ball and in
relation to the block formed by the defender's teammates. This will tell the
defender which areas of the court are covered by the block and into which of
the remaining areas of the court the spiker has the option to hit the ball. A
good defender will be able to freeze that moment in time, just before the
spiker contacts the ball, in his/her mind's eye. In that instant he/she must then
analyze:

a) from the vertical position of the hand in relation to the ball, the
anticipated downward angle of the spike, and
b) from the lateral position of the hand in relation to the ball, whether or not
the defender will need to move to his/her right or left.
VOLLEYBALL 16.

Because the ball travels so much faster than during a serve, visual reaction
time and visual adjustability become important. It is not unusual for the ball to
approach so rapidly that the eyes cannot adjust quickly enough. Therefore,
accurate anticipation and visualization of where the ball will be hit assume
paramount importance in trying to retrieve the spike.

3) KITTING/SPIKING:
The act of spiking is the most difficult physical activity in volleyball. It is also
somewhat unique in athletics in that it is one of the few activities in which one
must jump from a two-foot takeoff and execute a one-arm swing which must
impart maximum force upon an object while suspended in midair. Throughout
the activity, the spiker must center his/her attention upon the volleyball, but at
the same time he/she must be peripherally aware of the movement of the
opponents as their front line players close to form the block, and of the back
court players to be aware of uncovered areas of the court into which the ball
may be hit.

Eye motility is important in following the trajectory of the ball as it approaches.

Good binocularity and stereopsis provide the three-dimensional location of
the ball. Quick visual adjustments and saccadic refixations from the ball to the
formation of the defense back to the ball may be necessary for the spiker to
decide where he/she can hit the ball.

When the ball finally arrives, eye-hand coordination skills become paramount.
Hitting the ball squarely and with power is not always sufficient. Sometimes,
in order to hit the ball past the block, a particularly sharp angle of attack is
required and a quick turn of the wrist or the ability to hit the ball somewhat off-
center may be necessary. It is not unusual for players to specialize and only
hit from a particular location or side of the court. In this case, the sets will
always be coming from one direction and consequently the eye movement
skills will need to be refined accordingly and peripheral awareness skills may
be specialized in one field of view. On the other hand, players who hit from
the middle of the court must have good peripheral aware-ness in both lateral
directions to quickly spot uncovered areas of the opponent's court.

Visualization of the execution of the approach to the different types of spikes,

the act of the jump itself, the feeling of hanging weightlessly at the apex of the
jump poised, ready to hit the ball as it presents itself, and the arm swing, hand
contact, and follow-through as the ball is hit over, around or between the
blockers, helps tremendously in coordinating this activity.

4) BLOCKING:
If at all possible, defensive teams try to have two players blocking the
opposing team's spiker. The blockers must be simultaneously aware of the
setter and the position of the hitters. Initially, attention is directed towards the
VOLLEYBALL 17.

setter. Once the setter commits himself/herself to a particular type of set, the
blockers immediately center upon the hitter. Therefore, visual adjustability
and peripheral awareness are important in the early phases of the blocking
routine. The end blocker observes the direction of the spiker's approach and
sets the location of the block along the net accordingly. While the middle
blocker centers upon the hitter and his/her approach toward the ball, he/she
must be peripherally aware of the location of the end blocker so that they can
coordinate their jump. The middle blocker approaches the outside blocker and
the two of them jump as one, shoulder to shoulder with their four parallel arms
and hands forming a wall which penetrates over the plane of the net toward
the spiker. The plane of the block should be such that a ball bouncing off the
block would be deflected down into the spiker's court.

As the blockers jump, their attention is directed towards that square foot
wherein the spiker will contact the ball. The closer they can penetrate to the
point of contact, the more effective their block becomes. Eye hand
coordination and ocular motility skills are basic to this task.

Visualization is important so that the blocker can position his/her hands in

such a fashion so that the ball does not bounce off the block and out of
bounds.

Visualization of one's position in the air also helps to avoid landing on a

teammates foot and suffering an ankle sprain.

Depending upon the nature of the play, the spiker will usually hit the ball at a
distance of one to five feet from the net. Consequently, if he/she is to make
any last-second changes in his hand position, the blocker's binocularity,
stereopsis, and visual reaction time will have to be excellent.

The middle blocker must be very quick because he/she has farther to travel
when setting up for an end block and he/she may have to break in either
direction to assist either end blocker. He/she may also have to stay in the
middle and block the opponent's middle hitter by himself/ herself. Therefore,
central-peripheral awareness and visual reaction time become much more
important to the middle blocker because he/she must be aware of the actions
of the opposing setter and all three opposing hitters, whereas the end
blockers concentrate on the setter, the hitter on their side, and to a lesser
extent the middle hitter. Consequently, outside blockers, like outside hitters,
may specialize their visual skills to suit the needs of the court position.

If the block is unsuccessful, the blocker must land, turn away from the net and
as quickly as possible, visually pick up the ball as one of his/her teammates
digs the spike. Visual reaction time, adjustability, and eye movement skills
once again become important.
VOLLEYBALL 18.

5) SETTING:
The setter's responsibility is to move to a given location on the court, receive
the pass, and in turn pass the ball in such a fashion so that the hitter can
spike the ball down over the net into the opponent's court. The key to good
setting is consistency. The hitter relies upon the setter to repeatedly put the
ball in a given location with respect to the net. Depending upon the nature of
the play, the location of the set with respect to the net, the speed of the set
may change. Sometimes a set with a high arc-like trajectory is required,
sometimes a very quick and flat trajectory is required; sometimes the setter
sets the ball to a hitter who is behind him. Depending upon how accurately
the ball is passed to him/her, the setter's job becomes easier or more difficult.

Most volleyball plays are designed so that the setter receives the pass near
the center of the court about three feet away from the net. Since the setter is
not always in this position at the time of the serve, he/she may have to quickly
move into this position from his/her point in the rotation the instant the server
contacts the ball. Good ocular motility, binocularity, and stereopsis are
important in quickly locating the ball and following its progress as the setter
moves into his/her predetermined position. The setter usually stands with the
plane of his/her shoulders perpendicular to the net, with his/her right shoulder
closest to the net. Therefore, as he/she follows the pass into his/her hands,
the trajectory of the pass requires a left to right eye movement.

The eye-hand coordination of the setter must be perfect. The slightest

mishandling of the ball will result in loss of serve or a point for the opposition.
Ideally, the ball is contacted with the hands slightly in front of the face and
above the head with the neck bent slightly backwards, so that the setter can
follow the path of the ball directly into the bottom of the "basket" formed by
his/ her hands. This is similar to a outfielder fielding a fly ball or an end
receiving a high arching pass. A pass that is missed should hit the setter right
between the eyes.

As the setter centers on the approaching pass, he/she should be peripherally

aware of the movement of the opposing front line players as they move to set
the block, and also of the movement of his/her own hitters. Timing is essential
to a well-executed play. Since the setter controls the ball at this point in the
exchange, he/she must be able to alter his/her technique accordingly if
his/her hitter arrives at the point of attack early or late. Secondly, if the setter
is aware of the movement and location of a particularly strong blocker for the
opposition, he/she can direct the play of his/her own team away from that
individual.

The setter contacts the ball with his/her finger tips and, in a spring-like
fashion, passes the ball to the hitter. Visualization is the key element in
maintaining consistency. The setter should be able to create a visual image of
the ball traveling at the proper speed, with the proper trajectory to the desired
VOLLEYBALL 19.

location for any given type of set. He/she should also be able to
kinesthetically and tactically image the muscular effort required to execute
such a set. He/she should be able to do this for any type of set from any
position on the court in the event that he/she receives an errant pass.
Visualization is especially important in executing back sets wherein the setter
cannot see the location to which he/she sets the ball.

1998 American Optometric Association

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